steven

ba rry
+

Stephen
davis

ESSENTIAL

MATHEMATICAL
SKILLS

for engineering, science

and applied
mathematics

UNSW
PRESS

A UNSW Press book

Published by
University of New South Wales Press Ltd
University of New South Wales
UNSW Sydney NSW 2052
AU STRALIA
www.unswpress.com.au
Steven Ian Barry and Stephen Alan Davis 2002
First published 2002
This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for
purposes of private study, research, criticism or
review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part
may be reproduced by any process without written
permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the pub
lisher.
National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:
Barry, Steven Ian.
Essential mathematical skills for engineering, science
and applied mathematics.
Includes index.
ISBN 0 86840 565 5.
1. Mathematics. 2. Mathematics Problems,
exercises, etc. I. Davis, Stephen. II. Title.

510

Printer BPA

vi

Transcendental Functions
31
3.1 Exponential Fu n ctio n ................................................................................................................... 31
3.2 Index L a w s .............................................................................................................................. ..... 32
3.3 Logarithm Rules .................................................................................................................... ..... 33
3.4 Trigonometric F u n c tio n s....................................................................................................... ..... 35
3.5 Trigonometric Identities ....................................................................................................... ..... 36
3.6 Hyperbolic Functions................................................................................................................... 38
3.7 Example Q uestions................................................................................................................. ..... 39

Differentiation
41
4.1 First Principles ............................................................................................................................. 41
4.2 Linearity.......................................................................................................................................... 42
4.3 Simple D eriv atives................................................................................................................. ..... 43
4.4 Product Rule ................................................................................................................................ 43
4.5 Quotient R u l e ................................................................................................................................ 44
4.6 Chain Rule .............................................................................................................................. ..... 45
4.7 Implicit Differentiation.......................................................................................................... ..... 46
4.8 Parametric Differentiation ......................................................................................................... 47
4.9 Second Derivative.................................................................................................................... ..... 47
4.10 Stationary P o in t s .................................................................................................................... ..... 48
4.11 Example Q uestions................................................................................................................. ..... 50

Integration
51
5.1 Antidifferentiation ................................................................................................................. ..... 51
5.2 Simple Integrals............................................................................................................................. 52
5.3 The Definite In te g r a l................................................................................................................... 53
5.4 Areas ........................................................................................................................................ ..... 55
5.5 Integration by Substitution......................................................................................................... 56
5.6 Integration by P a r t s ................................................................................................................. ..... 57
5.7 Example Q uestions................................................................................................................. ..... 58

6 Matrices

59
Addition.......................................................................................................................................... 59
Multiplication........................................................................................................................... ..... 60
Id e n tity .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Transpose....................................................................................................................................... 62
D eterm inants........................................................................................................................... ..... 63
6.5.1 Cofactor Expansion......................................................................................................... 64
6.6 Inverse........................................................................................................................................ ..... 65
6.6.1 Two by Two M atrices................................................................................................ ..... 66
6.6.2 Partitioned Matrix ......................................................................................................... 66
6.6.3 Cofactors M a tr ix ....................................................................................................... ..... 67
6.7 Matrix M anipulation................................................................................................................... 68
6.8 Systems of Equations................................................................................................................... 70
6.9 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors................................................................................................ ..... 73
6.10 Trace ........................................................................................................................................ ..... 74
6.11 Symmetric M atrices................................................................................................................. ..... 74
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

CONTENTS

Vii

6.12 Diagonal M atrices....................................................................................................................

6.13 Example Q uestions.................................................................................................................

74
75

Vectors
7.1 Vector N otation ........................................................................................................................

77
77

7.2
7.3

Addition and Scalar Multiplication......................................................................................

Length........................................................................................................................................

78
79

7.4
7.5

Cartesian Unit Vectors ..........................................................................................................

Dot P rod u ct..............................................................................................................................

80
80

7.6
7.7
7.8

Cross P rod u ct...........................................................................................................................

Linear Independence..............................................................................................................
Example Q uestions.................................................................................................................

82
83

86

Asymptotics and Approximations

87

8.1
8.2

L im its ........................................................................................................................................
LHopitals R u le ........................................................................................................................

87

8.3
8.4
8.5

Taylor Series ...........................................................................................................................

Asymptotics..............................................................................................................................
Example Q uestions.................................................................................................................

