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425
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Complementary MOS or CMOS logic circuits have been available as standard packages for
use in conventional digital system design since the early 1970s. Such packages contain logic
gates and other digital system building blocks with the number of gates per package ranging
from a few (small-scale integrated or SSI circuits) to few tens (medium-scale integrated or
MSI circuits).
In the late 1970s, as the era of large- and very-large-scale integration (LSI and VLSI;
hundreds to hundreds of thousands of gates per chip) began, NMOS became the fabrication
technology of choice. Indeed, early VLSI circuits such as the early microprocessors employed NMOS technology. Such circuits utilized the enhancement-load, and later the depletion-load, amplifier as the basic inverter configuration. Although at thaUime the design
flexibility and other advantages that CMOS offers were known, the CMOS technology then
was too complex to produce these high-density VLSI chips economically. However, as
advances in processing technology were made, this state of affaifs changed radically. At the
time of this writing, CMOS technology has virtually replaced NMOS at all levels of integration, in both analog and digital applications.
For any IC technology used in digital circuit design, the basic circuit element is the
logic inverter. Once the operation and characteristics of, the inverter circuit are thoroughly
understood, the results can be extended to the design of logic gates and other more complex
circuits. In this section, we provide such a study for the CMOS inverter.
The basic CMOS inverter is shown in Fig. 5.55. It utilizes two matched enhancementtype MOSFETs: one, QN, with an n channel and the other, Qp, with a p channel. As
indicated, the body of each device is connected to its' source and thus no body effect arises.
We shall therefore use the simplified circuit schematic diagram shown in Fig. 5.55(b). As
will be seen shortly, the CMOS circuit realizes the conceptual inverter implementation
studied in Chapter 1 (Fig. 1.32) where a pair of switches are operated in a complementary
fashion by the input voltage v1.
426
v, ,,_____
v,,~J----e
(a)
Fig. 5.55
(b)
Circuit Operation
We first consider the two extreme cases: when VJ is at logic-0 level, which is approximately
0 V, and when VJ is at logic-I level, which is approximately VDD volts. In both cases, we
shall consider the n-channel device QN to be the driving transistor and the p-channel device
Qp to be the load. However, since the circuit is completely symmetric, this assumption is
obviously arbitrary, and the reverse would lead to identical results.
Figure 5.56 illustrates the case when VJ = VDD' showing the iD-VDs characteristic curve
for QN with VcsN = VDD (Note that iD = i and VDsN = v 0 ). Superimposed on the QN
+
VscP
=0
Load curve
(vscP = 0)
(a)
-----{) vo === 0
O VoL = 0
(b)
.(c)
Fig. 5.56 Operation of the CMOS inverter when VJ is high: (a) circuit with VJ = VDD (logic-1
level, or VoH); (b) graphical construction to determine the operating point; and (c) equivalent
circuit.
5.8
427
characteristic curve is the load curve, which is the io-VSD curve of Qp for the case
vscP = 0 V. Since vscP < !Vt/, the load curve will be a horizontal straight line at almost
zero current level. The operating point will be at the intersection of the two curves, where
we note that the output voltage is nearly zero (typically less than 10 mV) and the current
through the two devices is also nearly zero. This means that the power dissipation in the
circuit is very small (typically a fraction of a microwatt). Note, however, that although
QN is operating at nearly zero current and zero drain-source voltage (i.e., near the origin of
the iD-VDs plane), the operating point is on a steep segment of the iD-VDs characteristic
curve. Thus QN provides a low-resistance path between the output terminal and ground,
with the resistance obtained using Eq. (5.13) as
(5.85)
Figure 5.56(c) shows the equivalent circuit of the inverter when the input is high. This
circuit confirms that v 0
VoL = 0 V, and that. the power dissipation in the inverter is
zero.
The other extreme case, when v1 = 0 V, is illustrated in Fig. 5.57. In this case QN is
operating at vcsN = O; hence its iD-VDs characteristic is almost a horizontal straight line
at zero current level. The load curve is the iD-VsD characteristic of the p-channel device
with VscP = V DD As shown, at the operating point the output voltage is almost equal to
VoD (typically less than 10 mV below VDD), and the current in the two devices is still nearly
zero. Thus the power dissipation in the circuit is very small in both extreme states.
