11/5/2015

EyeMagazine|Feature|Thedesignerasauthor

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Spring1996

Thedesignerasauthor

MichaelRock
variousdesigners
Essay

Graphicauthorshipistakenforgrantedbymany
designtheoristsanditisgaininggroundwithin
practice,too.Buttheideahasreceivedlittle
sustainedexamination.Whatdoesitmeanand
whatisreallypossible?
Authorshiphasbecomeapopulartermingraphicdesigncircles,especially
inthoseattheedgesoftheprofession:thedesignacademiesandthe
murkyterritorybetweendesignandart.Thewordhasanimportantringto
it,withseductiveconnotationsoforiginationandagency.Butthequestion
ofhowdesignersbecomeauthorsisadifficultone.andexactlywho
qualifiesandwhatauthoreddesignmightlooklikedependsonhowyou
definethetermanddetermineadmissionintothepantheon.

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Authorshipmaysuggestnewapproachestotheissueofthedesignprocess
inaprofessiontraditionallyassociatedmorewiththecommunication
ratherthantheoriginationofmessages.Buttheoriesofauthorshipalso
serveaslegitimisingstrategies,andauthorialaspirationsmayendup
reinforcingcertainconservativenotionsofdesignproductionand
subjectivityideasthatruncountertorecentcriticalattemptsto
overthrowtheperceptionofdesignasbasedonindividualbrilliance.The
implicationsofsucharedefinitiondeservecarefulscrutiny.Whatdoesit
reallymeantocallforagraphicdesignertobeanauthor?
Themeaningofthewordauthorhasshiftedsignificantlythroughhistory
andhasbeenthesubjectofintensescrutinyoverthelast40years.The
earliestdefinitionsarenotassociatedwithwritingperse,butrather
denotethepersonwhooriginatesorgivesexistencetoanything.Other
usageshaveauthoritarianevenpatriarchalconnotations:thefatherof
alllife,anyinventor,constructororfounder,onewhobegetsanda
director,commander,orruler.Morerecently,WimsattandBeardsleys
seminalessayTheIntentionFallacy(1946)wasoneofthefirsttodrivea
wedgebetweentheauthorandthetextwithitsclaimthatareadercould
neverreallyknowtheauthorthroughhisorherwriting.(1)Thesocalled
deathoftheAuthor,proposedmostsuccinctlybyRolandBarthesina
1968essayofthatname,iscloselylinkedtothebirthofcriticaltheory,
especiallytheorybasedinreaderresponseandinterpretationratherthan
intentionality.(2)MichelFoucaultusedtherhetoricalquestionWhatisan
Author?in1969asthetitleofaninfluentialessaywhich,inresponseto
Barthes,outlinesthebasiccharacteristicsandfunctionsoftheauthorand
theproblemsassociatedwithconventionalideasofauthorshipand
origination.(3)
Foucaultdemonstratedthatoverthecenturiestherelationshipbetween
theauthorandthetexthaschanged.Theearliestsacredtextsare
authorless,theiroriginslostinhistory.Infact,theancient,anonymous
originofsuchtextsservesasakindofauthentication.Ontheotherhand,
scientifictexts,atleastuntilaftertheRenaissance,demandedanauthors
nameasvalidation.Bytheeighteenthcentury,however,Foucaultasserts,
thesituationhadreversed:literaturewasauthoredandsciencehad
becometheproductofanonymousobjectivity.Onceauthorsbegantobe
punishedfortheirwritingthatis,whenatextcouldbetransgressive
thelinkbetweentheauthorandthetextwasfirmlyestablished.Text
becameakindofprivateproperty,ownedbytheauthor,andacritical
theorydevelopedwhichreinforcedthatrelationship,searchingforkeysto
thetextinthelifeandintentionofitswriter.Withtheriseofscientific
method,ontheotherhand,scientifictextsandmathematicalproofswere
nolongerseenasauthoredtextsbutasdiscoveredtruths.Thescientist
revealedanextantphenomenon,afactanyonefacedwiththesame
conditionswouldhaveuncovered.Thereforethescientistand
mathematiciancouldbethefirsttodiscoveraparadigm,andlendtheir
nametoit,butcouldneverclaimauthorshipoverit.

