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Indianmathematics
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

IndianmathematicsemergedintheIndiansubcontinent[1]from1200BCE[2]untiltheendofthe18thcentury.Intheclassicalperiodof
Indianmathematics(400CEto1600CE),importantcontributionsweremadebyscholarslikeAryabhata,Brahmagupta,Mahvra,Bhaskara
II,MadhavaofSangamagramaandNilakanthaSomayaji.Thedecimalnumbersysteminusetoday[3]wasfirstrecordedinIndian
mathematics.[4]Indianmathematiciansmadeearlycontributionstothestudyoftheconceptofzeroasanumber,[5]negativenumbers,[6]
arithmetic,andalgebra.[7]Inaddition,trigonometry[8]wasfurtheradvancedinIndia,and,inparticular,themoderndefinitionsofsineand
cosineweredevelopedthere.[9]ThesemathematicalconceptsweretransmittedtotheMiddleEast,China,andEurope[7]andledtofurther
developmentsthatnowformthefoundationsofmanyareasofmathematics.
AncientandmedievalIndianmathematicalworks,allcomposedinSanskrit,usuallyconsistedofasectionofsutrasinwhichasetofrulesor
problemswerestatedwithgreateconomyinverseinordertoaidmemorizationbyastudent.Thiswasfollowedbyasecondsectionconsisting
ofaprosecommentary(sometimesmultiplecommentariesbydifferentscholars)thatexplainedtheprobleminmoredetailandprovided
justificationforthesolution.Intheprosesection,theform(andthereforeitsmemorization)wasnotconsideredsoimportantastheideas
involved.[1][10]Allmathematicalworkswereorallytransmitteduntilapproximately500BCEthereafter,theyweretransmittedbothorallyand
inmanuscriptform.TheoldestextantmathematicaldocumentproducedontheIndiansubcontinentisthebirchbarkBakhshaliManuscript,
discoveredin1881inthevillageofBakhshali,nearPeshawar(moderndayPakistan)andislikelyfromthe7thcenturyCE.[11][12]
AlaterlandmarkinIndianmathematicswasthedevelopmentoftheseriesexpansionsfortrigonometricfunctions(sine,cosine,andarc
tangent)bymathematiciansoftheKeralaschoolinthe15thcenturyCE.Theirremarkablework,completedtwocenturiesbeforetheinvention
ofcalculusinEurope,providedwhatisnowconsideredthefirstexampleofapowerseries(apartfromgeometricseries).[13]However,theydid
notformulateasystematictheoryofdifferentiationandintegration,noristhereanydirectevidenceoftheirresultsbeingtransmittedoutside
Kerala.[14][15][16][17]

Contents
1Prehistory
2Vedicperiod
2.1SamhitasandBrahmanas
2.2ulbaStras
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3Pingala
4JainMathematics(400BCE200CE)
5OralTradition
5.1Stylesofmemorisation
5.2TheSutragenre
6Thewrittentradition:prosecommentary
7Numeralsandthedecimalnumbersystem
8BakhshaliManuscript
9ClassicalPeriod(4001600)
9.1Fifthandsixthcenturies
9.2Seventhandeighthcenturies
9.3Ninthtotwelfthcenturies
10Keralamathematics(13001600)
11ChargesofEurocentrism
12Seealso
13Notes
14SourcebooksinSanskrit
15References
16Externallinks

Prehistory
ExcavationsatHarappa,MohenjodaroandothersitesoftheIndusValleyCivilisationhaveuncoveredevidenceoftheuseof"practical
mathematics".ThepeopleoftheIVCmanufacturedbrickswhosedimensionswereintheproportion4:2:1,consideredfavourableforthe
stabilityofabrickstructure.Theyusedastandardisedsystemofweightsbasedontheratios:1/20,1/10,1/5,1/2,1,2,5,10,20,50,100,200,
and500,withtheunitweightequalingapproximately28grams(andapproximatelyequaltotheEnglishounceorGreekuncia).Theymass
producedweightsinregulargeometricalshapes,whichincludedhexahedra,barrels,cones,andcylinders,therebydemonstratingknowledgeof
basicgeometry.[18]
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TheinhabitantsofInduscivilisationalsotriedtostandardisemeasurementoflengthtoahighdegreeofaccuracy.Theydesignedarulerthe
Mohenjodarorulerwhoseunitoflength(approximately1.32inchesor3.4centimetres)wasdividedintotenequalparts.Bricks
manufacturedinancientMohenjodarooftenhaddimensionsthatwereintegralmultiplesofthisunitoflength.[19][20]