Figure 5.57(c) shows the equivalent circuit of the inverter when the input is low. Here
we see that Qp provides a low-resistance path between the output terminal and the de supply
VDD' with the resistance given by
YDSP
(5.86)
VDD
VDD
+
VscP
~ J/[k~(~)P(VDD - jv,p1)]
Load curve
Voo
(vscP
Voo)
rosP
vo
ii
--
VcsN
(a)
VoL
:== 0
=0
--
VDL
Vo
+
VcsN
VDD
(b)
Vo
(c)
Fig. 5.57 Operation of the CMOS inverter when VJ is low: (a) circuit with VJ = OV (logic-0
level, or VoL); (b) grap~ical construction to determine the operating point; and (c) equivalent
circuit.
428
k;(~)J(v1 -
Vm)Vo -
~ifo]
(5.87)
5.8
429
and
for Vo
VJ -
>
Vrn
(5.88)
For Qp,
ivp = k;(~)Jcvvv -
VJ -
IV,,,l)CVDo - va) -
~(Vvv - va>2]
for Vo
>
VJ
IVrpl
(5.89)
and
1 ,
(w)
lDp=2,kPLP(VDD-vJ-Vip)
1
1
(5.90)
V,.
IV,,,I
and
should be noted that since /Lp is 0.3 to 0.5 times the value of f..lm to make k' (WIL) of the~wo
devices equal, the width of the p-channel device is made two to three times that of the
n-channel device. More specifically, the two devices are designed to have equal lengths,
with widths related by
WP = f..ln
Wn
/Lp
k; ( ~) n
;,,
acteristic and equal current-driving cfpability in both directions (pull-up and pull-down).
With QN and Qp matched, the CMOS inverter has the voltage transfer characteristic
shown in Fig. 5.58. As .~ndicated, the transfer characteristic has five distinct segments corresponding to different combinations of modes of operation of QN and Qp. The vertical
segment BC is obtained when both QN and Qp are operating in the saturation region. Because we are neglecting the finite output resistance in saturation, the inverter gain in this
region is infinite. From symmetry, this vertical segment occurs at VJ = VDD/2 and is
bounded by vo(B) = VDD/2 + Vi and vo(C) = VDD/2 - Yr.
The reader will recall from Section 1. 7 that in addition to VoL and VoH, two other
points on the transfer curve determine the noise margins of the inverter. These are the
maximum permitted logic-0 or "low" level at the input, VJL, and the minimum permitted
logic-I or "high" level at the input, VJH. These are Jormally defined. as the two points on
the transfer curve at which the incremental gain is unity (i.e., the slope is -1 VN).
To determine VJH we note that QN is in the triode region, and thus its current is given
by Eq. (5.87), while Qp is in saturation and its current is given by Eq. (5.90). Equating
iDN and inp, and assuming matched devices,'gives
(VJ -
Vi)vo
2 -2I Vo
2I
cvDD
v1
vt)2
(5.91)
430
QN in saturation
Qp in triode region
Vo
VoH
QNoff
IA
= VDD i - - - - + - -
I
I
I
~ Slope = -: I
I
I
I
(V~D + v) - - -1- -
-----j-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
QNand Qp
.
.
m saturation
c
___ ,I____:_
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
VDD
dvo
Vr)dVJ
dvo
vo-d = -(Vvv VJ
Vo -
VJ -
Vr)
vo = Vm -
(5.92)
(5.93)
VIL can be determined in a manner similar to that used to find Vm. Alternatively, we
Vvv
Vi>v
Vm - - - = - - - VIL
5.8
431
VIL
t(3VDD
(5.94)
2Vi)
(5.95)
(5.96)
2V1)
As expected, the symmetry of the voltage transfer characteristic results in equal noise margins. Of course, if QN and Qp are not matched, the voltage transfer characteristic will no
longer be symmetric, and the noise margins will not be equal (see Problem 5.94).
Exercises
5.31 For a CMOS inverter with matched MOSFETs having
if VDD
Ans.
V, = 1 V, find
5 v.