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Poststructuralistreadingstendtocriticisetheprestigeattributedtothe
figureoftheauthor.Thefocusshiftsfromtheauthorsintentiontothe
internalworkingsofthewriting:notwhatitmeansbuthowitmeans.
Barthesendshisessaysupposingthebirthofthereadermustbeatthe
costofthedeathoftheAuthor.(4)Foucaultimaginesatimewhenwe

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EyeMagazine|Feature|Thedesignerasauthor
mightask,Whatdifferencedoesitmakewhoisspeaking?(5)Thenotion
thatatextisalineofwordsthatreleasesasinglemeaning,thecentral
messageofandauthor/god,isoverthrown.
Postmodernismturnedonafragmentedandschizophrenicdecentering
anddispersionofthesubject,notedFredericJameson.(6)Thenotionofa
decentredtextatextwhichisskewedfromthedirectlineof
communicationbetweensenderandreceiver,severedfromtheauthority
ofitsorigin,andexistsasafreefloatingelementinafieldofpossible
significationshasfiguredheavilyinrecentconstructionsofadesign
basedinreadingandreaders.ButKatherineMcCoysprescientimageof
designersmovingbeyondproblemsolvingandbyauthoringadditional
contentandaselfconsciouscritiqueofthemessageadoptingroles
associatedwithartandliteraturehasasoftenasnotbeenmisconstrued.
(7)Ratherthanworkingtoincorporatetheoryintotheirmethodsof
production,manysocalleddeconstructivistdesignersliterallyillustrated
Barthesimageofareaderbasedtextatissueofquotationsdrawnfrom
innumerablecentresofculturebyscatteringfragmentsofquotations
acrossthesurfaceoftheirauthoredpostersandbookcovers.(8)Thedark
implicationsofBarthestheory,noteEllenLuptonandJ.AbbottMiller,
werefashionedintoaromantictheoryofselfexpression.(9)
Perhapsafteryearsasfacelessfacilitators,designerswerereadytospeak
out.Somemayhavebeeneagertodiscardtheinternalaffairsofformalism
toborrowametaphorusedbyPauldeManandbranchoutintothe
foreignaffairsofexternalpoliticsandcontent.(10)Bythe1970sDesign
hadbeguntodiscardthescientificapproachthathadheldswayfor
decades,exemplifiedbytherationalistideologythatpreachedstrict
adherencetoaneternalgrid.
MullerBrockmannsevocationoftheaestheticqualityofmathematical
thinkingistheclearestandmostcitedexampleofthisapproach.(11)
MullerBrockmannandaslewoffellowresearcherssuchasKepes,Dondis
andArnheimworkedtouncoverapreexistingorderandforminthewaya
scientistrevealstruth.ButwhatismostpeculiarandrevealinginMuller
Brockmannswritingishisrelianceontropesofsubmission:thedesigners
submitstothewillofthesystem,forgoespersonality,withholds
interpretation.
Onthesurface,atleast,itwouldseemthatdesignersweremovingaway
fromauthorless,scientifictextsinwhichinviolablevisualprinciples
arrivedatthroughextensivevisualresearchwererevealedtowardsa
