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Introduction
Basics of Soft Computing
Soft Computing
Introduction to Soft Computing, topics : Definitions, goals, and
set,
capturing
definition
of
fuzzy
set,
in
importance. Fuzzy
graphic
empty.
Fuzzy
operations
e.
equality,
comparability,
et
information flow
ub
mechanics
cs
techniques,
evolutionary
ww
search
w.
algorithms
examples of
(EAs).
Associative
auto and
hetero AM.
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Introduction
Basics of Soft Computing
Soft Computing
Topics
(Lectures 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06
6 hours)
Slides
03-06
1. Introduction
2. Fuzzy Computing
Fuzzy Set: Classical set theory, Crisp & Non-crisp set, Capturing
uncertainty, Definition of fuzzy set; Graphic Interpretations : Fuzzy set Small, Prime numbers, Universal space, Empty; Fuzzy operations :
Complement, Union, Intersection.
in
29-39
e.
3. Neural Computing
ub
et
cs
4. Genetic Algorithms
w.
ww
Calculus-based
and
Guided random
5. Associative Memory
59
60-61
8. References
02
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Introduction
Basics of Soft Computing
What is Soft Computing ?
The idea of soft computing was initiated in 1981 when Lotfi A. Zadeh
published his first paper on soft data analysis
in
e.
enable solutions to real world problems, which are not modeled or too
ub
et
cs
ww
SC
Soft
Computing
Zadeh
1981
EC
w.
EC
NN
FL
Evolutionary
Computing
Neural
Network
Fuzzy
Logic
Rechenberg
1960
McCulloch
1943
Zadeh
1965
GP
ES
EP
GA
Evolutionary
Computing
Genetic
Programming
Evolution
Strategies
Evolutionary
Programming
Genetic
Algorithms
Rechenberg
1960
Koza
1992
Rechenberg
1965
Fogel
1962
Holland
1970
03
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SC - Definitions
1. Introduction
To begin, first explained, the definitions, the goals, and the importance of
the soft computing. Later, presented its different fields, that is, Fuzzy
Computing, Neural Computing, Genetic Algorithms, and more.
Definitions of Soft Computing (SC)
Lotfi
A.
Zadeh,
1992
Soft
Computing
is
an
emerging approach to
Soft
Computing
consists
of
several
computing
paradigms
mainly :
in
e.
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et
cs
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SC - Goal
Approximation, Uncertainty,
in
Uncertainty :
ub
Imprecision :
e.
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et
05
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SC - Importance
computing
differs
from
hard
(conventional)
computing.
Unlike
cost. In
effect,
the
role
model
for
soft computing
is
the
human mind.
The four fields that constitute Soft Computing (SC) are : Fuzzy Computing (FC),
Evolutionary
Computing
Computing (PC), with the latter subsuming belief networks, chaos theory
is
not
concoction,
mixture,
in
Soft
or
combination,
rather,
e.
ub
cs
et
than competitive.
06
Conceptual Intelligence.
ww
field of
w.
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SC Fuzzy Computing
2. Fuzzy Computing
In the real world there exists much fuzzy knowledge, that is, knowledge which
is vague, imprecise, uncertain, ambiguous, inexact, or probabilistic in nature.
Human can use such information
reasoning
frequently
involve
fuzzy
because
information,
originating
from
computing
systems,
because they do
answers
in
but also describe their reality levels. These levels need to be calculated
e.
using imprecision and the uncertainty of facts and rules that were applied.
ww
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et
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SC Fuzzy Computing
whether
each element
of space X
in
e.
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et
A(x) = 1 , x is a member of A
Eq.(1)
cs
w.
ww
xX
if
otherwise
Eq.(2)
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SC Fuzzy Computing
the
characteristic function
function
A(x) of
of
Eq.(2)
is called
membership function.
in
ub
The proposition of
e.
et
cs
measurement.
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09
w.
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SC Fuzzy Computing
ww
w.
cs
et
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e.
in
10
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Tall
Not Tall
Tall
1.8 m
Height x
e.