5.32 Consider a CMOS inverter with Vrn = IVrpl = 2 V, (WIL)n = 20, (WIL)p = 40, ,nCox = 2,pCox =
20 ,A!V 2 , and VDD = 10 V. For v1 = VDD find the maximum current that the inverter can sink while Vo
remains :5 0.5 V.
Ans.
1.55 mA
5.33 An inverter fabricated in a 1.2-,m CMOS technology uses the minimum possible channel lengths (i.e.,
Ln = LP = 1.2 ,m). If Wn = 1.8 ,m, find the value of WP that would result in QN and Qp being matched.
For this technology, k~ = 80 ,A!V 2 and k; = 27 ,AN 2 Also calculate the value of the output resistance of
the inverter when vo = VOL ~-
Ans.
5.34 Show that the threshold voltage V,h of a CMOS inverter (see Fig. 5.58) is given by
vth
IVrpl)
r(VDD -
+ Vrn
-----~--
where
r=
k;(WIL)p
k~(WIL)n
432
Dynamic Operation
As explained in Section 1.7, the speed of operation of a digital system (e.g., a computer)
is determined by the propagation delay of the logic gates used to construct the system.
Since the inverter is the basic logic gate of any digital IC technology, the propagation delay
of the inverter is a fundamental parameter in characterizing the technology. In the following,
we analyze the switching operation of the CMOS inverter to determine its propagation delay.
Figure 5.59(a) shows the inverter with a capacitor C between the output node and ground.
Here C represents the sum of the internal capacitances of the MOSFEts QN and Qp, the
capacitance of the interconnect wire between the inverter output node and the input of the
other logic gates the inverter is driving, and the total input capacitance of these load (or
fan-out) gates. We assume that the inverter is driven by the ideal pulse (zero rise and fall
tiDP
IC
(a)
Vo
VDD
VDD
Vo
I
I
tPHL~~
I
~~tPLH
11
11
----
0
(b)
Operating
point at
1 = o+
F
VcsN = VDD
IE
I Capaciior I
I discharge I
I through QN t
Operating point I
after switching I
is completed 1
1
I
I Op~rating
I / pomt at
I
t = O-
--~~~~----'-~~-'-~---"'--~--~---1~
V~D
-(d)
(c)
5.8
433
times) shown in Fig. 5.59(b). Since the circuit is symmetric (assuming matched MOSFETs),
the rise and fall times of the output waveform should be equal. It is sufficient, therefore, to
consider either the tum-on or the tum-off process. In the following, we consider the first.
Figure 5.59(c) shows the trajectory of the operating point obtained when the input pulse
goes from VoL = 0 to VoH = VDD at time t = 0. Just prior to the leading edge of the
input pulse (that is, at t = 0-) the output voltage equals VDD and capacitor C is charged
to this voltage. At t = 0, v1 rises to VDD, causing Qp to turn off immediately. From then
on, the circuit is equivalent to that shown in Fig. 5.59(d) with the initial value of v 0 =
VDD Thus the operating point at t = O+ is point E, at which it is seen that QN will be in
the saturation region and conducting a large current. As C discharges, the current of QN
remains constant until v 0 = VDD - Vr (point F). Denoting this portion of the discharge
interval tPHLl (where the subscript HL indicates the high-to-low transition), we can write
C[VDD tpHL1
= I ,
(w)
2_kn L
Vi)]
(VDD -
Vi)
n(VDD -
(5.97)
CVr
~k~(~).
V,)
(VDD -
Beyond point F, transistor QN operates in the triode region, and thus its current is given by
Eq. (5.87). This portion of the discharge interval can be described by
iDNdt
= -C dvo
Substituting for iDN from Eq. (5.87) and rearranging the differential equation, we obtain
-
k~(WIL)n
dt
2C
1
= --- - - - - -dvo
----2(VDD -
Vr)
- - - - - rlo 2(VDD -
(5.98)
Vo
Vr)
To find the component of the delay time iPHL during which v 0 decreases from (VDD
Vr) to the 50% point, v 0 = VDD/2, we integrate both sides of Eq. (5.98). Denoting this
component of delay time tpH2, we find that
-
k n'(TIT/L)
yy,
n
2c
___l___ Jvo=VDDl2
PHL2 -
2(VDD -
V)
t
dvo
vo=VDD-Vi
rlo -
(5.99)
Vo
2(VDD-Vr)
dx
ax 2 - x
In
(i -
__!__)
ax
kn(W/L)n(VDD -
Vr)
ln
(3VDD -
4Vr)
VDD
The two components of tPHL in Eqs. (5.97) a:vd (5.100) can be added to obtain
(5.100)
434
Vt
+ -1 ln (3VDD
2
VDD
4Vt)]
(5.101)
1.6C
- ----- k~(W/L)n VDD
(5.102)
Similar analysis of the tum-off process yields an expression for tPLH identical to that in Eq.
