Professional Documents
Culture Documents
H.G. de Hoop
Supervising Committee
Prof. Ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard
Dr. Ing. A. Romeijn
Ing. S. Wierda (Iv-Groep)
Ir. P.H.G. Feijen (GLP)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 3
2 INTRODUCTION TO GIRDERS WITH CORRUGATED WEBS ........................................... 4
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR.................................................................................................... 11
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Literature study
1 INTRODUCTION
This literature study is the first part of the master thesis: Girders with corrugated webs and
is carried out for better understanding of the behaviour and use of these girders. With help of
this literature study an explorative analysis will be carried out during the next phase of the
thesis and finally a software-tool can be developed.
Section 2 of this literature study will give a general introduction to girders with corrugated
webs. The girders are still used for more than thirty years in several application fields, which
will be described in this section. Also topics like the manufacturing, the web-flange
connection and the web configuration will come up.
The mechanical behaviour of girders with corrugated webs will be described in section 3.
After an explanation of the basis for calculation, the effects of the following load types will be
discussed: bending, normal forces, transversal forces and torsion.
Section 4 will deal with all relevant failure mechanisms of girders with corrugated webs. Here
not only the failure mechanisms will be described, but also the available check-criteria with
regard to these mechanisms.
For a clear understanding of girders with corrugated webs, the differences between plate
girders with flat plates and corrugated plates will be described in section 5.
In the last section an overview will be given of the most relevant standards and guidelines
relevant to the production and design of girders with corrugated web plates. With help of
these standards and guidelines the several case studies of the explorative analysis will be
carried out.
Literature study
In 1966 in Sweden, the first variant of the thin walled welded plate girder with a very great
slenderness has been fabricated. This girder had a vertical corrugated web, also for low
weight reasons. Especially for bridge building they thought that the application of these
girders would be very useful. But it was only in 1986 that the first composite bridge with
corrugated webs was constructed. The idea of the steel-concrete bridge was the
construction firm Campenon Bernard. This first bridge, the Cognac bridge, was constructed
with tubular members with in situ casted pre-tensioned concrete flanges. The advantage of
Literature study
using corrugated webs in structures with pre-stressed concrete is a lower loss of prestresses, because of the low longitudinal stiffness of the corrugated web. The Cognac bridge
is builded within the framework of an innovation project, where economical considerations
were of overriding importance. The next few years several similar bridges are built, like the
Maupre bridge, the Asterix bridge and the Dole bridge in Europe, but also several in
Japan. The Maupre bridge has a steel tubular member filled with concrete as lower flange.
Figure 2.4 shows a similar bridge, recently built in South Korea.
Later on, these webs were not only used for bridges constructed with tubular members, but
also for other types of bridges, like the plate girder bridge showed in figure 2.5.
In the United States, girders with corrugated webs are more and more widely used for bridge
building. Many manufacturers are producing such kind of girders. Young j. Paik patented the
girder and marketed it to builders in 1970s, and with Sumitomo, a Japanese company that
manufactures girders with corrugated webs, the girders were manufactured with PACO
Engineering Corporation as the exclusive U.S. distributor. Pennsylvania Department of
Transportation (PennDOT) is sponsoring research, adopting corrugated webs, to realise
additional benefits from High Performance Steel. It intends to construct a demonstration
bridge with girders with corrugated webs.
Bridges with corrugated webs have been used at least once in Sweden as well, although it
was a temporary bridge.
The other important application field became the use as roof girder in the industry and highrise building. Especially in Germany, but also in Sweden, several halls are built with portals
of girders with corrugated webs (see figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6: Halls built with girders with corrugated webs (left: US Army headquarters in Germany
Because of the high strength-to-weight ratio, the span lengths could be wider and less
columns are necessary. Nowadays this is the main application field of these girders.
Other application fields of (girders with) corrugated webs are: cranebrackets, craneways,
feed silos/ tanks and transportation structures (side panels of trains, containers and trucks).
Literature study
The aesthetics of the different configurations is totally different, but also the fabrication, the
mechanical behaviour and the costs of the different types have to be taken in account when
making a choice for one of them.
One of the possible configurations is the sinusoidal profiled web (see figure 2.7). In addition
to benefits in production technology, the sinusoidal corrugation has the advantage over
trapezoidal profiling of eliminating local buckling of the flat plate strips.
To increase the shear strength, the plates of le viaduc de franchissement de la vallee de la
Marne in France, are made of circular hollow sections welded together with flat panels.