Crisp logic
in
1.8 m
Height x
Non-crisp logic
ub
et
A student of height 1.79m would belong to both tall and not tall sets
cs
w.
As the height increases the membership grade within the tall set would
decrease.
ww
increase whilst the membership grade within the not-tall set would
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Capturing Uncertainty
Instead of avoiding or ignoring uncertainty, Lotfi Zadeh introduced Fuzzy
Set theory that captures uncertainty.
A fuzzy set is described by a membership function A (x)
This
membership
function
associates
to
of A.
each element x X
: [0, 1]
Each membership function maps elements of a given universal base
in
e.
Example
et
ww
F (x)
cs
0.5
c (x)
w.
ub
Crisp Sets
Fuzzy Sets
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SC Fuzzy Computing
[Continued from previous slide :]
If we consider space X
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et
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e.
13
in
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SC Fuzzy Computing
x in the set X
The value A(x) is the membership grade of the element x in a fuzzy set A.
Example : Set SMALL in set X consisting of natural numbers to 12.
Assume: SMALL(1) = 1,
SMALL(2) = 1,
in
e.
ub
Set SMALL = {{1, 1 }, {2, 1 }, {3, 0.9}, {4, 0.6}, {5, 0.4}, {6, 0.3}, {7, 0.2},
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
et
Note that a fuzzy set can be defined precisely by associating with each x ,
cs
w.
ww
Originally the universal space for fuzzy sets in fuzzy logic was
defined only on the integers.
Now,
sets and fuzzy relations is defined with three numbers. The first
two numbers specify the start and end of the universal space, and
the third argument specifies the increment between elements. This
gives the user more flexibility in choosing the universal space.
Example : The fuzzy set of numbers, defined in the universal space
X = { xi } = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
is presented as
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SC Fuzzy Computing
is presented as
{8, 0.1},
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
in
.8
e.
.8
.6
.4
0
1
cs
et
ub
.2
10
ww
15
w.
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SC Fuzzy Computing
PRIME Numbers
is presented as
in
e.
.8
.6
.4
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.2
et
0
5
10
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16
w.
cs
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SC Fuzzy Computing
UNIVERSALSPACE
In any application of sets or fuzzy sets theory, all sets are subsets of
a fixed set called universal space or universe of discourse denoted by X.
Universal space X as a fuzzy set is a function equal to 1 for all elements.
The fuzzy set UNIVERSALSPACE numbers, defined
in
the
universal
{8, 1}, {9, 1}, {10, 1}, {11, 1}, {12, 1}}
e.
in
{8, 1}, {9, 1}, {10, 1}, {11, 1}, {12, 1}} , UniversalSpace {1, 12, 1}]
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et
cs
.8
.6
.4
0
0
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w.
.2
10
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SC Fuzzy Computing
N is finite.
2. Let
M = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...}.
M is infinite.
3. Let
L = {u | u is a lake in a city }.
L is finite.
in
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w.
cs
et
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e.
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SC Fuzzy Computing
EMPTY
in
the
universal space
is presented as
in
e.
{8, 0}, {9, 0}, {10, 0}, {11, 0}, {12, 0}} , UniversalSpace {1, 12, 1}]
ub
et
EMPTY
1
.2
0
0
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w.
cs
.8
.6
.4
10
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Union,
Intersection,
and
Difference.
the
following
fuzzy set terms and the Fuzzy Logic operations are illustrated:
FuzzyInclude [VERYSMALL, SMALL]
Equality :
Complement :
Union :
Intersection :
e.
in
Inclusion :
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w.
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et
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Inclusion
Let A and B be fuzzy sets defined in the same universal space X.
The fuzzy set A is included in the fuzzy set B if and only if for every x in
the set X we have A(x) B(x)
Example :
in
the
universal
{8, 0.1},
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
in
e.