89
90

Complex Numbers
9.1 D efinition..................................................................................................................................

91
91

9.2

Addition and Multiplication

................................................................................................

92

9.3
9.4

Complex Conjugate.................................................................................................................
Eulers Equation........................................................................................................................

92
93

9.5
9.6

De Moivres Theorem..............................................................................................................
Example Q uestions.................................................................................................................

94
95

10 Differential Equations

88
88

97

10.1 First Order Differential Equations ......................................................................................

10.1.1 Integrable....................................................................................................................
10.1.2 Separable....................................................................................................................
10.1.3 Integrating Factor.......................................................................................................

97
97
98
99

10.2 Second Order Differential Equations...................................................................................

100

10.2.1 Homogeneous ..........................................................................................................

10.2.2 Inhomogeneous..........................................................................................................
10.3 Example Q uestions.................................................................................................................

100
102
105

11 Multivariable Calculus
11.1 Partial Differentiation..............................................................................................................

107
107

11.2 Grad, Div and C u r l .................................................................................................................

108

11.3 Double Integrals........................................................................................................................

11.4 Example Q uestions.................................................................................................................

Ill
114

CHAPTER 6
MATRICES

6.1

ADDITION

If A and B a i ' e m x t i matrices such that

A =

an
0*21

a i2
C122

0>ln
&2n

ml

m2

&mn

then A + B =

and

&n
&21

b\2
&22

bln
t>2n

bjni

bm2

bmn

o-11 + &11
&21 + &21

0-12 + bi2
0,22 + &22

din t ^1n

^ml 1 ^ml

^m2 1 &m2

dmn t bmn

<22n + &2n

Addition of matrices of different sizes is not defined.

EXAMPLES
1.

2.

12
-2

4 '

1
2

2
1

' -6
+

1 '
2

2
-1

-1 4

-3 '
7

cannot be done.

6
-2
6

1 '

-7

10

60

MATRICES

6.2

MULTIPLICATION

A B is defined if A is size m x r and B size r x n. If

A -

an
21

O-12
a 22

a ri

Ctr2

' bn

^lm
^2771

and

a rTn

&21

bl2
&22

^nl

&n2

6i r
&2r

bnr

then A B C is an rn x n matrix, where C\j an b ij + a,i2b2j + ----- 1- a,irbrj. That is,

Cij is the dot product of row i of A and column j of B .
In general A B / B A , that is, matrices are nonconunutative.

EXAMPLES

9'
1

' -2
and

1 2

-4 '

AB -

-1
1

1
2

- 8 + 0 + 27
6+0+3
-4 + 0 + 6
19
9
2

-28
-10
-4

-2
0
3

2
-1

1
l____________

' 4
-3

K)

3. If A

OO

-1 ' ' 1 2 '

2
3 4

3
5

' 1

3
7

2
4

to

1
3

to

1.

2
0
-4

8 + 0 - 36
--6 + 0 - 4
4+ 0

-23
10
-9

-4

1
-1
-16 + 2 - 9
12-1-1
-8 + 1 -2

IDENTITY

while
-2

BA -

-4

4
-3

-1

-4

- 8- 6 -8

-4 -2 -4
0+ 0+ 1
6+ 4 -1

0+0+2

12 + 1 2 - 2
-2 2
2
22

2
-1

9
1

1 2
-18 + 2 - 8

0+0+2

27-4-2

-24

-10

21

4.
' 1

1
1

6.3

2 '
1
0

11
Q
O

' 7 '
4

IDENTITY

The identity matrix, defined only for square matrices (n x n ), is

I -

' 1

0 '
0

II

>

IA -

>
11

and is defined such that, for all n x n matrices A,

EXAM PLE
The 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 identity matrices are
1
0
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

61

62

6.4

MATRICES

TRANSPOSE

The transpose of a matrix is formed by writing its columns as rows. The transpose of an
m x n matrix A is an n x m matrix denoted by A*, that is, if