Literature study
For most of the configurations still a great lack of knowledge exists. The available
information mostly deals with trapezoidal webs and also this master thesis will only deal with
trapezoidal profiled girders. Figure 2.9 shows a cross section of a trapezoidal corrugated
girder with the variable quantities. An increase of the angle between the diagonal and the
parallel strip of the web, causes an increase of the bending stiffness of the girder, but it also
leads to a higher use of steel. The angle is also an important factor in the local and global
buckling behaviour of the web girder. An other important quantity of the cross section is the
width of the web bt, because it has an influence on magnitude of the transversal moments on
the flanges. The webs are available with a thickness tw in the range of 215 mm, which is
governed by the fabrication process. The maximum depth of the web is 3 m, a limitation
given by the welding machine. These figures would make it possible to fabricate girders with
bt/tw = 1500, though thats beyond the maximum ratio given by the German standard: DAStRichtlinie 015.
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Web
Flange
Flange
F
Figure 2.12: Double welded web
At the institute for steelbuilding, TU Braunschweig, research has been done to connections
between flanges and trapezoidal profiled webs [11]. One of the connections is the bolted
connection showed in figure 2.14. This connection could be economic favourable, because
of the lower labour costs. However, this depends on the circumstances of the fabricator.
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Literature study
10
3 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
3.1 Basis for calculation
As a result of its trapezoidal profiling, the
web has a very low stiffness in longitudinal
direction (see figure 3.1). So the web does
not participate in the transfer of longitudinal
normal stresses from bending. This means that:
In static terms, the girder with corrugated web corresponds to a lattice girder
in which the bending moments and the normal forces are transferred only via the flanges,
while the transverse forces are only transferred through the diagonals and verticals of the
lattice girder (in this case the corrugated web). Among others, A. Bergfelt [4] has confirmed
this assumption with a laboratory research and a finite element analysis. Figure 3.2 shows
the normal stresses in the flanges and the transversal stresses in the web as a result of a
laboratory research with help of strainmeters.
3.2 Bending
Figure 3.3 shows the mechanics scheme of a single span girder with trapezoidal corrugated
web, loaded with a local force. This local force causes shear stresses in the web and normal
stresses in the flanges. In figure 3.4 an infinitesimal part of the web in interaction with the
flanges is regarded. The shear stresses in the web cause extra shear stresses in the
flanges. Figure 3.5 shows these stresses and the resulted shear forces T1 (x) and T2 (x).
11
When the flange is schematised as a girder, the following loads on the flange exist (see
figure 3.6):
-
A horizontal component (in x-direction) from the shear force in the diagonal parts of
the web Fx(x):
Fx ( x) = T2 ( x)
w - a1
a2
(w = length of corrugation)
A horizontal component (in y-direction) from the shear force in the diagonal parts of
the web Fy(x):
Fy ( x) = Fx ( x)
-
bt
w - a1
Transversal moments around the z-axe Mz,1 (x) as a result of the eccentrical shear
forces T1 (x):
M z ,1 ( x) = T1 ( x)
bt
2
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12
Because of the thickness of the flanges, the shear forces also cause bending moments
around the y-axe and torsion moments around the x-axe. Figure 3.6b shows a scheme of the
same upper flange, but now for the cross section in XZ-plane.
The following bending moments and torsion moments exist:
A bending moment My,1 (x) around the y-axe as a result of the shear force T1 (x):
M y ,1 ( x) = T1 ( x)
t1
2
A bending moment My,2 (x) around the y-axe as a result of the x-component of the
shear force Fx (x) in the diagonal parts of the web:
M y , 2 ( x) = Fx ( x)
t1
2
A torsion moment Mx,2 (x) around the x-axe as a result of the y-component of the
shear force Fy (x) in the diagonal parts of the web:
M x , 2 ( x) = T1 ( x)
t1
2
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13
To find mathematical expressions for the loads on the flanges, an equation for the shear
force Tx is necessary:
T ( x) = t ( x) t w dx
V z ( x)
dx
T ( x) =
V z ( x)
h
t ( x) =
dx
w
hw
The transverse force could have a parabolic function, so a lot of calculations are necessary.
This can be prevented with help of the following equation:
M y ( x) = V z ( x) dx
Figure 3.7 shows the V- and M-line of a
part of a corrugated web. So the
following equation for T(x) can be
obtained:
T ( x) =
=
M y ( x + Dx) - M y ( x)
hw
DM y ( x)
hw
Fy ( x ) =
M y ,Q - M y , P
hw
bt
w - a1
and:
M z ,1 ( x) =
M y , R - M y ,Q bt
2
hw
Figure 3.7: V- and M-line of one corrugation length
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14
Now it is possible to formulate the expressions for points at any place. For the points A,B,C
and D (see figure 3.8 on the next page) the expressions are given.