{8, 0.1}, {9, 0}, {10, 0}, {11, 0}, {12, 0}} , UniversalSpace {1, 12, 1}]
ub
et
cs
VERYSMALL = FuzzySet {{1, 1 }, {2, 0.8 }, {3, 0.7}, {4, 0.4}, {5, 0.2},
{6, 0.1}, {7, 0 },
{8, 0 },
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
w.
ww
Inclusion
Membership Grade
1
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
0
10
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Comparability
Two fuzzy sets A and B are comparable
if the condition A B or B A holds, ie,
if one of the fuzzy sets is a subset of the other set, they are comparable.
Two fuzzy sets A and B are incomparable
if the condition A B or B A holds.
Example 1:
Let
and
e.
in
Let
ub
et
D is not a subset of C.
cs
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22
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Equality
Let
Then A
and
and B
A(x) = B(x).
Example.
{8, 0.1},
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
in
e.
B A
Membership Grade
ub
1
.8
et
.6
cs
.4
ww
w.
.2
10
11
12
Note : If equality A(x) = B(x) is not satisfied even for one element x in
the set X, then we say that A is not equal to B.
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Complement
Let A be a fuzzy set defined in the space X.
Then the fuzzy set B is a complement of the fuzzy set A, if and only if,
for all x in the set X,
B(x) = 1 - A(x).
Ac(x) = 1 A(x)
Example 1.
{8, 0.1},
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
in
{7, 0.8}, {8, 0.9}, {9, 1 }, {10, 1 }, {11, 1}, {12, 1}}
e.
ub
Ac
et
Membership Grade
cs
1
.8
w.
.6
ww
.4
.2
0
0
10
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Example 2.
and
the
universal set X,
X' =
{8, 0},
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
{8, 1},
{9, 1 }, {10, 1 },
{11, 1},
{12, 1}}
in
Membership Grade
e.
1
.8
ub
.6
et
.4
0
1
w.
cs
.2
10
ww
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Union
Let A and B be fuzzy sets defined in the space X.
The union is defined as the smallest fuzzy set that contains both A and B.
The union of A and B is denoted by A B.
The following relation must be satisfied for the union operation :
for all x in the set X,
for
x X
all
and
B(x) = 0.4
= 0.6
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
in
{7, 0.2},
Union
{12, 0}}
et
ub
{7, 1},
e.
MEDIUM = FuzzySet {{1, 0 }, {2, 0 }, {3, 0}, {4, 0.2}, {5, 0.5}, {6, 0.8},
cs
Membership Grade
ww
w.
{6,0.8}, {7,1}, {8, 1}, {9, 0.7}, {10, 0.4}, {11, 0.1}, {12, 0}} ,
UniversalSpace {1, 12, 1}]
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
0
10
11
12
The notion of the union is closely related to that of the connective "or".
Let A is a class of "Young" men, B is a class of "Bald" men.
If "David is Young" or "David is Bald," then David is associated with the
union of A and B.
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SC Fuzzy Computing
A =A
input
output = True
AX=X
input
output = True
Idempotence :
AA=A
in
input
e.
output = True
ub
Commutativity :
AB =BA
et
input
w.
Associativity:
cs
output = True
ww
A (B C) = (A B) C
{7, 0.2}, {8, 0.1}, {9, 0.7 }, {10, 0.4 }, {11, 0}, {12, 0}}
MEDIUM = FuzzySet {{1, 0 }, {2, 0 }, {3, 0}, {4, 0.2}, {5, 0.5}, {6, 0.8},
{7, 1}, {8, 1}, {9, 0 }, {10, 0 }, {11, 0.1}, {12, 0}}
BIG
{6,0.8}, {7,1}, {8, 1}, {9, 0.7}, {10, 0.4}, {11, 0.1}, {12, 0}]
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SC Fuzzy Computing
Intersection
Let A and B be fuzzy sets defined in the space X.
The intersection is defined as the greatest fuzzy set included both A and B.
The intersection of A and B is denoted by A B.
The following relation must be satisfied for the union operation :
(A B)(x) = Min (A(x), B(x)).
for
x X
all
and
= 0.4
{9, 0 }, {10, 0 },
{11, 0},
{12, 0}}
e.