A -

an
21

ai2
a22

a in
a2n

a-mi

am2

a mn

then

A* -

EXAMPLES

1. If A

2. If A

then

' 4
-3

2
-1

9'
1

1 2

A*

0 2
1
1 4 - 1

'4
then

A*

If A and B are matrices and c is a scalar, then

1. (A*)* A
2. (A + B)* A* + B*
3. (cA)* - cA*
4. (A B )f = B* A*

EXAMPLE
(A1A)1 = (A*(At)t) = AtA

-3

2 - 1 1
1 2

2 '

an
ai2

a2i
a22

a-mi
dm2

ain

a2n

a mn

DETERMINANTS

6.5

DETERMINANTS

The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix A

det(A)

|A|

'

is

a d

The determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix A

0 -2 2

0 -2 3

0 -3 2

0 -3 3

be.

a n

ai2

O-1 3

0 -2 1

0 -2 2

0 -2 3

0 -3 1

0 -3 2

0 -3 3

a i

is

0 -2 1

0 -2 3

0 -3 1

0 -3 3

21

0 -2 2

0 -3 1

0 -3 2

& 13

(expanding by the first row).

EXAMPLES
1.

4 6 2 ,

2
5
-3

1
6

_
Q
O

5
-3

6
1

= -1 - 4 = -5 .

-1

o
z

6
1

+ 1

4
2

5
-3

- - 3 ( 5 + 18) - 2(4 - 12) + ( - 1 2 - 10)

- -7 5

3.

2
0

OO

1
0
0

- 1

o
z

cD
oo

1 x 2 x 3 6

1
0

7
2

5
6

is not possible.

63

64

MATRICES

6 .5 .1

COFACTOR EXPANSION

The determinant of an n x n matrix may be found by choosing a row (or column) and
summing the products of the entries of the chosen row (or column) and their cofactors:
det(A) a i j C ij +

+ + a nj C nj,

(cofactor expansion along the j th column)

det(A) OtjiCji + Cli2Ci2 + + <2jnCjn,
(cofactor expansion along the ith row)
where Cij is the determinant of A with row i and column j deleted, multiplied by
(
The matrix of elements Cij is called the cofactors matrix.

EXAMPLES
1 3
0
2
4 - 3 1 9
-4
4
0
3
5 -5 -2 -7
(Expansion is along the 3rd column since it has two zeros.)
(0 )C i3 + (1)C 23 + (0 )^ 3 3 + ( 2)C43

(1 )(-1 )5

1 3
-4
4

2
3

+ (-2 )(-l)7

t'1

lO
1

lO

1
3
4 - 3
-4
4

2
9
3

- [1(28 + 15) - 3(28 - 15) + 2(20 - 20)]

+ 2[1(9 - 36) - 3(12 + 36) + 2(16 - 12)]
- - [ 1 3 - 39] + 2[45 - 144 + 8]
- -3 1 0 .

2.
1
0
1

2
0
1

3
2
0

- -2

11

o
z

= - 2 ( 1 - 2) 2

by expanding along the second row.

3. The full cofactors matrix for the previous question is found by crossing out each row and column

INVERSE

in turn remembering to multiply by (

Cn + 1

0 2

Cl2 = ( - 1 )

1
0
1

C13 + 1

-2

0
1

and so one, giving

-2
2
3 -3
4 - 2

C -

6.6

0
1

INVERSE

A square matrix A is said to be invertible if there exists B such that

A B B A I.
B is denoted A -1 and is unique.
If det(A) 0 then a matrix is not invertible.

EXAM PLE
' 3 5 '
1 2

AB -

is the inverse of A

2
1

' 3 5 '

-5 '
OO

The matrix B

2
-1

-5 '
smce
3
' 1

0 '
- I
1

5 '

' 1
o

1
1
l

--5 '
CO

BA -

OO

and

0 '
1

I .

65

66

MATRICES

6 .6 .1

TWO BY TWO MATRICES

a b
c d

For 2 x 2 matrices, if A

then

d b
ad be c a
1

A-1 -

providing ad be ^ 0 .

If det(A) = ad bc 0 then A 1 does not exist

EXAMPLES
1. If A

2. If A

6 .6 .2

then

A 1

then

-2

4
-3

-2
1

-2

'

PARTITIONED MATRIX

Inverses can also be found by considering the partitioned matrix

: 1

then performing row operations until the final partitioned matrix is of the form

2
1
1

1
0
0

A 1

EXAMPLE
The inverse of
1
0
1

can be calculated using row reductions where R3 - R3 R1 means that Row 3 becomes the old

INVERSE

Row 3 minus Row 1.