Fy , B =
Fy , D =
M y (aend + w - a1 ) - M y (aend )
hw
bt
w - a1
M y (a end + 2( w - a1 ) + a1 ) - M y (a end + w)
hw
M z ,1, A =
M y (aend ) - M y (0) bt
2
hw
M z ,1,C =
M y (aend + w) - M y (aend + w - a1 ) bt
2
hw
bt
w - a1
etc.
Because of the regularity of the distances, general formula can be given for the loads on the
flanges. Again the formula for Fy (x) and Mz,1 (x) are given:
bt
hw ( w - a1 )
bt
2 hw
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15
Furthermore, attention have to be paid to the end field of the girder (aend). Figure 3.9 shows
the possible end fields and in figure 3.10 the shear force T2 (x) and its components Fx,E (x)
and Fy,E (x) are given.
With help of the found equations:
Fy ( x ) =
M y ,Q - M y , P
hw
bt
w - a1
and:
M z ,1 ( x) =
M y , R - M y ,Q bt
2
hw
the equations for the components of the shear force in the end
field (Fx,E (x); Fy,E (x) and the following moment Mz,2 (x)) can be
determined. These equations are also valid for the place where
the transverse forces change sign (an example of this is given in
figure 3.11).
Fy , E ( x) = Fx , E ( x)
DM y ( x) bi
bi
=
ai
hw
ai
M z , 2 ( x) = Fx , E ( x) e y ,i =
DM y ( x )
hw
e y ,i
16
M y ,T1 ( x) = 0,5 M y ,1 ( x)
M y , Fx ( x) = 0,5 M y , 2 ( x)
and the torsion moments around the xaxe Mx,2 (x).
M x , F ( x) = 0,5 M x , 2 ( x)
y
s x (x ) =
M y ( x)
I y,0
zi
M z ,1 ( x)
I z ,1
yi
M y ,1 ( x)
W y ,1
Literature study
17
sx =
N
A1 + A2
in which:
A1 = b1 t1
A2 = b2 t 2
Figure 3.14 shows the mechanics scheme of a girder loaded with a normal force and of the
upper flange loaded with half of the normal force. The normal forces cause strains in the
flanges, which are hindered by the corrugated web. (See constraint forces F1, F2 en T1.)
Figure 3.14 Girder and its upper flange loaded with normal force
The points of application of the constraint forces are on the insides of the flanges, so these
forces cause moments in the flanges. The derivation of the expression for the normal
stresses in the upper flange is analogous to the derivation of the normal stresses in
paragraph 3.2:
sx =
M y ,1
M z ,1
N
yi
A1 + A2
I z ,1
W y ,1
in which:
M y ,1 = 0,5 T1
Literature study
t1
2
respectively:
M y ,1 = 0,5 Fx
t1
2
18
t z ( x) =
with:
V z ( x)
Aw
Aw = hw t w
3.5 Torsion
When a girder with a trapezoidal web is loaded by a torsionmoment MT (see figure 3.16),
shear forces arise in the sections between the web and the flanges. Figure 3.17 shows the
shear forces and their directions for the upper- and lower flange. The flanges are varying
under compression and under tension.
With help of figure 3.18, in which the transferring shear forces over the web are made visible,
a deformation figure of the total girder can be made (figure 3.19).
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19
The total deformation of the girder subjected to torsion can be subdivided into four basic
deformations:
1. Shear deformation of the parallel parts of the web by Tx.
In which:
C = T = 2
Tz
= Tz
2
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20
N b, R ,d =
where:
b1 t1 c f y ,r
g M0
f y ,r = f y f T
f T = 1 - 0,4
s x (M z )
fy
gM0
6Mz
is the maximum longitudinal stress as a result of M z .
t1 b12
N E ,d
N b , R ,d
Literature study
1,0
21
M y , E ,d
A1
N E ,d hw + 0,5 t1 + 0,5 t 2
A1 + A2
N E ,d ,1 =
c=
1
2
F+ F -l
( c 1,0)
l=
A f y ,r
N cr
Lcr 1
i l1
E
= 93,9 e
f y ,r
(For slenderness
M z can be found:
bt
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22
M z = M z ,1 ( x) + 0,5 w Fy ( x)
In paragraph 3.2 the formula for
a3
hw ( w - a1 )
a3
2 hw
However, to determine the exact value of Mz, the influence of the end fields of the girders
and of the local loads have to be taken in account. For these reasons, too many calculations
are necessary to determine this exact value. Aschinger [2] has done some FEM-analyses to
define some practical formula for Mz, which come close to the real values:
M z = f max( Fy ) + m max(M z ,1 )
a3
a1 bt
a3
max(V z )
where:
b
max(V z )
max( Fy ) = max(T2, y ) =
bt t w = t max(V z )
hw
hw t w
and where the factors f and m can be obtained from table 4.1.