positioninwhichthedesignercouldclaimsomelevelofownershipover
themessage(andthisatatimewhenliterarytheorywasmovingawayfrom
thatveryposition).Butsomeoftheinstitutionalfeaturesofdesign
practiceareatoddswithzealousattemptsatselfexpression.Theideaofa
decentredmessagedoesnotnecessarilysitwellinaprofessional
relationshipinwhichtheclientispayingthedesignertoconveyspecific
informationoremotions.Inaddition,mostdesignisdoneina
collaborativesetting,eitherwithinaclientrelationshiporinthecontextof
astudiothatutilisesthetalentsofnumerouscreativepeople,withthe
resultthattheoriginofanyparticularideaisuncertain.Theeverpresent
pressureoftechnologyandelectroniccommunicationonlymuddiesthe
waterfurther.
Isthereanauteurinthehouse?
ItisperhapsnotsurprisingthatBarthesTheDeathoftheAuthorwas
writteninParisin1968,theyearstudentsjoinedworkersonthe
barricadesinageneralstrikeandthewesternworldflirtedwithrealsocial
revolution.Thecallfortheoverthrowofauthorityintheformofthe
authorinfavourofthereaderi.e.themasseshadarealresonancein
1968.Buttolosepoweryoumusthavealreadywornamantle,whichis
perhapswhydesignershadaproblemintryingtooverthrowapower
whichtheyneverpossessed.
Thefigureoftheauthorimpliedatotalitariancontrolovercreativeactivity
andseemedanessentialingredientofhighart.Iftherelativelevelof
geniusonthepartoftheauthor,painter,sculptororcomposerwasthe
ultimatemeasureofartisticachievement,activitiesthatlackedaclear
centralauthorityfigureweredevalued.Thedevelopmentoffilmtheory
duringtheperiodservesasaninterestingexample.In1954filmcriticand
buddingfilmdirectorFranoisTruffauthadfirstpromulgatedthe
politiquedesauteurs,apolemicalstrategydevelopedtoreconfigurea
criticaltheoryofthecinema.(12)Theproblemwashowtocreateatheory
thatimaginedafilm,necessarilytheresultofbroadcollaboration,asthe
workofasingleartist,thusaworkofart.Thesolutionwastodeterminea
setofcriteriathatallowedacritictodefinecertaindirectorsasauteurs.In
ordertoestablishthefilmasaworkofart,auteurtheoryheldthatthe
directorhithertomerelyonethirdofthecreativetroikaofdirector,
writerandcinematographerhadultimatecontrolovertheentireproject.
AuteurtheoryespeciallyasespousedbytheAmericancriticAndrew
Sarisspeculatedthatdirectorsmustmeetthreecriteriainordertopass
intothesacredhallofauteurs.(13)Sarrisproposedthatthedirectormust
demonstratetechnicalexpertise,haveastylisticsignaturethatisvisible
overthecourseofseveralfilmsand,throughhisorherchoiceofprojects
andcinematictreatment,showaconsistencyofvisionandinterior
meaning.Sincethefilmdirectorhadlittlecontrolofthematerialheorshe
workedwithespeciallywithintheHollywoodstudiosystem,where
directorswereassignedtoprojectsthesignaturewayarangeofscripts