1 2 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1

'

'

i23 y R3 R 1

1
o

' 1
0

2
1
-1

1
0
-1

1
0
-1

0
1
0

0 '
0
1

R3 y R3 -I- R2
1
0
0

2
1
0

1
0
-1

1
0
-1

0
1
1

0
0
1

1
to

R l -> R l - 2R2
R3 y R3
1
-1

0
0
-1

R l -> R l - R3

1
o

' 1
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

0
0
1

-1
1
-1

1 '
0
-1

hence
2
1
1

1 '
0
o

' 1
0
1

-1
-

' 0
0
1

-1
1
-1

1 '
0
-1

6 .6 .3

COFACTORS MATRIX

The inverse of a n x n matrix A can be found by considering the transpose of the cofactors
matrix divided by the determinant:

where C\j is the determinant of A with row i and column j deleted, multiplied by
(1)*+,\ The matrix C is called the cofactors matrix.

67

68

MATRICES

EXAMPLES
1. If
A

1
0
1

2
1
1

1
0
0

then

Cu

1
1

0
0

1
0

2
1

-1 )

0
- 1

and so on. Since |A| 1 we get

0

A- = r j

-1

-1

- 1 '
1
-1

' 0
-

-1
1

0
1

-1

1 '
0
-1

2. The matrix
A -

1 2
0 0

3
2

has cofactors matrix

C -

-2
2
3 -3
4 - 2

0
1

hence the inverse

A -1 -

6.7

-2
2

3
-3

MATRIX MANIPULATION

Matrices do not behave as real numbers. When manipulating matrix expressions a

distinction is made between multiplying from the left (pre-multiplication) and multiplying
from the right (post-multiplication).

MATRIX MANIPULATION

69

EXAMPLES
1. Given that A B C I find B ?
I
A -1 I
A - 1IC -1
A - 1C -1
( C A ) - 1.

ABC
(A 1 A) B C
/ B (C C -1 )
B

pre-multiply both sides by A - 1

post-multiply both sides by C - 1
simplifying

2. If A PD P 1, then A 3 is
A3

(PD P- 1 ) (PD P- 1 ) (P D P - 1 )
P D (P - 1P) D P - 1 P D P -1
P D 2P - 1 P D P - 1
P D 3P - 1

since P P - 1 = I
again since P P - 1 I.

3. If A v Xv then

A 3v A A A v AA(Av) XAAv
X2A v

= X3v.

4. If A v Xv then if A 1 exists then

A - 1 A v A - 1 Xv AA- 1 v

=>

v AA- 1 v
- v = AA 1 v.
A~

See Section 6.9 on eigenvalues since this example shows that if A has eigenvalue A, with eigen
vector v, then A - 1 has eigenvalue 1/A for the same eigenvector.

70

MATRICES

6.8

SYSTEM S OF EQUATIONS

Systems of m linear equations involving n unknowns may be written as a matrix equation.

For example,

x + y + 2z 1
2x + Ay 3z 5
3x + 6y 5z 2
is written as

' 1 1
2
3

2 '
4 - 3
6 - 5

X
y

' 1 '
5

A x b.

Systems of equations are typically solved by Gaussian elimination.

If A is invertible then x A _1b.

Gaussian Elimination allows

a multiple of one row to be added to another row.
a row to be multiplied by a (non-zero) number.
Hence R3 R3 2R1 means each element in Row 3 becomes the old Row 3 element
minus two times the corresponding Row 2 element.

EXAMPLES
1. The augmented matrix is an easy way of writing systems of equations. For the following system

x + y + 2z

2x + Ay 3z

3x + 6y 5z

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

the augmented matrix is

R2
R 2 ~ 2i?i
R$ R$ 3Ri
' 1

0
0

' 1

0
_0

1
2

-7

1 '

-11

1
1

--7/2

3/2

-11

-1

-1

1 '

R$ ^ R$ 3R2
' 1

0
_0

' 1

0
0

1
1
0

1
1
0

2
- -7/2
-- 1/2

3/
- 11/

1 '

--7/2

3/2

11

This gives the straightforward solution by back substitution of x 61, y 40, z 11.
2. Consider the system

2x 5y

x + 3y

written as A x b such that

A -

2
-1

The matrix A has inverse A 1

X
-5 '
,
3 > x = . y .

so

' -2 '
4

71

72

MATRICES

After performing Gaussian reduction by row operations the three cases (no solution, infi
nite solutions, one solution) are typically represented by the following:
1. If you perform row operations to obtain

a
0
_0

b
d
0

c
e

h '
hi
k3

(where a , .., f are non-zero real numbers) then you get one unique solution.
2. If you perform row operations to obtain

a
0
_0
then if

b
d
0

c
e

*i '

k2
h _

/ 0 you get no solution.