Table 4.1: The factors f and m
Load figuration
Literature study
Factor f
Factor m
0,13
1,50
0,065
0,60
0,065
0,50
23
N 1,c , s ,d
1,0
w z ,buc N 1,c ,u ,d
Where:
For the determination of the buckling factor is referred to 12.1.1 of NEN 6770. The buckling
factor depends on the relative slenderness, which can be calculated with:
lz ,rel =
where:
N c ,u , d
Fz , E
lz
lu
Ed
f y ,r
lu = p
lz =
l z ,buc
iz
iz =
Iz
t b 3 12
b
= 1 1
= 1 is the radius of gyration.
A
b1 t1
12
A1,eff = r Ac = r b1 t1
where r is the reduction factor for buckling. This factor may be taken as follows:
r=
l p - 0,188
2
lp
Literature study
1,0
24
with:
lp =
where:
e=
fy
s cr
235
f y ,r
bt
28,4e ks
(fy,r in N/mm )
lp
To calculate the flange slenderness, the buckling factor should be determined. The buckling
factor depends on the appropriate width b. There are several proposals of which b has to be
taken into account. Johnson and Cafolla [8] suggested that the average outstand of the
flange could be used for the appropriate width b if:
w a3
0,14
(2 w - a1 ) b1
It is not stated what to do if this criterion is not fulfilled, but presumably the idea is to use the
largest outstand.
The design rules for Ranabalken (see paragraph 2.2) states that the outstand should be
taken as:
b=
b1
- 30 mm
2
In order to cover a wide range of different patterns of corrugations, two checks are needed
according to annex D.2.1 (2) of prEN 1993-1-5. The highest flange slenderness from these
checks should be taken into account.
Check (a)
For a very long corrugation in combination with a narrow flange, there is a possibility that the
largest outstand will govern the buckling. However, the flange will be supported by the
inclined parts of the web and a safe approximation of the relevant length should be a = a1 +
2a3. The buckling coefficients of such a plate, assuming conservatively a hinged support
along three edges of the web, is:
b
ks = 0,43 +
a
Literature study
with:
a = a1 + 2 a3
25
Check (b)
For a geometry with a corrugation width of the same order as the flange width, the flange will
buckle in a mode of rotation around the centreline of the web, but with a stronger restraint
than for a girder with a flat web. This restraint will depend on the stiffness of the flange and
the flexibility of the web. The buckling coefficient will vary in the range 0,431,25 and for
simplicity a fixed value of 0,55 is accepted. So for this check, the slenderness parameter will
be defined with the following input:
ks = 0,55
b=
and
b1
2
Finally, the compression flange shall be verified against buckling in the same way as it has to
be done for global flange buckling:
N 1, E ,d
N b , R ,d
Where:
1,0
N b, R ,d =
N 1, E ,d =
A1,eff c f y , r
g M0
A1,eff
A1,eff + A2
N E ,d -
M y , E ,d
hw + 0,5 t1 + 0,5 t 2
beff = 30,7 t1
240
b1
f y ,1,d
This equation has been derived with help of buckling coefficient ks = 0,6.
This value may be used (instead of ks = 0,43 assuming conservatively a hinged support
along three edges and one free edge), because of the trapezoidal shape of the web plate.
N 2, R ,d =
b2 t 2 f y ,r
Literature study
g M0
26
Where:
f y ,r = f y f T
f T = 1 - 0,4
s x (M z )
fy
g M0
N 2, E , d
N 2, R , d
1,0
N 2, E ,d =
M y ,E ,d
A2
N E ,d +
Aeff ,1 + A2
hw + 0,5 t1 + 0,5 t 2
Figure 4.4: buckling modes (from left to right): local, zonal and global
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27
According to annex D.2.2 of prEN 1993-1-5, the shear resistance due to buckling may be
taken as follows:
f y ,w
VR ,d = c c
Where:
3 g M1
hw t w
c c ,l =
1,15
1,0
0,9 + l c ,l
l c ,l =
f y ,w
t cr ,l 3
The critical stress for local buckling tcr,l can be derived with help of the mechanics scheme
of the largest flat panel of the corrugated web, shown in figure 4.5.