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EyeMagazine|Feature|Thedesignerasauthor
wastreatedwasespeciallyimportant.
Theinterestingthingaboutauteurtheoryisthatfilmtheorists,like
designers,hadtoconstructthenotionoftheauthorasameansofraising
whatwasconsideredlowentertainmenttotheplateauoffineart.The
parallelsbetweenfilmdirectionanddesignpracticearestriking.Likethe
filmdirector,theartdirectorordesignerisoftendistancedfromhisorher
materialandworkscollaborativelyonit,directingtheactivityofanumber
ofothercreativepeople.Inaddition,overthecourseofacareerboththe
filmdirectorandthedesignerworkonanumberofdifferentprojectswith
varyinglevelsofcreativepotential.Asaresult,anyinnermeaningmust
comefromaesthetictreatmentasmuchasfromcontent.
Ifweapplythecriteriausedtoidentifyauteurstographicdesigners,we
yieldabodyofworkthatmaybeelevatedtoauteurstatus.Technical
proficiencycouldbeclaimedbyanynumberofpractitioners,butcouple
thiswithasignaturestyleandthefieldnarrows.Thedesignerswhofulfil
thesecriteriawillbefamiliartoanyEyereadermanyofthemhavebeen
featuredinthemagazine.(And,ofcourse,selectiverepublishingofcertain
workandexclusionofotherconstructastylisticallyconsistentoeuvre.)
ThelistwouldprobablyincludeFabianBaron,TiborKalman,David
Carson,NevilleBrody,EdwardFella,AnthonBeeke,PierreBernard,Gert
Dunbar,TadanooriYokoo,VaughnOliver,RickValincenti,AprilGreiman,
JanvanToorn,WolfgangWeingartandmanyothers.Butgreattechnique
andstylealonedonotanauteurmake.Ifweaddtherequirementof
interiormeaning,howdoesthislistfare?Aretheredesignerswhoby
specialtreatmentandchoiceofprojectsapproachtheissueofdeeper
meaninginthewayBergman,HitchcockorWellesdoes?
Howdoyoucompareafilmposterwiththefilmitself?Theveryscaleofa
cinematicprojectallowsforasweepofvisionnotpossibleingraphic
design.Thereforegraphicauteurs,almostbydefinition,wouldhaveto
haveproducedlargeestablishedbodiesofworkinwhichdiscernible
patternsemerge.Who,then,arethegraphicauteurs?PerhapsBernard
andVanToorn,possiblyOliver,BeekeandFella.Thereisasenseofgetting
abiggeridea,adeeperqualitytotheirwork,aidedinthecaseofBernard
andvanToornbytheirpoliticalaffiliationsandinOliverbylong
associationthatproducesaconsistentgenreofmusic,allowingforarange
ofexperimentation.Inthesecasesthegraphicauteurbothseeksprojects
heiscommissionedtoworkonfromaspecific,recognisablecritical
perspective.VanToornwilllookatabriefforacorporateannualreport
fromasocioeconomicposition,Bernardevokesapositionofclass
struggle,capitalistbrutalityandsocialdysfunctionandOliverexamines
darkissuesofdecay,raptureandthehumanbody.JeanRenoirobserved