(5.102) except for k~(WIL)n replaced with k;(WIL)p. The propagation delay tp is the average
of tPHL and tPLH From Eq. (5.102), we note that to obtain lower propagation delays and
hence faster operation, C should be minimized, a high process transconductance parameter
k' should be utilized, the transistor WIL ratio should be increased, and the power-supply
voltage VDD should be increased~ There are, of course, design trade-offs and physical limits
involved in making choices for these parameter values. This subject, however, is too advanced for our present needs.
Exercises
5.35 A CMOS inverter in a VLSI circuit operating from a 5-V supply has (WIL)n = 10 ,m/5 ,m,
(WIL)p = 20 ,m/5 ,m, Vin = IVipl = 1 V, f.LnCox = 2 ,pCox = 20 ,AN 2 If the total effective load ca-
ilj,i
!1)!
rr~
Ans.
f PHL f PLH,
and
tp.
5.36 For the CMOS inverter of Exercise 5.32, which is intended for SSI and MSI circuit applications, find
tp
Ans.
6 ns
5.8
435
Vin
VDD
Transistor QN turns off, and Qp conducts and charges the capacitor. Let the instantaneous
current supplied by Qp to C be denoted i. This current is, of course, coming from the power
supply VDD Thus the energy drawn from the supply during the charging period will be
fVDDi dt = VDDf i dt = VDD Q, where Q is the charge supplied to the capacitor; that is,
Q = CVDD Thus the energy drawn from the supply during the charging interval is cvbD
At the end of the charging interval, the capacitor voltage will be VDD, and thus the energy
stored in it Will be -t CVbD It follows that during the charging interval, half of the energy
drawn from the supply, -tcvbD, is dissipated in Qp.
From the above, we see that in every cycle, -t CVbD of energy is dissipated in QN and
-tcvbD dissipated in Qp, for a total energy dissipation in the inverter of cvbD Now if the
inverter is switched at the rate off cycles per second, the dynamic power dissipation in it
will be
(5.103)
Observe that the frequency of operation is related to the propagation delay: The lower the
propagation delay, the higher the frequency at which the circuit can be operated and, according to Eq. (5.103), the higher the power dissipation in the circuit. A figure of merit or
a quality measure of the particular circuit technology is the delay-power product (DP),
The delay-power product tends to be a constant for a particular digital circuit technology
and can be used to compare different technologies. Obviously the lower the value of DP
the more effective is the technology. The delay-power product has the units of joules, and
is in effect a measure of the energy dissipated per cycle of operation. Thus for CMOS where
most of the power dissipation is dynamic, we can take DP as simply CVbD
Exercises
5.37 .For the inverter specified in Exercise 5.32, find the peak current drawn from
Ans.
1.8 mA
VDD
during switching.
436
5.38 Let the inverter specified in Exercise 5.32 be loaded by a 15-pF capacitance. Find the dynamic power
dissipation that results when the inverter is switched at a frequency of 2 MHz. What is the average current
drawn from the power supply?
Ans.
3 mW; 0.3 mA
5.39 Consider a CMOS VLSI chip having 100,000 gates fabricated in a 1.2-m CMOS technology. Let the
load capacitance per gate be 30 fF. If the chip is operated from a 5-V supply and is switched at a rate of 100
MHz, find (a) the power dissipation per gate, and (b) the total power dissipated in the chip assuming that only
30% of the gates are switched at any one time.
Ans.
75 ,W; 2.25
A Final Remark
In this section, we have provided an introduction to CMOS digital circuits. We shall return
to this subject in Chapter 13, where CMOS logic gates and other CMOS digital circuits are
studied.