3. If you perform row operations to obtain

a
0
_0

b
d
0

c
e

*i '

hi
0

then you get an infinite number of solutions that represent a line where you let
z t, t is some parameter, and then express x, y in terms of t.

EXAM PLE
To solve the system:
' 1

-2

-1 '

1 3

-1
1
0

-1 '

1 8

' -1 '
13
29

00
1

1
0

1
o

' 1
0

1
to

perform row reductions to obtain

and setting z t gives y 3 t and x 2(3 t) t 1 so

(x, y, z) = (5 - t, 3 - t, t) = (5,3,0) + t ( - 1, - 1 , 1 )
or a line in three dimensional space.

EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

6.9

73

EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

If A is an n x n matrix then a scalar A is called an eigenvalue of A , if associated with it

there is a non-zero vector v, called an eigenvector, such that

A v Xv.
To find the eigenvalues solve the characteristic equation
|A - AI| - 0.
To find the eigenvectors solve
(A - XI)v = 0.

EXAM PLE
To find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for
A -

0
1

1
0

set up the characteristic equation

' 0

det

1 '
' 1
A
0
0

0 '\
1
=

-A

-A

= 0,

which gives A2 1 0 so Ai 1 and A2 = 1 are the eigenvalues. To find the eigenvectors solve
-A
1

1
-A

v 0.

" Xi
. y i.

then

For Ai 1 let

vi -

' -1

1 ' ' Xi
_ ' o '
-1
0
. y i.

Both equations give xi yi 0 so y\ is a free variable. Hence the eigenvector corresponding to

Ai 1 is t( 1,1), where t is any number, t e Re.
For A2 1 let

MATRICES

74

Both equations give 2 + 2/2 0 so 2/2 is a free variable. Hence the eigenvector corresponding to
A2 1 is p( 1, 1). The length of the eigenvector is unimportant hence it is convenient to write
i = ( l , l ) ,

6.10

2 = ( 1 , - 1 ).

TRACE

The trace of a matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements.

(Note that the trace is also equal to the sum of the eigenvalues.)

EXAM PLE

6.11

The trace of

1 2
4 5
7 8

1 + 5 + 9 15.

SYMMETRIC MATRICES

The matrix A is symmetric if A A 4.

EXAM PLE

6.12

The matrix

1 2
2 5
3 6

is symmetric.

DIAGONAL MATRICES

A diagonal matrix is one with only terms along the main diagonal.

EXAM PLE

A 3 x 3 diagonal matrix has the form

a
0

0
c

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

6.13

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

1. Find A + B , A B , B A and the trace(A):

5. Find the determinants of the following matrices.

(i)

1
3
6
2

0
2
1
2

1
-7
-6
2

(ii)

' 4
0
0
0

1
1
0
0

6
4
9
0

(iii)

' 3
1
0

0
0
0

4 '
0
6

(i)
4
2

A =

0
3

-7

0
-1 -1

1
-2

-2

-2

(ii)
A =

1
6

9
4

B =

6
-7

2
0
0

0
3
0

0
0
4

9
0
0

0
8
0

0
0
-3

(ii) A =

X + 2y z

8x + 3y - 7 z

i y - 12z

-8

First showing that a non-trivial

solve

2. Find A B:
(i) A =

2
2
0
-1

Solve the system of equations

8
1

(iii)
A =

0
1
1
3

4x - - y

4y - z

4x + 17y 4z

8. For what values of a and c do you get

9
3
2

B =

-1

(i) one solution,

(ii) no solution,

(iii) infinite solutions,

for the system

B =
2

6
-2

(iii) A =

1
b

16

= r i

- i

x + 5y + z

x + 6y z

2x + ay + z

c ?