2
t cr ,l
t
= 4,83 E w
a max
with:
VR ,d = 0,35 k t ,l
Literature study
f y ,k
gM
hw t w 0,60 t b,d hw t w
28
Peil [11] has done a thorough investigation into reduction factors with regard to the local
shear strength of girders with corrugated webs. Its concluded that the reduction factor can
be increased safely up to 0,85. So, only with regard to local buckling the shear resistance
can be calculated with the following equation:
VR ,d = 0,85 t b ,d hw t w
The design buckling shear stress should be determined with the following slenderness (412):
f y ,d
l c ,l = l plaat ,rel =
3 t cr ,l
The rest of the calculation can be carried out in accordance with 13.7 of NEN 6771, where:
t cr ,l = t i ,k ,l = kt s E
in which:
sE =
with:
a max = max[a1 , a 2 ]
t plooi ,d =
where:
t plooi
Ct
in which:
Literature study
f y , w,d
s plooi , rel
3
1,0
if 0 < l plaat , rel 0,7
= 1,474 - 0,677 l plaat , rel if 0,7 < l plaat ,rel < 1,291
2
if l plaat ,rel 1,291
1 l plaat ,rel
29
c c,g =
1,5
1,0
0,5 + l c , g
l c, g =
f y,w
t cr , g 3
The critical stress for global buckling tcr,g can be derived from the orthotropic plate theory
[13] and is given by:
t cr , g =
where:
32,4 4
D x D y3
2
t w hw
Dx =
E t w3
w
2
s
12 1 - u
Dy =
EIy
w
t w bt2
(3 a1 + a 2 ) (2nd moment of area of one corrugation)
12
Although it is more correct to include the factor 1 - u in the denominator of the expression
of Dx, according to prEN 1993-1-5 the factor can be omitted from the formula.
The critical stress for global buckling is valid for simply supported long plates. In [13],
Hglund gives a solution for restrained rotation along the edge. For fully clamped edges the
coefficient 32,4 increases to 60,4. But this assumption is hard to believe, because it is not
very likely that the flanges are rigid enough to provide a complete rotational restraint for such
a stiff plate as a corrugated web.
With help of the German and Dutch standards
In accordance with equation (410) of DASt-Richtlinie 015, the shear resistance due to global
buckling may be taken as follows:
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30
f y ,d
VR ,d = 0,35 k t , g
hw t w 0,60 t b ,d hw t w
gM
The design buckling shear stress should be determined with the following slenderness (414):
l cr , g
2 f y,d
for 0,5
3 t cr , g
f y,d
t cr , g
t cr ,l
2,0
otherwise
3 t cr . g
The design buckling shear stress can be calculated in accordance with 13.7 of NEN 6771, as
presented for local buckling in paragraph 4.3.1.
4.3.3 Interaction between local and global buckling?
Model Leiva
The main concern of Leiva in [9] is the interaction between local and global buckling, which
is based on observation tests. His idea is to consider this interaction by defining a combined
critical stress:
1
n
Leiva discussed only n =1, but the equation has been written more general for later use.
This model of Leiva forms the basis of the Combined model, in which the combined critical
stress is used in combination with the reduction factor:
c c ,3 =
1,2
1,0
0,9 + l c ,3
Model Hglund
The model of Hglund [13] has two separate checks, one for local and one for global
buckling. The reduction factors for local and global buckling, respectively, are given by:
c c ,l =
c c,g =
1,64
1,0
1,66 + l c ,l
1,5
2
0,5 + l c , g
1,0
The reasoning behind the two checks is that for local buckling a post-critical strength
(redistribution of stresses when the critical buckling stress is reached) is expected, which
should not be present in case of global buckling. This is reflected by lc,l appearing linear and
lc,g appearing squared in the reduction factors.
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31
Further, Hglund has discussed the restraint from flanges to global buckling and he suggests
an increase of the buckling coefficient to 40 instead of 32,4 if a certain stiffness criterion is
met.
For giving rules to EN 1993-1-5, Johansson [7] has evaluated the above-mentioned models
among others. This evaluation shows that the theory of Hglund gives the best results,
especially for global buckling. For this reason, in the European standard is also mentioned
that two separate checks are sufficient and the reduction factor for global buckling of
Hglund can be used.