thatanartisticdirectorspendshiswholecareerremakingvariationsonthe
samefilm.
GreatstylistssuchasCarsonandBarondonotseemtoqualifyfor
admissiontotheauteurpantheon,atleastaccordingtoSarrisscriteria,as
itisdifficulttodiscernamessageintheirworkthattranscendsthestylistic
eleganceofthetypographyinthecaseofBaronandthestudiedinelegance
ofthatofCarson.(Youhavetoaskyourself,Whatistheirworkabout?)
ValicentiandBrodytrytoinjectinnermeaningintotheirworkasin
ValicentisselfpublishedAidsadvertisingandBrodysattachmenttothe
postlinguisticalphabetsystemsbuttheiroutputremainsimperviousto
anysuchintrusion.Ajudgementsuchasthis,however,bringsustothe
Achillesheelofauteurtheory.Intryingtodescribeinteriormeaning,
Sarrisresortstotheintangibledifferencebetweenonepersonalityand
another.(14)ThatretreattointangibilitytheIcantsaywhatitisbutI
knowitwhenIseeitaspectisoneofthereasonswhythetheoryhaslong
sincefallenintodisfavourinfilmcriticismcircles.Italsoneverdealt
adequatelywiththecollaborativenatureofcinemaandthemessy
problemsofmoviemaking.Butwhilethetheoryispass,itseffectisstill
withus:thedirectortothisdaysitssquarelyatthecentreofour
perceptionoffilmstructure.Inthesamewayitcouldbethatwehavebeen
applyingamodifiedgraphicauteurtheoryforyearswithoutbeingaware
ofit.Afterall,whatisdesigntheoryifnotaseriesofcriticalelevationsand
demotionsasourattitudesaboutstyle,meaningandsignificanceevolve?
Othermodelsofauthorship
Auteurtheorymaybetoolimitedamodelforourcurrentimageofdesign
authorship,butthereareotherwaystoframetheissuebasedondifferent
kindsofpractice:theartistsbook,concretepoetry,politicalactivism,
publishing,illustrationandsoon.Couldatheoryofpoeticsbeafunctional
model?Useisamajorstickingpointintryingtoviewdesignedworkas
poetic:traditionallythepoemasartworkisaselfcontainedartefact,while
designreferstosomeexteriorfunctionorovertintention.
Thispoetic/practicaloppositionisresolvedintwoexamplesofdesign
production:theartistsbookandactivistdesign.Theartistsbookoffersa
formofdesignauthorshipfromwhichfunctionhasbeenfullyexorcised.
Theartistsbook,ingeneral,isconcrete,selfreferentialandallowsfora
rangeofvisualexperimentswithouttheburdenoffulfillingmundane
commercialtasks.Thereisalongtraditionofartistsbooksthroughthe
historicalavantgarde,theSituationists,Fluxusandexperimental
publishinginthe1960sand1970s.Itsexponentsincludeaneclecticmixof
designersandauthors(DieterRot,TomPhillips,WarrenLehrer,Tom
Ockerse,JohannaDrucker)aswellasvisualartists(RobertMorris,
BarbaraKruger,MaryKelly,JennyHolzer,HansHaacke).DieterRothas