3. Find A *, A * A, A A 4:
2 - 1
3
4
3 - 5

(i) A=

6
0
7

(ii) A=

(i)

3
4

(ii)

1
0
0

2
1
3

(i)

0 '
-4
5

4. Find the inverse, if it exists, of the matrices

2
1

9. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A:

0 '
0
2

A =

2
0
0

0
3
0

1
4
1

A =

2
1
0

1
2
0

0
0
1

(ii)

75

76

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CHAPTER 7
VECTORS

7.1

VECTOR NOTATION

EXAMPLES
1. The vector (1,0) points in the x direction and has length 1.
2. The vector (1,1) points in a direction with angle 7r/4 to the x axis.

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78

A vector in R n is represented by an ordered n-tuple

v = (vi,v2, . . . , v n).

EXAMPLES
1. v ( 1,3, 4) is a three dimensional vector so v e R 3.
2. v ( 3 , 5 , 7 , 1 , 2 ) is a five dimensional vector so v e R 5.

7.2

ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

If v (vi,v2, . . . ,v n), w (w i,w 2, . .. ,w n) and c is a scalar constant then

V+ W
CV

(t>i + Wi , V2 + W2, . . , vn + wn)

(0Vi,CV2,...,CVn).

EXAMPLES
1. If v (1, 1,4) and w (1, 3 ,3 ) then,
S + = (2 > - 4 >7)>
and
4v - ( 4 , - 4 , 1 6 ) .
2. If i (1,0) and j = (0,1) thenv = (2,3) = 2 i + 3 j .
3. If v ( l , x , 2 , x ) and u ( 2 , \,x, 0) then v + u (3,1 + x, 2 + x,x).
4. (1,2) + ( 4 , 5 , 6) is not defined.

LENGTH

7.3

79

LENGTH

The length of a vector in R n is given by

IMI = \ j v l + v l + - - - + v l .

EXAMPLES
1. ||(1,2,1)|| = V l 2 + 22 + l 2 = -s/6

2 . ||(1,1 ,2 ,1 ,3)|| = >/1 + 1 + 4 + 1 + 9 = >/16 = 4

The triangle inequality states that

||u + II < ||u|| + ||||.
That is the length of the sum of vectors must be less than the length of the two individual
vectors added.

EXAMPLE
(0,3) + (4,0) -

(4,3) and ||(0,3)|| - 3, ||(4,0)|| - 4,||(4,3)|| - V ^ + 4 * - 5 < 3 + 4.

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VECTORS

7.4

CARTESIAN UNIT VECTORS

The Cartesian unit vectors for R 3 are

(1)0,0), j = (0,1,0), f e - (0,0,1).

Vectors in R 3 are often written as the sum of the components in the direction of the
Cartesian unit vectors:
V

(V I,V 2 ,V 3 )

v i i

+ v 2 j

+ v 3 k

EXAMPLES
1. ( 1, 2, 3) = i + 2 j + 3k

2 . ( 0 , 2 , 0) = 2 j

7.5

DOT PRODUCT

If u and v are vectors in R n then the dot product is defined by

U

U iV i

U 2 V 2 H------------- 1-

u n v n

This is also called an inner product on R n. The result of a dot product is a scalar.

EXAMPLES
1. (1, 2, 3) ( 1, 1, 1) 1 + 2 + 3 6
2. ( 1, 2,3) ( 1, 2, 3) l 2 + 22 + 32 14
3. IImII2 u

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81

The angle 6 between two vectors is given by

u v
cos 6 ,,

u lit)

EXAMPLES
1. The angle 6 between ( 1,2, 3) and ( 1, 1, 1) is such that

COS u

6
6

-------- = .
V l 2 + 22 + 3 2 V l 2 + l 2 + l 2
742
.

2 . ( 1 , 2 ,3 ) and ( 1 , 1 , 1 ) are at right angles since ( 1 , 2 ,3) ( 1 , 1 , 1 ) 0 hence cos# 0 .

Two vectors, u and v are orthogonal if they are perpendicular to each other and

u v 0 .

EXAMPLES
1. u ( 1 , 2 , 1 ) and v ( 2 , 1 , 4) are perpendicular since u - v 2 + 2 4 0.

2. To find a vector, (a, b), perpendicular to (1,2) write

(a, 6) ( 1 , 2 ) a + 26 0
hence the simplest choice is (a, b) (2 , 1 ) although any multiple of this will be perpendicular
to (1,2). For example (2, 1) and (4 ,2 ) are still perpendicular to (1,2).

