BIOL324 Final Study

How many orders are there in anthophyta?

59
Is anthophyta polyphyletic, paraphyletic or monophyletic?
Monophyletic
Are the basal orders of anthophyta monocots or eudicots?
They are neither
What is a laminar stamen?
Leaf-like stamen without a distinct anther and filament but with embedded or superficial
microsporangia
Do the basal anthophyta orders have petals and stamens?
No they do not. They have tepals
What are the two basal anthophyta orders in this course?
Amborellales and Nymphales
What two characteristics are associated with Amborellales?
An egg sac with 8 cells and 9 nuclei, as well as carpels sealed by secretions
What characteristic is associated with Nymphales (water lilies)?
Oenothera-type embryo sac
What was the first lineage to diverge after the basal orders?
Magnoliid
Describe the leaves of the magnoliid clade.
Simple, leathery leaves with ether-containing oils
What type of stamen is present in magnoliid?
Laminar stamens
What is the flower arrangement in magnoliid?
Flowers are numerous and possess spiral-shaped parts
Name the three orders of magnoliid.
Magnoliales, laurales, piperales

What was the second lineage to diverge from the basal orders?
The monocots
What features did the monocots possess when they diverged?
They retained some basal features such as monoaperture pollen and trimerous flowers
What is monoaperture pollen?
Monoaperture pollen refers to pollen grains that have just one aperture, or opening in their
exine
What are trimerous flowers?
Trimerous flowers are flowers with parts in multiples of three
When did monocots diverge?
Roughly 110 million years before now
Why do we think that monocots likely evolved from a herbaceous ancestor?
Because they all lack secondary growth
What are the three orders of monocots for this course?
Alismatales, liliales and asparagales
What is characteristic of alismatales?
They are one of the most primitive monocot subclasses
What is special about liliales?
They are the most derived monocot order
What is special about asparagales?
They are the largest angiosperm order
What is special about the orchid family?
They are the second largest angiosperm family
What order does the orchid family belong to?
Asparagales
What are the three families of the commelinid clade?
Arecales, poales, zingiberales
What is the common name for arecaceae?
They are the palm family
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When did the palm family (arecaceae) evolve?

Reoughly 80 million years before present
Do palms have secondary growth?
No, because they are still monocots
What type of leaves do species of the palm family possess?
They have compound leaves
What do the species from the poales order resemble?
They are grasses, sedges and rushes
What is special about the poales order?
They are one of the largest angiosperm orders
What is the common name for poaceae?
The grass family
How does the grass family rank in terms of size?
They are the fourth largest angiosperm family
When did the grass family evolve?
It is debatable but has been narrowed down to between 43 million and 97 million years
before present
Why is the grass family special?
It contains four of the most important food crops
How many orders of eudicots are there?
43
Are eudicots polyphyletic, paraphyletic or monophyletic?
They are monophyletic
What are the defining characteristics of a eudicot?
They have two cotyledons, eustellar vascular arrangements, reticulate venation and
triaperture pollen
What are the basal orders of the eudicots?
Ranunculales, and proteales

What are the defining characteristics of ranunculales?

They are mostly herbaceous, and their hypogynous flowers have distinct, free parts
What are the characteristics of the core eudicots?
The core eudicots are a monophyletic group with flower parts in fours or fives
When did the rosid clade differentiate?
They branched from the core eudicots roughly 115 million years before present
Name the four orders in the rosid clade?
Rosales, fabales, myrtales, and brassicales
What is special about the rosales order?
They possess a hypanthium
What is a hypanthium?
A hypanthium is a cuplike or tubular enlargement of the receptacle of a flower, loosely
surrounding the gynoecium or united with it
What are the special features of the fabales order?
They fix atmospheric nitrogen into non-protein amino acids, and some of its species are
very poisonous
What is the common name for the fabaceae family?
They are the legume family
How does the legume family rank in terms of size in the anthophyta phylum?
They are the third largest angiosperm family
What are the special features of myrtales?
They are the largest rosid II order and they have flaky bark
What is special about the brassicales order?
They have glycosides, which are either mustard oil or cyanogenic
What are the defining characteristics of the asterid clade?
They are the most advanced eudicots, and are a monophyletic group. They have fused
petals
When did the asterid clade evolve and from what group did they evolve?
They evolved roughly 50 to 60 million years before present and came from rosidae

What are the five orders of the asterid clade?