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EyeMagazine|Feature|Thedesignerasauthor
producedamonumentalandconsistentbodyofbookswhichexploreina
selfreflexiveway,thenatureofbooks.Lehrerhasfocusedonproduction
processes,suchasprintingandbinding,andaspectsofdialogueand
narrative.Hehasrecentlyproducedanewgroupofgraphicportraits,
distributedintheformoftradepaperback,perhapsthemostrecent
attemptatwidedistribution.
Artistsbooksusingwords,images,structureandmaterialtotellastory
orinvokeanemotionmaybethepurestformofgraphicauthorship.But
theoddthingaboutthegenreisthatmanyofthemostskilleddesigners
haveavoideditandmuchoftheworkproducedundertherubrikisofsub
standardgraphicquality(notintermsofproductionvalues,whichare
oftennecessarilylow,butintypographyandcomposition).Thesingularity
oftheartistsbook,thelowtechnicalqualityandtheabsenceofapractical
applicationmayalienatetheprofessionalgraphicdesigner.
Ifthedifferencebetweenpoetryandpracticalmessagesisthatthelatter
aresuccessfulonlywhenwecorrectlyinfertheintention.,thenactivist
designwouldbelabelledasabsolutelypractical.Butactivistwork
includingtheworkofGranFury,Bureau,WomansActionCoalition,
GeneralIdea,ActUp,ClassActionandGuerillaGirlsisalsoself
motivatedandselfauthoredwithaclearpoliticalagenda.Proactivework
hasavoiceandamessage,butinitsovertintentionalitylackstheself
referentialityoftheartistsbookYetseveralproblemscloudtheissueof
authoredactivism,notleastthequestionofcollaboration.Whosevoiceis
speaking?Notanindividual,butsomekindofunifiedcommunity.Isthis
workopenforinterpretationorisitspointthebrutaltransmissionofa
specificmessage?Theriseofactivistauthorshiphascomplicatedthewhole
ideaofauthorshipasakindoffreeselfexpression.
Perhapsthegraphicauthorisonethatwritesandpublishesmaterialabout
designJosephMullerBrockmannorRudyVanderLans,PaulRandor
ErikSpiekermann,WilliamMorrisorNevilleBrody,RobinKinrossor
EllenLupton.Theentrepreneurialarmofauthorshipaffordsthe
possibilityofapersonalvoiceandwidedistribution.Mostsplitthe
activitiesintothreediscreetactions:editing,writinganddesigning.Even
astheirownclients,thedesignremainsthevehicleofthewrittenthought.
(Kinross,forinstance,worksasahistorianthenchangeshatsandbecomes
atypographer.)RudyVanderLansisperhapsthepurestofthe
entrepreneurialauthors,sinceinEmigreallthreeactivitiesblendintoa
continuouswhole.InEmigrethecontentisdeeplyembeddedintheform
thatis,theformalexplorationisasmuchthecontentofthemagazineas
thewriting.VanderLansexpresseshismessagethroughtheselectionofthe
material(asaneditor),thecontentofthewriting(asawriter)andtheform
ofthepagesandtypography(asaformgiver).
EllenLuptonandherpartnerJ.AbbottMillerhavealmostsinglehandedly
constructedthenewcriticalapproachtographicdesign,coupledwithan
exploratorypractice.AprojectsuchasTheBathroom,theKitchenandthe
AestheticsofWaste,anexhibitionattheMITListVisualArtsCentre,
seemstoapproachanewlevelofgraphicauthorship.Themessageis
expressedequallythroughgraphic/visualdevicesandtext.Thedesignof
theshowevokestheissuesthatareitscontentitisclearlyselfreflexive.
(Theexhibitioncatalogue,bycontrast,doesnotembodythesamelevelof
graphicauthorship.HereLuptonseemtohaveslippedbackintothemore
familiar,functionallyseparaterolesofauthoranddesigner.)Butmuchof
theirotherworkdemandstobereckonedwith,visuallyandverbally.
WhileLuptonandMillersworkisprimarilycriticalareadingofexterior
socialandhistoricalphenomenadirectedataspecificaudiencethe
illustratedbook,oftenoverlookedbythedesigncommunity,isalmost
entirelyconcernedwiththegenerationofcreativenarrative.Booksfor
childrenhavebeenoneofthemostsuccessfuloutlets,butauthor/
illustratorssuchasSueCoe,ArtSpiegelmann,CharlesBurns,Ben
Katchor,DaveMcCaulley,ChrisvanAllesburg,EdwardGoreyandMaurice
Sendakhavealsousedthebookinwhollyinventivewaysandproduced
seriouswork.BookssuchasSpeigelmannsMausandCoesXand
Porkopolisexpandtheformintonewareas.
Othermodelsthatmayindicatealevelofgraphicauthorshipinclude
projectsofsuchascalethatthedesigneriscalledontomakesenseofasea
ofmaterialandconstructnarrative.BruceMausworkwithRemKoolhaas
onthegiganticS,M,L,XL,anarchitecturalandtypographicnovel(seeEye
no.15vol.4),andIrmaBoomsfiveyearcommissionfromapowerful
Dutchcorporationtocreateacommemorativeworkofunspecifiedform,
scaleandcontentaretwosuchprojects.Herethedesignerworkinglikea
filmdirectorontheunfoldingcinematicstructureoftheworkassumesa
primarypositionintheshapingofmaterial.
Thefinalcategoryisthatofdesignerswhousethemediumofprofessional
graphicdesigntocreateselfreferentialstatementsandcomparisons.
ExamplesincludeAprilGreimansspecialissueofDesignQuarterly,afull
scaleimageofherpixellatedbodywithapersonaltextfullofdreamsand
visions,andanynumberofintricateandenigmaticworksbythelikesof
TomBonauroandAllenHori(forinstance,Horisgraphicinterpretation
ofaBeatriceWardeessayinarecentMohawkpaperpromotion).
Operatinginaspacebetweenserviceorientatedprojectsandfree
expression,theseworkseschewtheparametersofaclientrelationship
whileretainingtheformsdictatedbytheneedsofcommerce:thebook,
poster,exhibitionandsoon.InthecaseofHorisvisualessay,theclient