Vedicperiod
SamhitasandBrahmanas
ThereligioustextsoftheVedicPeriodprovideevidencefortheuseoflargenumbers.BythetimeoftheYajurvedasahit(1200900BCE),
numbersashighas1012werebeingincludedinthetexts.[2]Forexample,themantra(sacrificialformula)attheendoftheannahoma("food
oblationrite")performedduringtheavamedha,andutteredjustbefore,during,andjustaftersunrise,invokespowersoftenfromahundred
toatrillion:[2]
"Hailtoata("hundred,"102),hailtosahasra("thousand,"103),hailtoayuta("tenthousand,"104),hailtoniyuta("hundred
thousand,"105),hailtoprayuta("million,"106),hailtoarbuda("tenmillion,"107),hailtonyarbuda("hundredmillion,"108),
hailtosamudra("billion,"109,literally"ocean"),hailtomadhya("tenbillion,"1010,literally"middle"),hailtoanta("hundred
billion,"1011,lit.,"end"),hailtoparrdha("onetrillion,"1012lit.,"beyondparts"),hailtothedawn(us'as),hailtothetwilight
(vyui),hailtotheonewhichisgoingtorise(udeyat),hailtotheonewhichisrising(udyat),hailtotheonewhichhasjustrisen
(udita),hailtosvarga(theheaven),hailtomartya(theworld),hailtoall."[2]
ThesolutiontopartialfractionwasknowntotheRigvedicPeopleasstatesinthepurushSukta(RV10.90.4)
WiththreefourthsPuruawentup:onefourthofhimagainwashere.
TheSatapathaBrahmana(ca.7thcenturyBCE)containsrulesforritualgeometricconstructionsthataresimilartotheSulbaSutras.[21]

ulbaStras
TheulbaStras(literally,"AphorismsoftheChords"inVedicSanskrit)(c.700400BCE)listrulesfortheconstructionofsacrificialfire
altars.[22]MostmathematicalproblemsconsideredintheulbaStrasspringfrom"asingletheologicalrequirement,"[23]thatofconstructing
firealtarswhichhavedifferentshapesbutoccupythesamearea.Thealtarswererequiredtobeconstructedoffivelayersofburntbrick,with
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thefurtherconditionthateachlayerconsistof200bricksandthatnotwoadjacentlayershavecongruentarrangementsofbricks.[23]
Accordingto(Hayashi2005,p.363),theulbaStrascontain"theearliestextantverbalexpressionofthePythagoreanTheoremintheworld,
althoughithadalreadybeenknowntotheOldBabylonians."
Thediagonalrope(akayrajju)ofanoblong(rectangle)producesbothwhichtheflank(prvamni)andthehorizontal
(tiryamn)<ropes>produceseparately."[24]
Sincethestatementisastra,itisnecessarilycompressedandwhattheropesproduceisnotelaboratedon,butthecontextclearlyimpliesthe
squareareasconstructedontheirlengths,andwouldhavebeenexplainedsobytheteachertothestudent.[24]
TheycontainlistsofPythagoreantriples,[25]whichareparticularcasesofDiophantineequations.[26]Theyalsocontainstatements(thatwith
hindsightweknowtobeapproximate)aboutsquaringthecircleand"circlingthesquare."[27]
Baudhayana(c.8thcenturyBCE)composedtheBaudhayanaSulbaSutra,thebestknownSulbaSutra,whichcontainsexamplesofsimple
Pythagoreantriples,suchas:(3,4,5),(5,12,13),(8,15,17),(7,24,25),and(12,35,37),[28]aswellasastatementofthe
Pythagoreantheoremforthesidesofasquare:"Theropewhichisstretchedacrossthediagonalofasquareproducesanareadoublethesizeof
theoriginalsquare."[28]ItalsocontainsthegeneralstatementofthePythagoreantheorem(forthesidesofarectangle):"Theropestretched
alongthelengthofthediagonalofarectanglemakesanareawhichtheverticalandhorizontalsidesmaketogether."[28]Baudhayanagivesa
formulaforthesquarerootoftwo,[29]

Theformulaisaccurateuptofivedecimalplaces,thetruevaluebeing1.41421356...[30]Thisformulaissimilarinstructuretotheformula
foundonaMesopotamiantablet[31]fromtheOldBabylonianperiod(19001600BCE):[29]

whichexpresses2inthesexagesimalsystem,andwhichisalsoaccurateupto5decimalplaces(afterrounding).