Lamiales, solanales, asterales, and apiales
What is the common name for the lamiales order?
They are the mint family
What is the common name for solanales?
They are the potato family
How many families are there in the asterales order?
There are 11 families
What is inulin?
Inulin is a carbohydrate storage structure
What order do we find inulin in?
They are found in asterales
Describe the aster family.
The aster family are the largest family amongst the angiosperms. Their flowers are
typically head in inflorescence, and the petals are fused into a tube. They have disk flowers
which have a reduced corolla, and ray flowers which have a strap-like corolla. Their fruit is
cirsium and is a plumose achene
What is the common name for the apiales family?
The carrot family
Draw a very basic phylogenetic tree of the clades discussed up to this point.
Name the abiotic factors that influence seed dispersal.
Wind, water and mechanical
What type of fruit use wind dispersal?
The fruit must be small and dry for weight reduction and may have plumes or wings
Describe the fruits that are water dispersed and float
They have air trapped in their tissues and they resist rot
What two are the two means by which water is employed for dispersal?
Seeds can either float, or rain drops can splash seed cups and launch the seeds around

What are the two mechanical methods of seed dispersal?

Ejection and hygroscopic structures
Describe the ejection method of seed dispersal.
Plants can build up turgor pressure and then release it to place a force on the seed, or the
pericarp of the fruit itself can have the ability to curl or twist for movement
Describe the hygroscopic method of seed dispersal.
Seeds that possess hygroscopic structures can coil and uncoil depending on the humidity of
the air and as they dry out and get wet they either uncoil or coil, which causes them to
move
What are the two types of biotic vectors for seed dispersal?
Active and passive
Describe the passive method of biotic seed dispersal
The fruits are small and carried in mud until picked up by an animal by any hooks, barbs,
hairs or sticky coatings that the seed may possess. The seed then attaches to the animal and
gets carried wherever they go
There are three types of active biotic seed dispersal. What are they?
Animals can eat the fruit and then excrete the indigestible seeds; some seeds get cached by
birds for a later snack, but then they get forgotten and left where they were hidden; seeds
can also be food bodies, in which case they will usually get carried by ants.
What are elaiosomes?
Elaiosomes are fleshy, pigmented appendages with oils and proteins. They are present on
seeds and are what draws ants to carry the seeds underground
What is another obvious method of active biotic seed dispersal?
Humans. We take and plant seeds all over
What are the three possible areas for a plant to store energy in its seeds?
The stored nutrient are typically in the endosperm, perisperm or cotyledons
What is a funiculus?
It is a stack connecting an ovule or seed with the placenta
When the funiculus separates, a scar is left on the seed. What is the scar called?
The hilium

What does the seed coat become after it hardens?

A testa
What is an orthodox seed?
A seed that enters dormancy
What happens to the moisture content of seeds in temperate and boreal forests?
The seeds dry to between 5 and 20 per cent moisture content in order to become dormant
What is a recalcitrant seed?
A seed that cannot survive drying out
What type of habitat are recalcitrant seeds typically found?
Tropical forests
What is seed germination?
Germination refers to the resumption of growth of the embryo
Will a dormant seed always germinate if the environmental conditions are optimal?
No, sometimes an additional factor is required
What are the potential conditions in which a seed awaits before it begins to germinate?
After-ripening, stratification, scarification, or washing
Describe the dodo and the tambalacoque tree.
It was thought that the death of the dodo birds brought with it the potential extinction of
the tombalacoque tree because they seemed to be correlated. The theory was that the dodo
was the only animal from the surrounding areas that could crack the seeds and cause them
to germinate. Since the dodos are no longer around, a scientist fed the seeds of the
tambalacoque tree to turkeys to see if their digestive system could wake the seed and allow
it to germinate, but it turned out to be false.
What is the radicle?
The radicle is the part of the embryo that will grow into the primary tap root. It is the first
structure that will emerge from the seed.
What is the hypocotyl?
The hypocotyl is the early stem of a germinating seed
There are two types of germination in eudicots. Name them and state the defining difference
between the two.

