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Language anxiety
A topic of rising importance in the study of
language learning is the role of language anxiety.
This is a relatively new development largely because
the role of anxiety in language learning was not
recognised in early research. Studies conducted in
the 1970s were difficult to interpret because of
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A theoretical integration
In Part I of this review (Gardner & Maclntyre, 1992)
attention was directed toward the relation to secondlanguage learning of three classes of cognitive
individual difference variables, namely, Intelligence,
Language aptitude, and Language-learning strategies. In this part, attention focused on attitudes,
motivation, language anxiety and self-confidence.
This final section is devoted to providing a
theoretical overview of how such factors can
influence, and in some cases be influenced by, the
language-learning process. This overview is presented in the form of a revised version of the socioeducational model of second-language learning that
was presented in Part I (Gardner & Maclntyre,
1992). This revised model is presented in Figure 1.
In the figure, the socio-cultural milieu is shown as
over-riding all aspects of the model. That is, when
considering the process of second-language acquisition, it is recommended that close attention be
directed to the social context in which the learning
is taking place. Although Au (1988) argues that such
a concept 'may serve only to render the theory
immune to disconfirming evidence, thereby granting infallibility to the theory...' (p. 85), omission
of such a concept would make the theory much too
simplistic. Rather, what is required is research that
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Language
acquisition
contexs
Individual
difference
variables
Antecedent
factors
Intelligence
Language
aptitude
.
'
> Strategies
Formal
- - -
Linguistic
Biological
Experiential
Language
attitudes
/
1
Motivation
A
Language
anxiety
>-
Nonlinguistic
Informal
,h
delineates the significant features of the social milieu biological and experiential in the model, with no
that influences the role of individual differences in exemplars or roles shown. Examples of such factors,
language acquisition. Some research based on a however, would include gender, age, prior language
different theoretical model is already under way in training, etc. Rather than attempt to describe all the
this regard (see, for example, Clement, 1980, 1986; possible roles that such factors might play, it seems
Labrie & Clement, 1986), while at least one study best to propose that, at a minimum, they should
(Clement & Kruidenier, 1983) demonstrated that be considered by an investigator when planning a
even the reasons for studying a second language study. It seems reasonable to propose, for example,
tended to group together to form different orien- that there is a biological foundation for intelligence,
tations as a function of the socio-cultural milieu. that age might influence what language-learning
Moreover, Kraemer (1990) demonstrated that the strategies are used, or that prior experience with a
socio-educational model could be modified suc- language could influence levels of language attitudes,
cessfully to take into consideration social forces motivation and/or language anxiety. Clearly, any
that might operate in a specific language-learning study of individual differences in second-language
situation. It is simplistic to assume that a language- acquisition would have to ensure that subjects were
learning model should not make explicit recognition relatively homogeneous with respect to prior
of the very dominant role played by the social training in that language in order to rule out
context. Would one really expect, for example, that confounding effects of prior achievement in the
attitudes toward the other community would be current language-learning process.
related positively to the motivation to learn the
Six major individual difference variables are
language of that community by military personnel shown in Fig. 1. Intelligence, language aptitude, and
who may consider the community a potential language-learning strategies are considered as cogenemy ?
nitive individual difference variables. In the model
The model posits that there are a number of they are shown as being relatively independent of
Antecedent factors that must also be considered one another (they are not linked by any directional
when attempting to study the role of individual arrows), even though it is recognised that they
difference variables in the process of learning a might correlate significantly in any study. The
second language. These are described simply as measures might well share some variance in
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References
the
second language acquisition. I. The effects of ethnicity, GARDNER, R. C. & SMYTHE, P. C. (1981). On the development
milieu, and target language on their emergence. Language
of the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery. Canadian Modern
Learning, 33, 273-91.
Language Review, 37, 510-25.
CLEMENT, R. & KRUIDENIER, B. G. (1985). Aptitude, attitude GARDNER, R. C , SMYTHE, P. C. & BRUNET, G. R. (1977).
and motivation in second language proficiency: a test of
Intensive second language study: effects on attitudes,
Clement's model. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, motivation and French achievement. Language Learning, 27,
21-37.
243-61.
CLEMENT, R., MAJOR, L. J., GARDNER, R. C. & SMYTHE, P. C.
(1977). Attitudes and motivation in second language acquisition: an investigation of Ontario francophones. Working
Papers on Bilingualism, 12, 1-20.
CLEMENT,
R.,
SMYTHE,
P. C. & GARDNER,
R. C.
(1978).
Persistence in second language study: motivational considerations. Canadian Modern Language Review, 34, 688-94.
COOK, V.J. (1978). Second-language learning: a psycho-
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