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AccordingtomathematicianS.G.Dani,theBabyloniancuneiformtabletPlimpton322writtenca.1850BCE[32]"containsfifteenPythagorean
tripleswithquitelargeentries,including(13500,12709,18541)whichisaprimitivetriple,[33]indicating,inparticular,thattherewas
sophisticatedunderstandingonthetopic"inMesopotamiain1850BCE."SincethesetabletspredatetheSulbasutrasperiodbyseveral
centuries,takingintoaccountthecontextualappearanceofsomeofthetriples,itisreasonabletoexpectthatsimilarunderstandingwouldhave
beenthereinIndia."[34]Danigoesontosay:
"AsthemainobjectiveoftheSulvasutraswastodescribetheconstructionsofaltarsandthegeometricprinciplesinvolvedin
them,thesubjectofPythagoreantriples,evenifithadbeenwellunderstoodmaystillnothavefeaturedintheSulvasutras.The
occurrenceofthetriplesintheSulvasutrasiscomparabletomathematicsthatonemayencounterinanintroductorybookon
architectureoranothersimilarappliedarea,andwouldnotcorresponddirectlytotheoverallknowledgeonthetopicatthattime.
Since,unfortunately,noothercontemporaneoussourceshavebeenfounditmayneverbepossibletosettlethisissue
satisfactorily."[34]
Inall,threeSulbaSutraswerecomposed.Theremainingtwo,theManavaSulbaSutracomposedbyManava(fl.750650BCE)andthe
ApastambaSulbaSutra,composedbyApastamba(c.600BCE),containedresultssimilartotheBaudhayanaSulbaSutra.
Vyakarana
AnimportantlandmarkoftheVedicperiodwastheworkofSanskritgrammarian,Pini(c.520460BCE).Hisgrammarincludesearlyuse
ofBooleanlogic,ofthenulloperator,andofcontextfreegrammars,andincludesaprecursoroftheBackusNaurform(usedinthe
descriptionprogramminglanguages).

Pingala
AmongthescholarsofthepostVedicperiodwhocontributedtomathematics,themostnotableisPingala(pigal)(fl.300200BCE),a
musicaltheoristwhoauthoredtheChhandasShastra(chandastra,alsoChhandasSutrachhandastra),aSanskrittreatiseonprosody.
Thereisevidencethatinhisworkontheenumerationofsyllabiccombinations,PingalastumbleduponboththePascaltriangleandBinomial
coefficients,althoughhedidnothaveknowledgeoftheBinomialtheoremitself.[35][36]Pingala'sworkalsocontainsthebasicideasof
Fibonaccinumbers(calledmaatraameru).AlthoughtheChandahsutrahasn'tsurvivedinitsentirety,a10thcenturycommentaryonitby
Halyudhahas.Halyudha,whoreferstothePascaltriangleasMeruprastra(literally"thestaircasetoMountMeru"),hasthistosay:

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"Drawasquare.Beginningathalfthesquare,drawtwoothersimilarsquaresbelowitbelowthesetwo,threeothersquares,and
soon.Themarkingshouldbestartedbyputting1inthefirstsquare.Put1ineachofthetwosquaresofthesecondline.Inthe
thirdlineput1inthetwosquaresattheendsand,inthemiddlesquare,thesumofthedigitsinthetwosquareslyingaboveit.In
thefourthlineput1inthetwosquaresattheends.Inthemiddleonesputthesumofthedigitsinthetwosquaresaboveeach.
Proceedinthisway.Oftheselines,thesecondgivesthecombinationswithonesyllable,thethirdthecombinationswithtwo
syllables,..."[35]
ThetextalsoindicatesthatPingalawasawareofthecombinatorialidentity:[36]

Katyayana
Katyayana(c.3rdcenturyBCE)isnotableforbeingthelastoftheVedicmathematicians.HewrotetheKatyayanaSulbaSutra,which
presentedmuchgeometry,includingthegeneralPythagoreantheoremandacomputationofthesquarerootof2correcttofivedecimalplaces.