{7, 0.2},
in
SMALL = FuzzySet {{1, 1 }, {2, 1 }, {3, 0.9}, {4, 0.6}, {5, 0.4}, {6, 0.3},
{12, 0}}
et
{7, 1},
ub
MEDIUM = FuzzySet {{1, 0 }, {2, 0 }, {3, 0}, {4, 0.2}, {5, 0.5}, {6, 0.8},
cs
w.
ww
{10, 0}, {11, 0}, {12, 0}} , UniversalSpace {1, 12, 1}]
FUZZYINTERSECTON = [SMALL MEDIUM]
Membership Grade
1
.8
.6
.4
.2
0
0
10
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SC Neural Computing
3. Neural Computing
Neural Computers mimic certain processing capabilities of the human brain.
- Neural
to simulate its learning process. The term "artificial" means that neural nets
are implemented in computer programs that are able to handle the large
number of necessary calculations during the learning process.
- Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), like people, learn by example.
- An ANN is configured for a specific application, such as pattern recognition
in
biological
systems
involves
adjustments
e.
- Learning
in
to
the
synaptic
ub
connections that exist between the neurons. This is true for ANNs as well.
ww
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SC Neural Computing
are
the
branching
fibers
is
singular
fiber
carries
in
e.
ub
cs
et
for
w.
incoming
information.
At
any
ww
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SC Neural Computing
in
The input /output and the propagation of information are shown below.
ub
e.
et
output activations.
cs
w.
ww
and dendrites.
The
neuro-transmitters.
McCulloch-Pitts introduced a simplified model of this real neurons.
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SC Neural Computing
Output
Input n
A
set
of
synapses
(ie
connections)
brings
in
activations
from
other neurons.
in
e.
ub
et
cs
The signals build up in the cell. Finally the cell fires (discharges)
ww
32
w.
through the output. The cell can start building up signals again.
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SC Neural Computing
Functions :
The function
y = f(x)
describes a relationship,
an input-output
mapping, from x to y.
Threshold or Sign function sgn(x) : defined as
Sign(x)
1
.8
1
sgn (x) =
if x 0
0 if x < 0
.6
.4
.2
0
-4
-3
-2
-1
in
et
.8
ub
e.
Sign(x)
.6
sigmoid (x) =
-x
.4
cs
1+e
33
ww
w.
.2
0
-4
-3
-2
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SC Neural Computing
Output
Input n
then Output = 1
Input
<
then Output = 0
cs
i=1
- )
Input
If
ub
i=1
Input
et
i=1
If
in
where
sgn (
e.
Output =
biological
non-binary
neurons.
ww
real
w.
and
Some
output,
of
its
missing
non-linear
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features
include:
summation,
smooth
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SC Neural Computing
x1
W1
x2
W2
Activation
Function
Neuron i
xn
Wn
Threshold
Synaptic
Weights
e.
in
The values W1 , W2 , . . .
Wn
ub
Weighting Factors
et
cs
w.
weight excites and the -ve weight inhibits the node output.
The
nodes
ww
Threshold
internal
threshold
is
the
magnitude offset.
It
affects
i=1
Xi Wi - k
Activation Function
An
activation
signal
output.
Function,
(S
function
The
Threshold
shaped)
function,
performs
most
common
Function,
Tangent
mathematical
activation
Piecewise
hyperbolic
Linear
operation
functions
are,
Function,
function
and
on
Linear
Sigmoidal
are
chose
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SC Neural Computing
Example :
A neural network consists four inputs with the weights as shown.
x1=1
+1
x2=2
+1
-1
X3=5
xn=8
Activation
Function
Summing
Junction
+2
=0
Threshold
Synaptic
Weights
in
-1
= 14
5
8
(1 x 1) + (1 x 2) + (-1 x 5) + (2 x 8) = 14
w.
cs
et
R=W .X =
ub
e.
ww
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SC Neural Computing
In2i
Inni
Outi
inij
Wij
Other neuron
Synapse i j
Neuron j
Wki
Neuron i
Fig McCulloch-Pitts
Outi = sgn (
k=1
Inki - i) ,
ww
w.