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VECTORS

7.6

CROSS PRODUCT

If u and v are two vectors in R 3, then the cross product u x v is defined in determinant
notation by

U X V

Ui

U2

U3

Vi

V2

V3

U2

U3

V2

V3

~j

Ui

U3

VI

V3

+ k

Ui

U2

Vi

V2

( U 2 V3 U 3 V2 , U 3 V1 U 1 V3 , U 1 V2 U 2 V1 ) .

EXAMPLES
1. ( 1 , 0, 0) x ( 0, 1, 0) - (0,0,1). That is i x j = k .
2. If u (2, 3,1) and v (12,4, 6), then

W U X V

2
12

-3
4

1
-6

-3
4

2
12

- 3

-6

1
-6

+ fe

2
12

- (18 - 4) - j ( - 12 - 12) + fe(8 + 36)

= 14 i + 24 j + 44 fc = (14,24,44).

3. The cross product (1, 2, 3) x ( 1, 0, 1) is:

1 2

( 1,2, 3) x ( 1, 0, 1)

(2 , 2 , 2 ).

4. The cross product (1, 1, 2) x (1, 1,0) is:

i
( 1 , 1 , 2 ) x ( 1 , - 1 , 0) =

1
1

1 2
-1
0

( 2 , 2 , 2 ).

-3
4

LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

83

Note that the result of taking the cross product of two vectors is another vector where the
direction of u x v is perpendicular to both u and v.

EXAMPLES
1. In a previous example (2, 3,1) x (12,4, 6) (14,24,44) and
(2,3, - 1 ) (14,24,44) = 28 - 72 + 44 = 0.
Similarly (12,4, - 6) (14,24,44) - 0.
2. In a previous example (1, 1, 2) x (1, 1,0) (2,2, 2). Note that (2,2, 2) ( 1, 1, 2) 0 and
( 2 , 2 , 2 ) ( 1 , 1 , 0 ) 0 .

7.7

LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

A vector v is a linear combination of the vectors

V Cl t i l + C2W2 + +
where

u, 2j ., u n if it can be written as

cnun

c,... , c are constants.

EXAMPLES
1 . ( 2 , 7 , 3 ) is a linear combination of ( 1 , 1 , 0), (0 , 2 , 1 ), ( 0 , 1 , 0) since
(2 ,7 ,3 )-2 (1 ,1 ,0 )+ 3(0,2,1)-(0,1,0).

2 . ( 1 , 2 , 1 ) is not a linear combination of ( 1 , 1 , 0), ( 2 , 1 , 0), ( 1 , 0 , 0) since we can never combine the
three vectors to get the third component of ( 1 , 2 , 1 ).
3. Any vector

(a, b, c ) in R 3 can be found from a linear combination of { ( 1 , 0 , 0 ) , ( 0, 1, 0), ( 0 , 0 ,1 ) } .

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VECTORS

A set of vectors u , 2 , , u n are linearly independent if the only constants c i ,. j cn

that satisfy
Cl t il + C22 H------- h C n U

are ci C2 c 0.

EXAM PLES
1. ( 1 ,1 , 0 ) , ( 0 ,2 ,1) , (0 ,1,0 ) are independent since
ci ( 1 , 1 ,0 ) + c2 ( 0 ,2 ,1) + c3 (0 ,1,0 ) (0,0,0)
implies
ci 0
ci + c2 + c3 0
C2 0
which gives ci C2 C3 0.
2. ( 1 , 1 , 0), ( 2 ,1 , 0), ( 1 , 0,0) are dependent (not linearly independent) since
ci + 2c2 + C3 0
ci + c2 0
0 0
has an infinite number of solutions, one being ci 1, C2 1, C3 1.

3. The vectors ( 1 , 2), (2 , 1), ( 1 , 0) are dependent since

c i( l, 2) + c2(2, 1) + c3(l, 0) (0,0)
implies
Ci + 2 c2 + C3 0
2ci -(- 2 c2 = 0.
Since we have two equations in three unknowns we can always find a non-zero a , c2, C3 to satisfy
these equations, for example c 1, c2 1, C3 1. More than two vectors in R 2 can never
be independent.