JainMathematics(400BCE200CE)
AlthoughJainismasareligionandphilosophypredatesitsmostfamousexponent,Mahavira(6thcenturyBCE)whowasacontemporaryof
GautamaBuddha,mostJaintextsonmathematicaltopicswerecomposedafterthe6thcenturyBCE.Jainmathematiciansareimportant
historicallyascruciallinksbetweenthemathematicsoftheVedicperiodandthatofthe"Classicalperiod."
AsignificanthistoricalcontributionofJainmathematicianslayintheirfreeingIndianmathematicsfromitsreligiousandritualisticconstraints.
Inparticular,theirfascinationwiththeenumerationofverylargenumbersandinfinities,ledthemtoclassifynumbersintothreeclasses:
enumerable,innumerableandinfinite.Notcontentwithasimplenotionofinfinity,theywentontodefinefivedifferenttypesofinfinity:the
infiniteinonedirection,theinfiniteintwodirections,theinfiniteinarea,theinfiniteeverywhere,andtheinfiniteperpetually.Inaddition,Jain
mathematiciansdevisednotationsforsimplepowers(andexponents)ofnumberslikesquaresandcubes,whichenabledthemtodefinesimple
algebraicequations(beejganitasamikaran).Jainmathematicianswereapparentlyalsothefirsttousethewordshunya(literallyvoidin
Sanskrit)torefertozero.Morethanamillenniumlater,theirappellationbecametheEnglishword"zero"afteratortuousjourneyof
translationsandtransliterationsfromIndiatoEurope.(SeeZero:Etymology.)

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InadditiontoSuryaPrajnapti,importantJainworksonmathematicsincludedtheVaishaliGanit(c.3rdcenturyBCE)theSthanangaSutra
(fl.300BCE200CE)theAnoyogdwarSutra(fl.200BCE100CE)andtheSatkhandagama(c.2ndcenturyCE).ImportantJain
mathematiciansincludedBhadrabahu(d.298BCE),theauthoroftwoastronomicalworks,theBhadrabahaviSamhitaandacommentaryon
theSuryaPrajinaptiYativrishamAcharya(c.176BCE),whoauthoredamathematicaltextcalledTiloyapannatiandUmasvati(c.150BCE),
who,althoughbetterknownforhisinfluentialwritingsonJainphilosophyandmetaphysics,composedamathematicalworkcalled
TattwarthadhigamaSutraBhashya.

OralTradition
MathematiciansofancientandearlymedievalIndiawerealmostallSanskritpandits(paita"learnedman"),[37]whoweretrainedinSanskrit
languageandliterature,andpossessed"acommonstockofknowledgeingrammar(vykaraa),exegesis(mms)andlogic(nyya)."[37]
Memorisationof"whatisheard"(rutiinSanskrit)throughrecitationplayedamajorroleinthetransmissionofsacredtextsinancientIndia.
Memorisationandrecitationwasalsousedtotransmitphilosophicalandliteraryworks,aswellastreatisesonritualandgrammar.Modern
scholarsofancientIndiahavenotedthe"trulyremarkableachievementsoftheIndianpanditswhohavepreservedenormouslybulkytexts
orallyformillennia."[38]

Stylesofmemorisation
ProdigousenergywasexpendedbyancientIndiancultureinensuringthatthesetextsweretransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationwith
inordinatefidelity.[39]Forexample,memorisationofthesacredVedasincludeduptoelevenformsofrecitationofthesametext.Thetexts
weresubsequently"proofread"bycomparingthedifferentrecitedversions.Formsofrecitationincludedthejapha(literally"mesh
recitation")inwhicheverytwoadjacentwordsinthetextwerefirstrecitedintheiroriginalorder,thenrepeatedinthereverseorder,and
finallyrepeatedagainintheoriginalorder.[40]Therecitationthusproceededas:
word1word2,word2word1,word1word2word2word3,word3word2,word2word3...
Inanotherformofrecitation,dhvajapha[40](literally"flagrecitation")asequenceofNwordswererecited(andmemorised)bypairingthe
firsttwoandlasttwowordsandthenproceedingas:
word1word2,wordN1wordNword2word3,wordN3wordN2..wordN1wordN,word1word2
Themostcomplexformofrecitation,ghanapha(literally"denserecitation"),accordingto(Filliozat2004,p.139),tooktheform:
word1word2,word2word1,word1word2word3,word3word2word1,word1word2word3word2word3,word3word2,
word2word3word4,word4word3word2,word2word3word4...
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Thatthesemethodshavebeeneffective,istestifiedtobythepreservationofthemostancientIndianreligioustext,thegveda(ca.1500BCE),
asasingletext,withoutanyvariantreadings.[40]Similarmethodswereusedformemorisingmathematicaltexts,whosetransmissionremained
exclusivelyoraluntiltheendoftheVedicperiod(ca.500BCE).