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et
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e.
37
in
Neuron
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SC Neural Computing
inputs
and a single output. The neurons have gone under various names.
- Each individual cell is called either a node or a perceptron.
- A neural network consisting of a layer of nodes or perceptrons between
the input and the output is called a single layer perceptron.
multi-layer perceptron
Output
Output
cs
et
ub
e.
in
Output
Input
ww
w.
Input
Input
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SC Neural Computing
Perceptron
Any number of
McCulloch-Pitts
neurons
can
be
connected
together
of one
in any way.
Definition :
An arrangement
output yj
weights wij
w11
x1
y1
w21
w12
w22
x2
y2
in
w2m
w1m
wn2
ym
ub
xn
e.
wn1
et
wnm
w.
cs
Single layer
Perceptron
ww
if net j
y j = f (net j) =
0
if net j
< 0
where net j =
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i=1
xi wij
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SC Genetic Algorithms
4. Genetic Algorithms
Idea
of
evolutionary
I. Rechenberg
computing
was
introduced
in
the year
1960s
by
consecutive
the
survival
generation
for
of
solving
the
fittest,
among
in
GAs
problem.
Each
individuals
generation
over
consists
e.
ub
et
ww
w.
cs
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SC Genetic Algorithms
the
search
into
the
region
of
better
performance
within
the
In
nature,
competition
among
in
search space.
individuals
for
scanty
resources
ub
e.
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w.
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et
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SC Genetic Algorithms
Algorithms
are
good
at
taking
large,
potentially
huge
searching
large
n-dimensional
surface,
more
search
typical
state-space,
a GA may
of
multi-modal
offer
optimization
significant
techniques,
e.
in
ww
w.
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et
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42
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state-space,
or
benefits over
like
linear
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SC Genetic Algorithms
problems
by mimicking
genes
are
connected
together
into
long
strings
called
chromosomes.
Each
gene
in
e.
from
the
other
This
process
is
called
crossover
cs
(recombination).
parent.
et
half
ub
offspring may end up having half the genes from one parent and
w.
ww
in its life.
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SC Genetic Algorithms
general
solution.
Solving
problems
usually
mean
looking
for
search
optimization
e.
and
techniques
Enumerative,
in
The
ub
et
cs
w.
ww
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usually
Calculus-based,
are
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SC Genetic Algorithms
Calculus Based
Techniques
Indirect
method
Direct
method
Newton
Enumerative
Techniques
Uninformed
Search
Informed
Search
Finonacci
Hill
Climbing
Evolutionary
Algorithms
Simulated
Annealing
e.
in
Tabu
Search
ub
Genetic
Programming
Genetic
Algorithms
et
ww
45
w.
cs
Each of these techniques are briefly explained in the next three slides.
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SC Genetic Algorithms
Enumerative Methods
These
There
are
many
control
structures
for
search.
The depth-first search and breadth-first search are the two most
common search strategies.
Here the
require
significant
computation.
These
techniques
are
are
in
ub
e.
et
cs
w.
46
ww
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SC Genetic Algorithms
extremes
by
"hopping"
around
the
search
space
in
Indirect methods
e.
gradient of
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et
ww
w.
cs
47
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SC Genetic Algorithms
These
are
based
on
enumerative
techniques
but
they
use
simulated
annealing
and
evolutionary
algorithms.
Both
are
evolutionary processes.
operations.
Genetic
Algorithms
(GAs)
are a good
in
e.
ub
et
cs
ww
48
w.
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SC Genetic Algorithms
search methods.
are
They
take
inspirations
and
high
swapping
"fitness"
parts
of
are
a
"recombined"
solution
with
with
other
another.
solutions
Solutions
are
by
also
Recombination
and
mutation
are
used
to
generate
new solutions that are biased towards regions of the space for
e.
in
search
space,
each
point
ub
In
represent
one
feasible
solution.
et
Each feasible solution is marked by its value or fitness for the problem.
cs
w.