The two types are epigeous germination and hypogeous germination. The difference is that
in epigeous germination, the cotyledons grow to be above the ground, while in hypogeous
germination, the cotyledons remain below ground
Where are nutrients absorbed from in epigeous eudicots after germination has begun?
The cotyledons
What is the role of the cotyledons of epigeous eudicots after germinating has commenced?
They will either begin to photosynthesize rapidly or they will wither and the young plant
will die
Draw a diagram of a mature seed.
What is the coleorhiza?
The coleorhiza is a protective sheath that surrounds the radicle as it develops into a young
root
What is the coleoptile?
The coleoptile is a protective sheath that surrounds a young stem as it develops and grows
Are the coleoptile and coleorhiza present in eudicots?
No, they are a monocot characteristic
In grass-type monocot germination, what emerges first?
The coleorhiza emerges first and then the radicle
What is the primary sense of a beetle?
Smell
What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by beetle?
White or dull
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by beetle?
Large and single or head or umbel
What is the smell of the flowers that are pollinated by beetle?
Fruity or spicy
What rewards are granted for beetle when pollinating flowers?
Pollen, petals, and food bodies (nectar)
What is the primary sense of carrion or dung beetles and flies?
Smell
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What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by carrion or dung beetles and flies?
Mottled brown or dul
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by carrion or dung beetles and flies?
Large and single or compact inflorescence
What is the smell of the flowers that are pollinated by carrion or dung beetles and flies?
Foul, like dead things
What rewards are granted for carrion or dung beetles and flies when pollinating flowers?
Nectar, or maybe no reward (traps)
What is the primary sense of bees and wasps?
Sight (they can see UV) and smell
What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by bees and wasps?
Showy, like blues and yellows. They look for nectar guides
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by bees and wasps?
Generalists like bowl shaped flowers, while specialists like zygomorphic flowers
What is the smell of the flowers that are pollinated by bees and wasps?
The flowers have a light scent
What rewards are granted for bees and wasps when pollinating flowers?
Nectar and pollen
What is the primary sense of butterflies and moths?
Sight and smell
What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by butterflies and moths?
Often quite showy, like yellows blues and violets
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by butterflies and moths?
Often have corollar tube
What is the smell of the flowers that are pollinated by butterflies and moths?
Fragrant
What rewards are granted for butterflies and moths when pollinating flowers?
Nectar

What is the primary sense of nocturnal moths?

Smell
What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by moths?
White or pale
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by moths?
Many different kinds
What is the smell of the flowers that are pollinated by moths?
Strong fragrance
What rewards are granted for moths when pollinating flowers?
Nectar
What is the primary sense of birds?
Sight
What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by birds?
Showy colours like red and yellow
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by birds?
Pendent. They are typically large and single, or may have inflorescence
What is the smell of the flowers that are pollinated by birds?
Very little scent
What rewards are granted for birds when pollinating flowers?
Nectar, flower parts, insects
What is the primary sense of bats?
Smell
What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by bats?
Pale
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by bats?
Large, oft, pendent, sturdy or tubular
What is the smell of the flowers that are pollinated by bats?
Fruity, fermenting

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What rewards are granted for bats when pollinating flowers?