However, the reduction factor for local buckling starts the reduction at zero slenderness,
which is considered quite unlikely. For some low value of the slenderness, the shear yield
resistance of the web should be reached. For this reason, in prEN 1993-1-5 the reduction
factor for local buckling has been replaced with help of the model of Leiva:
c c ,l =
1,15
1,0
0,9 + l c ,l
FR , d =
where:
f y , w Leff t w
g M1
Leff is the effective length for resistance to transverse forces:
Leff = c F l y
l y is the effective loaded length, see 6.5 of prEN 1993-1-5.
where:
h
k F = 6 + 2 w
a max
with:
a max = max[a1 , a 2 ]
h2 =
FE ,d
FR ,d
1,0
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32
t f
t
c
FR , d = Fu , 2,d = 0,125 t w2 E f y ,d
+ 3 w
t w
t f h - 2t f
t f
t
c
FR , d = Fu , 2,d = 0,5 t w2 E f y ,d
+ 3 w
t w
t f h - 2t f
where:
c
0,2
and:
h - 2t
f
V z ,u , d =
Aw f y ,d
3
with:
Aw = hw t w
Vz ,s,d
V z ,u , d
1,0
where:
a=
h t f 1012
t w3 b l g2
> 5000
However, in case of girders with corrugated webs, the thickness of the web should be
*
replaced by an alternative higher thickness tw . Further investigation into appropriate
restrictions is necessary.
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33
According to 12.2.2 of NEN 6771 a laterally unrestrained beam subjected to bending around
the y-axe shall be verified against lateral-torsional buckling as follows:
M y , max,s ,d
w kip M y ,u ,d
where:
1,0
According to Lindner (1990), a reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling k should be
applied for girders with corrugated webs. This reduction factor k can be used analogous to
the lateral torsional buckling factor:
w kip = k =
1
4
1+ lM
Where l M is the relative slenderness ratio for bending, which should be determined in the
same way as it should be done in accordance with 12.2-4 of NEN 6771:
l M = lrel =
Determination
M y ,u , d
M ke
(If
M ke
The differential equation for description of lateral torsional buckling of an I-girder, loaded with
a constant bending moment, is:
E d I wa
d 4j
d 2j M 0, s , d j
G
I
=0
d
t
Ed I z
dx 4
dx 2
This equation results into the following lowest value of the moment where lateral torsional
buckling will take place:
M 0, s ,d =
p
p2
E d I z Gd I t + 2 E d I z E d I wa
lg
lg
The first part of the equation refers to the torsional rigidity and the second part to the warping
rigidity of the girder. In NEN 6771 the second part is neglected, however for girders with
corrugated webs with usual dimensions this second part also has to be taken into account.
For that reason the theoretic elastic lateral torsional buckling moment can be defined as
follows:
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34
M ke = k red
In which:
p2
C
E d I z Gd I t + 2 E d I z E d I wa
lg
lg
1
b13 t1 + b23 t 2
12
It =
1
1
1
1
b t 3 = hw t 3w + b1 t13 + b2 t 23
3
3
3
3
p
M ki = E d I z Gd I t
lg
p 2 E d I wa
1 + 2
l g Gd I t
Lindner and Aschinger [2] studied lateral torsional behaviour of girders with corrugated webs
and found that the torsional section constant J for a girder with a corrugated web doesnt
differ from that of a beam with a flat web, but that the warping section constant is different.
They carried out tests at the Technical University of Berlin to determine the warping section
constant I wa of girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs:
I wa = min I wa + c w
where:
min I wa =
cw =
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l g2
E p 2
I z ,1 I z , 2
I z ,1 + I z , 2
bt2 hm2
8u w
hm2
t t
in which : hm = hw + 1 + 2
2 2
I y ,1 + I y , 2
hm
hm2 w 3
in which : u =
+
G
a
t
I
I
2
a
E
600
1
y
,
1
y
,
2
w
1
35
N c , s ,d
1,0
w z ,buc N c ,u ,d
where:
For determination of the buckling factor is referred to 12.1.1.4 of NEN 6770. The buckling
factor depends on the relative slenderness, which can be calculated with:
lz ,rel =
where:
N c ,u , d
Fz , E
Ed
f y ,d
lu = p
lz =
lz
lu
l z ,buc
iz
iz =
Iz
is the radius of gyration with regard to the z-axe.
A
Because of the small thickness, the contribution of the web to the second
moment of inertia around the weak z-axe will be overlooked. When only the
flanges are taken in account, the following formula can be derived for the
second moment of inertia:
Iz =
1
b13 t1 + b23 t 2
12
However, for
A = (b1 t1 ) + (b2 t 2 ) +
s
(hw t w )
w
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36
1,1
N c , s ,d
w z ,buc N pl ,d
where:
+ 1,1
M y ,equ , s ,d
w kip M z ,u , d
w z,buc should be determined according to 12.1.1 of NEN 6771, see paragraph 4.6.
w kip is the lateral torsional buckling factor according to 12.2 of NEN 6771, see
sdfsdfsparagraph 4.5.