4 . The vectors i , j , k are independent since for any vector v (a, b, c) it is possible to write
(a, b, c) ci i + c2j + C3k ai + bj + ck
hence if v 0 then ci c2 C3 0.

LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

A set of vectors is linearly independent if the determinant of the matrix with vectors as
columns is not zero.

EXAMPLES
1. For (1, 1, 0), ( 0, 2, 1) , ( 0, 1, 0) the determinant

1 0 0
1 2
1 --I/ O
0 1 0
hence the vectors are independent.
2. For ( 1, 1, 0), ( 2, 1, 0) , ( 1, 0,0) the determinant

1 2
1 1

1
0

-0

hence the vectors are dependent. We can show that

(2 , 1 , 0) - ( 1 , 1 , 0) + ( 1 , 0 , 0)
so they are not independent of each other.

85

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VECTORS

7.8

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

1. Evaluate the sum u + v , 3 u and ||u||:
IV

IV

IV

v v v

5. Find u - v , u x v and cos 9 where 9 is the angle between

IV

the u and v :

(i) u = ( - 2 , - 1 ) , = (1 ,1 )
(ii) u = ( 3 ,4 ) , = (4,3)

(i) u = ( 1 ,2 , 1 ) , = ( - 1 , 3 , 1 )

(iii) u = (-2,1), v = (-1, -1)

(ii) u = ( - 3 , 2 , - 1 ) , = (6 ,1 ,1 )
(iii) u = (2 ,3 , 0), = (4 ,1 , - 2 )

(iv) u = ( 3 ,4 ,2 ) , = (1 ,1 ,1 )

(iv) u = ( 0 ,0 ,0 ), = (1 ,4 ,3 )

(v) u = (3 ,1 ,1 ,0 ) , = ( 1 ,0 ,1 ,1 )

iv iv

iv

iv

(vi) u = 2 i + 3 j + k , v = i j k

(vi) u = (1 ,2 ,4 ), = (2 ,4 , - 2 )

(vii) u = i + j , v = i 3 j
V

(v) u = (3 ,3 , 3), = ( 1, 1, 1)

2. For the above vectors verify the triangle inequality that

||
u+ V||<IHI
+ ||
||.
V
V
V
3. In the diagram below write down the two vectors u and
v in algebraic form then find and draw the vector u + v.

6. For the previous question verify that w = u x v is

orthogonal (at right angles) to both u and v.
7. Determine whether the following vectors are linearly
independent
(i) {(4 ,1 ), (1 ,2 ) }
(ii) {(2 ,1 ), (4 ,2 ) }

5
4
3
2

(iii) {(1 ,1 ), (1 ,2 ), ( 3 ,1 )}
(iv) { ( 1 ,1 ,1 ) , ( 0 ,2 ,0 ), (1 ,3 , 2 )}

(v) { ( 1 ,1 ,1 ) , ( 0 ,2 ,0 ), ( 1 ,3 ,1 ) }
-

(vi) {(1 , 2 ,0 ,1 ), (1 ,1 ,0 ,1 ) , ( 2 ,1 ,3 ,1 ) , (0, 2, - 3 , 1 ) }

8. Find a number c so that ( 1 ,2 ,c ) is orthogonal to (2 ,1 ,2 ).

9. Find the vector which goes from the point (1 ,3 ,1 ) to the

point (2 ,5 ,3 ). What is the length of this vector?
10. Show that the line through the points (1 ,1 ,1 ) and ( 2 ,3 ,4 )
is perpendicular to the line through the points ( 1 ,0 ,0 )
and (3, 1,0).

1 -

11. Show that a (b

-------1-------1-------1------- 1-------1-------r

1 2 3 4 5 6

4. Evaluate the sum u + v and ||tt + w||:

V

(i) u = (3 ,2 , 1), = ( 1, 2,1 )

(ii) u = (1 ,0 ,9 ), w = ( - 2 , - 2 , - 2 )
(iii) u = (4, - 4 , - 3 ) , v = (8, 7,1)

x c) can be written as

a * ( b X c) =

ai
bi
ci

CL2

as

C2

= a ii> 2 C 3 a ii> 3 C 2 aS2i>lC3

+ aS2 i>3 Cl + 0 3 6 10 2 0 3 6 2 0 1.

12. Verify the above equation using the vectors

a = ( 1, 1, 2) , b = ( 1, 0, 1) , c = (0, 1, 1).