Nectar and pollen
What colours are the flowers that are pollinated by wind and water?
Dull
What is the shape of the flowers that are pollinated by wind and water?
Petals are small or absent, sexes are separated and exposed. The pollen is smooth and
small.
What happens when pollen lands on the stigma?
The stigma secretes a solution containing sugars and proteins from glands. This is to test
the pollen.
What happens after the pollen lands on the stigma?
The pollen hydrates from the secretions of the female flower and releases enzymes that
react with the stigmatic surface
What happens after the pollen has released its enzymes?
Once the enzymes are release, the pollen germinates and the generative cell creates two
male gametes
What structures does the pollen tube grow through?
First the stigma, then the style, ovary wall, micropyle and finally a synergid
What is the first stage of fertilization?
The male gametes are released from the tube nucleus into the synergid through a pore in
the tube
What happens to the male protoplasm and what does this mean for the offspring?
The male protoplasm gets shed in the synergid, which means it does not donate any of its
mitochondrial DNA to the embryo and thus all of the mitochondrial DNa in flowering
plants is inherited from the mother
What is double fertilization?
Double fertilization refers to the fact that in anthophytes, one male gamete fertilizes the egg
to form the zygote, while another sperm cell fertilizes with a polar nuclei of the central cell
which will eventually give rise to the endosperm
What is an endosperm?
An endosperm is the structure that will feed the zygote in the seed as the seed develops.
What is the ploidy of the primary endosperm?
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It is polyploidy and can range from 2n to 15n depending on the female gametophyte
development
What is an albuminous seed?
One whose nucellus is still present at germination
What is an exalbuminous seed?
One whose nucellus is not present at germination and so the cotyledons nourish the embryo
What type of cell division occurs when no cell walls are formed?
Free nuclear division
What structure experiences free nuclear division during embryo development?
The primary endosperm
Does the embryo undergo free nuclear division?
No
What are the three stages of embryo development in eudicots?
The globular stage, the heart stage and the torpedo stage
Which group (monocots or eudicots) have exalbuminous seeds?
The eudicots
What flower part develops into a fruit?
The ovary
What flower part develops into a seed?
The ovules
What is a parthenocarpic fruit?
A fruit that develops without seeds
What is a true fruit?
One that contains only ovary parts
What is an accessory fruit?
A fruit that contains parts from non-ovarian structures
What is the pericarp?
The thickened ovary wall
What are the three layers of the pericarp?
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The exocarp, the mesocarp, and the endocarp

What are the two phyla associated with the first vascular plants?
Rhynia and aglaophyton
What is another name for the first vascular plants?
The protracheophytes
Did the protracheophytes have tracheids?
No they had hydroids
What are the three phyla of teacheophtytes?
Rhyniophyta, zosterophyllophyta, trimerophytophyta
During which time period did the tracheophytes evolve?
Early Devonian
What type of branching pattern was exhibited by tracheophytic plants?
Dichotomous
Which of the three phyla exhibited exarch growth?
Zosterophyllophyta
What plant material allowed for the evolution of the thracheophytes?
Lignin in the cell walls
Did the prothracheophytes exhibit any secondary growth?
No, they had only apical meristems
What type of roots were possesses by the thracheophytes?
Rhizomes and rhizoids
Which tracheophyte group had terminal sporangia?
Zosterophyllophyta. The other two had sporangia on lateral or short stalks
Were the thracheophytes heterosporous?
No, they were homosporous
Which group contains the oldest vascular plant fossils?
Rhyniophyta
From what did trimerophytophyta evolve?

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Likely rhynia
What do we think trimerophytophyta gave rise to?
The ferns and progymnosperms
What adaptation is present in zosterphyllophyta that leads us to believe it grew in mud?
There are stomata and cuticle on the upper stem only
What types of leaves did zosterophyllophyta have?
Some had enations
From which group did lycopodiophyta evolve?
From zosterophyllophyta
What is lepidodendrales?
It is a family of tree lycophytes in the phylum lycopodiophyta
What type of growth did lycopodiales exhibit?
Both primary and secondary growth
What are the three orders of lycopodiophyta?
Lycopodiales, isoetales, selaginellales
What types of leaves do lycophytes have?
Microphylls
Since lycopodiophyta evolved from zosterphyllophyta, what characteristics does it have?
Lateral sporangia, exarch protostele
What type of stele is present in selaginellales?
Siphonostele
What are fertile sporophylls?
They refer to when the sporangia is located on the sporophylls
Which of the three lycopodiophyta orders are homosporous?
Only lycopodiales
What does homospory mean for the gametophte?
It means that the gametophyte is bisexual
Which of the three lycopodiophyta orders have ligules?