- Search for a solution point, means finding which one point (or more)
ww
among many feasible solution points in the search space is the solution.
This requires looking for some extremes, minimum or maximum.
- Search
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SC Associative Memory
5. Associative Memory
An associative memory is a content-addressable structure that maps a
set of input patterns to a set of output patterns.
different from the input pattern not only in content but possibly also in
type and format.
ww
w.
cs
et
ub
e.
in
50
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SC Associative Memory
this
because
sense,
this
this
type
type
of
of
memory
memory
is
robust
exhibits
and
some
fault-tolerant,
form
of
error-
correction capability.
in
Albert Einstein
Crhistpher Columbos
Christopher Columbus
e.
Charles Darwin
Blaise Pascal
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Marco Polo
et
Neil Armstrong
w.
51
A content-addressable memory,
ww
Fig.
cs
Sigmund Freud
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SC Associative Memory
content-addressable
allows,
memory
is
type
of
memory
that
similarity
accessed
by
its
content
and
not
or
opposed
to
an
explicit
in
e.
ww
w.
cs
et
ub
52
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SC Associative Memory
[Continued from previous slide]
when
X {-1, +1} ,
Y {-1, +1}
when
and
- hetero-associative.
An
auto-associative
memory
is
used
to
retrieve
previously
memory,
hetero-associative
the
e.
In
in
pattern
is,
in
ub
general, different from the input pattern not only in content but
et
artificial
w.
linear
simplest
associater.
associative
ww
The
cs
The
memories
neural
other
are
associative
popular
Hopfield
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ANN
model
memory
models
and
is
the
used
as
Bidirectional
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SC Adaptive Resonance Theory
explicitly on neurophysiology.
many
terms
nearest
algorithm.
In
and
ART,
closer
these
are
two
defined
terms
in
clustering
The
in
are
e.
ww
w.
cs
et
ub
54
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many
defined
ways
in
in
slightly
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SC Adaptive Resonance Theory
The emphasis of
unsupervised
learning
means
that
the
network
learns
the
The
two
types
of
learning
e.
other
in
newly born,
are
reinforcement
ub
the
learning
net receives
et
only limited feedback, like "on this input you performed well" or
cs
"on this input you have made an error". In supervised mode of learning
w.
ww
to
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learn
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SC Adaptive Resonance Theory
and
a reset module.
the
best match is, the single neuron whose set of weights (weight
vector) matches most closely the input vector.
Recognition
Field
neuron
outputs
in
- Each
negative
signal
each
of
the
other
field
neurons
and
inhibits
et
- Recognition
Recognition
ub
to
e.
w.
classified.
cs
ww
Vigilance parameter
Reset module
the
firing
recognition
neuron
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is
inhibited
until
new
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SC Adaptive Resonance Theory
There are two basic methods, the slow and fast learning.
- Slow learning method : here the degree of training of the recognition
in
equations and is thus dependent on the length of time the input vector is
e.
presented.
ub
- Fast learning method : here the algebraic equations are used to calculate
et
cs
Note : While fast learning is effective and efficient for a variety of tasks,
w.
ww
used with continuous-time networks (i.e. when the input vector can
vary continuously).
57
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SC Adaptive Resonance Theory
enhances
generalizing
ability.
two
in
two slightly
e.
ARTMAP :
ub
a supervised learning structure where the first unit takes the input
data and the second unit takes the correct output data, then used
make
the
minimum
possible
et
to
adjustment
of
the
vigilance
ww
58
w.
cs
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SC - Applications
relevance
of
soft
computing
for
pattern
recognition
and
image
processing is already established during the last few years. The subject has
recently
gained
importance
because
of
its
potential
in
problems like :
e.
et
- Medical Imaging,
ub
cs
- Forensic Applications,
- Multimedia,
ww
- Signature Verification,
w.
- Target Recognition,
- Face Recognition
and
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applications
in