M y ,equ , s , d is the equivalent bending moment around the y-axe. It depends on
asdasdasd the load configuration, see par. 12.3.1.2.1 of NEN 6770.
w=
x =0
M y M yv
V z V zv (a1 + a 2 )
G hw t w (a1 + a3 ) dx + wwarp
x =0
L
E I y,0
In the formula also a deformation due to warping can be seen. This deformation is a result of
the three-dimensional structure of the profiled web plate. This deformation quantity has been
investigated by Baehre [3] and he found the following equation for the deformation:
wcurv
aK
=
E hw2
2 j
tw
2 ,5
Vz
where K is a constant dependent on the profile of the web. For trapezoidal corrugated webs
the following formula for K can be used:
K = K Di (hw t w t f
K Di is dependent on the dimensions of the trapezoidal corrugated web plate. In [2] for
several configurations of the web plate the value of this constant can be found.
According to NEN 6702 the maximum deformation of floor and roof girders in the final stage
shall be verified with the following equation:
w = u eind 0,004 L
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5.2 General
Since the 1970s, girders with corrugated webs are fabricated and at this moment building
with these girders is still in the making. In the first instance, the corrugated webs were
fabricated because of their good stability behaviour. Especially high corrugated webs
showed a much better buckling behaviour and so webs with a very small thickness could be
made possible. For portals of halls, bridges and high-rise building, the low dead weight can
be a great advantage over the standard plate girders.
Because of the profile of the web, the fabrication costs for material (per kilogram) and
welding (per meter) are higher than for a flat plate girder. On the other hand, no transverse
and longitudinal stiffeners are necessary and the web is connected to the flanges with only a
single continuous fillet weld. An important difference with the (double welded) flat plate girder
is that its not permitted to use these girders under variable loading.
An other important difference forms the much lower stiffness of the corrugated web in
longitudinal direction. This low stiffness can be very useful in composite bridge building. For
bridges constructed with tubular members with in situ casted pre-tensioned concrete flanges,
the low longitudinal stiffness of the web causes a lower loss of pre-stresses.
For a long time the standard plate girders have been
used and a lot of experience has been obtained. So its
very easy for the structural engineer to make use of the
flat plate girder.The use of girders with corrugated webs
is still in the initial period and there is still a lack of
necessary information and experience. Even the
necessary standards and adequate software packages
are not available.
An other disadvantage over the use of standard plate
girders can be the longer delivery times and minimum
orders conditions of girders with corrugated webs.
Finally, the aesthetics of the structure plays a part in the
possible use of girders with corrugated webs.
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b2 t 2 f y ,r hw b1 t1 f y ,r hw b1 t1 c f y ,r hw
M R ,d = min
;
;
g M0
g M0
g M1
So, the bending moment resistance of girders with corrugated webs, is determined by the
normal force resistance of the flanges.
For flat plate girders also participation of the web plate has to be taken in account. Due to
the normal forces and bending moments buckling of the plate could happen. The calculation
of the moment capacity of a welded flat plate girder can be carried out with the crosssection-reduction method in accordance with 10.2.4.2.3 of NEN 6771;
the effective width of the web can be calculated as follows:
beff =
r b
1 -y 1
where:
y1 =
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s 2,d
s 1,d
is the ratio between the lowest and the highest stress in the web.
39
b = hw
l r ,rel - 0,22
r=
is the reduction factor.
l2r ,rel
in which:
f y ,d
l r ,rel =
where:
s i,k , x
s i , k , x = ks , x s E
For y 1
be ,1 = 0,4 be
<0:
be , 2 = 0,6 be
With help of the effective cross-section, the bending moment resistance of the girder can be
determined:
M s ,d =
s x , s , d I y ,e
in which:
z y ,e
I y ,e is the moment of inertia with regard to the y-axe.
z y ,e is the distance between the neutral line and the top of the girder.