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EyeMagazine|Feature|Thedesignerasauthor
paysforagraphicworktoembellishacorporateprojectandthedesigner
lendshisavantgardecredentialstothecorporation.
Forwardorbackwards?
Ifthewaysadesignercanbeanauthorarecomplexandconfused,theway
designershaveusedthetermandthevalueascribedtoitareequallyso.
Anynumberofrecentstatementsclaimauthorshipasthepanaceatothe
woesofthebrowbeatendesigner.Arecentcallforentriesforadesign
exhibitionentitledDesignerasAuthor:VoicesandVisionssoughtto
identifygraphicdesignerswhoareengagedinworkthattranscendsthe
traditionalserviceorientedcommercialproduction,andwhopursue
projectsthatarepersonal,socialorinvestigativeinnature(15)The
rejectionoftheroleofthefacilitatorandcalltotranscendtraditional
productionimplythattheauthoreddesignholdssomehigher,purer
purpose.Theamplificationofthepersonalvoicelegitimisesdesignas
equaltomoretraditionalprivilegedformsofauthorship.
Butifdesignersshouldaimforopenreadingsandfreetextual
interpretationsasalitanyofcontemporarytheoristshaveconvincedus
thatdesireisthwartedbyoppositionaltheoriesofauthorship.Foucault
notedthatthefigureoftheauthorisnotaparticularlyliberatingone:the
authorasorigin,authorityandultimateownerofthetextguardsagainst
freewillofthereader.Transferringtheauthorityofthetextbackoverto
theauthorcontainsandcategorisesthework,narrowingthepossibilities
forinterpretation.Thefigureoftheauthorreconfirmsthetraditionalidea
ofthegeniuscreatorthestatusofthecreatorframestheworkandimbues
itwithmythicalvalue.
Whilesomeclaimsforauthorshipmaybesimplyanindicationofa
renewedsenseofresponsibility,attimestheyseemploystogainproper
rights,attemptstoexercisesomekindofagencywheretherehas
traditionallybeennone.Ultimatelytheauthorequalsauthority.Whilethe
longingforgraphicauthorshipmaybethelongingforlegitimacyorpower,
iscelebratingthedesignascentralcharacternecessarilyapositivemove?
Isntthatwhathasfuelledthelast50yearsofdesignhistory?Ifwereally
wanttogobeyondthedesignerasheromodel,wemayhavetoimaginea
timewhenwecanask,whatdifferencedoesitmakewhodesignedit?
Ontheotherhandworkiscreatedbysomeone.(Allthosecallsforthe
deathoftheauthoraremadebyfamousauthors.)Whilethedevelopment
anddefinitionofartisticstyles,andtheiridentificationandclassification,
areattheheartofanoutmodedModernistcriticism,wemuststillworkto
engagetheseproblemsinnewways.Itmaybethattherealchallengeisto
embracethemultiplicityofmethodsartisticandcommercial,individual
andcollaborativethatcomprisesdesignlanguage.Anexaminationofthe
designerasauthorcouldhelpustorethinkprocess,expanddesign
methodsandelaborateourhistoricalframetoincorporateallformsof
graphicdiscourse.Butwhiletheoriesofgraphicauthorshipmaychange
thewayworkismade,theprimaryconcernofboththeviewerandthe
criticisnotwhomadeit,butratherwhatitdoesandhowitdoesit.
(1)WKWimsattandMonroeC.Beardsley,TheIntentionalFallacyin
CriticalTheorysincePlato,ed.HazardAdams,NewYork:HBJ,1971
(2)RolandBarthes,TheDeathoftheAuthor,inImageMusicText,New
York,HillandWang(translatedbyStephenHeath),1977
(3)MichelFoucault,WhatisanAuthor?inTextualStrategies,ed.Josu
Harari,Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1979
(4)Barthes,op.cit,p145.
(5)Foucault,op.cit,p160
(6)FredricJamesonquotedinMarkDery,ThePersistenceofIndustrial
MemoryinArchitectureNewYorkno.10,p25
(7)KatherineMcCoy,TheNewDiscourseinDesignQuarterlyno.148,
1990,p.16
(8)Barthes,op.cit.,p146
(9)EllenLuptonandJ.AbbottMiller,DeconstructionandGraphicDesign:
HistorymeetsTheoryinVisibleLanguage228.4,ed.AndrewBlauvelt,
Autumn1994,p352
(10)PauldeMan,SemiologyandRhetoricinTextualStrategies,op.cit,
p121
(11)JosefMllerBrockmann,GridSystemsinGraphicDesign,Stuttgart,
VerlagGerdJatje,1981,p10
(12)Cahiersducinma,no.31,January1954
(13)SeeAndrewSarris,ThePrimalScreen,NewYork,Simon&Schuster,
1973
(14)AndrewSerris,NotesontheAuteurTheoryin1962inFilmCulture
reader,ed.P.AdamsSitney,NewYork,PraegerPublishers,1970,p133
(15)Re:QuestforSubmissionstotheDesignerasAuthor:Voicesand
Visionsexhibition,NorthernKentuckyUniversity,1996
FirstpublishedinEyeno.20vol.51996
Eyeistheworldsmostbeautifulandcollectablegraphicdesignjournal,

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EyeMagazine|Feature|Thedesignerasauthor
publishedquarterlyforprofessionaldesigners,studentsandanyone
interestedincritical,informedwritingaboutgraphicdesignandvisual
culture.Itisavailablefromallgooddesignbookshopsandonlineatthe
Eyeshop,whereyoucanbuysubscriptionsandsingleissues.

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