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Selaginellales and isoetales

What does endosporic mean?
It means that the mega and microgametophytes develop inside spore walls
Where are the microsporophylls located in relation to the megasporophylls in isoetales?
The microsporophylls are towards the inside while the megasporophylls are towards the
outside
What are the four lineages of monilophyta?
Equisetopsida (horsetails), psilotopsida (some ferns), marattiopsida (ferns), polypodiopsida
(most ferns)
Describe the eusporangiate type of sporangial development.
The sporangia develop from several surface initial cells, and the sporangia cell wall is very
thick
Describe the leptosporangiate type of sporangia development.
The sporangia cell walls are only one cell layer thick and the sporangia develops from one
surface initial cell
What orders undergo eusporangiate development?
Equisetopsida, psilopsida, marattiopsida
What orders undergo leptosporangiate development?
Polypodiopsida
What type of leaf arrangement is found in equisetopsida?
Whorls of microphylls
Which order has plants that have holes in their stems?
Equisetopsida
What is the function of the equisetopsida elaters?
To disperse the spores
What are the three extinct families of equisetopsida?
Calamitaceae, pseudoborniaceae, sphenophyllaceae
What type of root is present in psilotopsida?
No true roots, but rhizoids with endomycorrhiza
What is special about botrychium of the ophioglossales of psilotopsida?
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They are the only fern with a vascular cambium

What happened to the leaves of marattiopsida and polypodiopsida?
They developed the first megaphylls
What are the two theories of evolution regarding megaphylls?
Telome theory and the theory that megaphylls developed from elaboration of microphylls
Describe the telome theory.
Evolution of structures in plants is due to the environment acting on the development of the
telome
What is a telome?
A telome is the ultimate branch in a dichotomous system
What are the sporangia of ferns called?
Sori
What type of spory is exhibited by ferns?
They are homosporous
Where does a new sporophyte develop?
On the gametophyte
What is apogamy?
Sporophyte develops directly from gametophyte
What is apospory?
Gametophyte develops directly from the sporophyte
What are the two extinct orders of ferns?
Cladoxylales and coenopteridales
What type of sporangia development is exhibited by marattiopsida?
Eusporangiate
What type of sporangia development is exhibited by polypodiopsida?
Leptosporangiate
What are salviniales?
They are water ferns
What are the five orders of polypodiopsida?
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Polypodiales (largest), osmundales (fiddleheads), cyatheales (tallest tree ferns),

hymenophyllales, salviniales
What type of spory is exhibited by salviniales?
Heterospory
Did the progymnosperms have seeds?
No
Did the progymnosperms have secondary growth?
Yes, they had a lobed protostele which meant they could accomplish some secondary
growth
When did eustele develop?
In the archaeopteris progymnosperms
What were the two orders of progymnosperms?
Aneurophyton and archaeopteris
What were the developments necessary for the evolution of the seed?
Heterospory, endosporic gametophyte, increased resources for females and less for males,
and the retention of the megagametophyte on the sporophyte
What are the three gymnosperm orders?
Cycadophytes, coniferophytes, and gnetophytes
What was the first seed plant?
It was a seed fern called pteridospermales
What was the name of the first seed cycadeoid?
Bennettitales
Were bennettitales monoecious or dioecious?
Monoecious
Were cycads monoecious or dioecious?
Dioecious
What happens to the zygote of cycads?
They undergo free nuclear division before the cell walls form
What are the trends in morphology of female strobili?

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Reduction and fusion of parts

What is determinate growth?
Determinate growth means that the shoot was produced inside a bud the previous growing
season and then when spring comes, the shoot extends out of the bud.
What is indeterminate growth?
Indeterminate growth means that the shoot was grown during the present growing season
What is a pneumatophore?
It is a specialized root employed for aeration
Describe the reproduction of conferales.
They are monocious, but have male and female strobili on the same tree
What are the two mouse ears on the pollen grains of pineacea?
They are called sacci
What are the three methods employd by coniferales to snag passing pollen?
Pollen drop, funnel-like integument tip, stigmatic micropyle

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