f y ,r = f y f T
f T = 1 - 0,4
s x (M z )
fy
gM0
Where:
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Local flange buckling will be influenced by the geometry of the web in a favourable way
compared to the flat web. The flange will be supported by the inclined parts of the web and
so, according to annex D.2.1 of prEN 1993-1-5, a safe approximation of the relevant length
should be a = a1 + 2a3. The buckling coefficients of such a plate, assuming conservatively a
hinged support along three edges of the web, is:
b
ks = 0,43 +
a
with:
a = a1 + 2 a3
For a geometry with a corrugation width of the same order as the flange width, the flange will
buckle in a mode of rotation around the centreline of the web, but with a stronger restraint
than for a girder with a flat web. This restraint will depend on the stiffness of the flange and
the flexibility of the web. The buckling coefficient will vary in the range 0,431,25 and for
simplicity a fixed value of 0,55 is accepted. So for this check, the slenderness parameter will
be defined with the following input:
ks = 0,55
and
b=
b1
2
According to DASt-Richtlinie 015, the effective width of the flange can be calculated with
help of buckling coefficient ks = 0,6:
beff = 30,7 t1
240
b1
f y ,1,d
t i ,k = kt s E
in which
p 2 Ed
s E =
bw
2
12 (1 - u d )
tw
kt depends on the ratio a between the length and the height of the web:
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kt = 4 +
5,35
a2
kt = 5,35 +
for a 1
4
a2
for a > 1
For local buckling of the corrugated web, the critical stress can be calculated with help of the
following equation (see paragraph 4.4.1):
t cr ,l
t
= 4,83 E w
a max
(with
a max = max[a1 , a 2 ])
So, the used value of the buckling factor for local shear buckling of a corrugated web is:
kt =
t cr ,l
sE
t
4,83 E w
a max
=
2
p E d t w2
12 1 - u d2 a12
4,83
5,35
p2
12 (1 - u d2 )
For a long flat plate ( a >> 1 ), kt also reaches the value 5,35. The difference between the
behaviour of the flat plate and the corrugated plate, must become clear in a different Euler
buckling stress.
Euler buckling stress s E
The Euler buckling stress can be calculated with 13.6-4 of NEN 6771:
sE =
p 2 Ed
b
12 1 - u
t
2
1
b2
p 2 E d t w2
2
12 1 - u
b = hw
b = a max
The different width causes a great difference between the Euler buckling stress of the flat
and the corrugated web plate. The lower value of the width of the corrugated web causes a
much higher Euler buckling stress of the corrugated web. This forms the most important
difference between the flat plate girder and the girder with a corrugated web.
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t cr , g =
32,4 4
D x D y3
t w hw2
Because of the high orthotropic plate stiffness (Dx, Dy) of the corrugated web, the critical
stress for global buckling will be higher than for the flat plate girder.
5.3.6 Buckling of the girder
According to 12.1 of NEN 6771, a girder with a corrugated web and the flat plate girder
should be verified both to buckling around the weak z-axe as follows:
N c , s ,d
w z ,buc N c ,u ,d
1,0
Because of the low longitudinal stiffness of the corrugated web, the normal stresses are only
transferred through the flanges. For this reason, the design buckling resistance of the girder
is:
N c ,u ,d = (b1 t1 + b2 t 2 ) f y ,d
While for the flat plate girder the whole cross-section can be used:
N c ,u ,d = (b1 t1 + b2 t 2 + hw t w ) f y ,d
Due to these normal forces and possible bending moments, buckling failure of the plate
could happen. So only for the flat plate the buckling behaviour of the plate should be
checked in accordance with 10.2.4.2.3 of NEN 6771 (see also paragraph 5.3.1).
5.3.7 Lateral torsional buckling of the girder
Because of the small thickness of the corrugated web, the torsion stiffness has a low value.
However, the warping stiffness has a very high value (because of the higher warping section
constant and other common used dimensions), so the warping stiffness should also be taken
into account for calculation of the theoretic elastic lateral torsional buckling moment.
For girders with flat web plates, the lateral torsional buckling factor should be determined
analogous to the buckling factor, according to 12.1.1.4 of NEN 6770. For girders with
corrugated webs an alternative lateral torsional buckling factor can be used (par. 4.5):
w kip =
1
4
1+ lM
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Date
Country
Code number
Title
1982
Sweden
StBK N5
1991
Netherlands
TGB 1990
- NEN 6702
- NEN 6770
- NEN 6771
- NEN 6772
Grondslagen bouwconstructies
Belastingen en vervormingen
Staalconstructies
Stabiliteit
Verbindingen
1990
Germany
DASt-Richtlinie 015
2002
Europe
Eurocode 3
- Part 1.1
- Part 1.5
Only part 1.5 of Eurocode 3, the Swedish standard StBK N5 and the German DASt-Richtlinie
015 deal with girders with trapezoidal corrugated webs. For the general demands with regard
to the material properties, tolerances, etc, the European and the Dutch standard will be
taken into account. In the next paragraphs the contents of the above-mentioned standards
will be presented, except for the Swedish standard (unobtainable).
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the shear force resistance to local buckling and global buckling. Formula for the slenderness
and the critical stresses of the web are presented.
End stiffeners
End stiffeners should be designed according to chapter 6: Local forces and their
introduction.
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