TheSutragenre
MathematicalactivityinancientIndiabeganasapartofa"methodologicalreflexion"onthesacredVedas,whichtooktheformofworks
calledVedgas,or,"AncillariesoftheVeda"(7th4thcenturyBCE).[41]Theneedtoconservethesoundofsacredtextbyuseofik
(phonetics)andchhandas(metrics)toconserveitsmeaningbyuseofvykaraa(grammar)andnirukta(etymology)andtocorrectlyperform
theritesatthecorrecttimebytheuseofkalpa(ritual)andjyotia(astrology),gaverisetothesixdisciplinesoftheVedgas.[41]Mathematics
aroseasapartofthelasttwodisciplines,ritualandastronomy(whichalsoincludedastrology).SincetheVedgasimmediatelyprecededthe
useofwritinginancientIndia,theyformedthelastoftheexclusivelyoralliterature.Theywereexpressedinahighlycompressedmnemonic
form,thestra(literally,"thread"):
Theknowersofthestraknowitashavingfewphonemes,beingdevoidofambiguity,containingtheessence,facingeverything,
beingwithoutpauseandunobjectionable.[41]
Extremebrevitywasachievedthroughmultiplemeans,whichincludedusingellipsis"beyondthetoleranceofnaturallanguage,"[41]using
technicalnamesinsteadoflongerdescriptivenames,abridginglistsbyonlymentioningthefirstandlastentries,andusingmarkersand
variables.[41]Thestrascreatetheimpressionthatcommunicationthroughthetextwas"onlyapartofthewholeinstruction.Therestofthe
instructionmusthavebeentransmittedbythesocalledGurushishyaparamparai,'uninterruptedsuccessionfromteacher(guru)tothestudent
(isya),'anditwasnotopentothegeneralpublic"andperhapsevenkeptsecret.[42]Thebrevityachievedinastraisdemonstratedinthe
followingexamplefromtheBaudhyanaulbaStra(700BCE).
ThedomesticfirealtarintheVedicperiodwasrequiredbyritualtohaveasquarebaseandbeconstitutedoffivelayersofbrickswith21
bricksineachlayer.Onemethodofconstructingthealtarwastodivideonesideofthesquareintothreeequalpartsusingacordorrope,to
nextdividethetransverse(orperpendicular)sideintosevenequalparts,andtherebysubdividethesquareinto21congruentrectangles.The
brickswerethendesignedtobeoftheshapeoftheconstituentrectangleandthelayerwascreated.Toformthenextlayer,thesameformula
wasused,butthebrickswerearrangedtransversely.[43]Theprocesswasthenrepeatedthreemoretimes(withalternatingdirections)inorderto
completetheconstruction.IntheBaudhyanaulbaStra,thisprocedureisdescribedinthefollowingwords:

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"II.64.Afterdividingthequadrilateralinseven,onedividesthetransverse[cord]inthree.
II.65.Inanotherlayeroneplacesthe[bricks]Northpointing."[43]
Accordingto(Filliozat2004,p.144),theofficiantconstructingthealtarhasonlyafewtoolsandmaterialsathisdisposal:acord(Sanskrit,
rajju,f.),twopegs(Sanskrit,anku,m.),andclaytomakethebricks(Sanskrit,iak,f.).Concisionisachievedinthestra,bynotexplicitly
mentioningwhattheadjective"transverse"qualifieshowever,fromthefeminineformofthe(Sanskrit)adjectiveused,itiseasilyinferredto
qualify"cord."Similarly,inthesecondstanza,"bricks"arenotexplicitlymentioned,butinferredagainbythefemininepluralformof"North
pointing."Finally,thefirststanza,neverexplicitlysaysthatthefirstlayerofbricksare
orientedintheEastWestdirection,butthattooisimpliedbytheexplicitmentionof
"Northpointing"inthesecondstanzafor,iftheorientationwasmeanttobethesamein
thetwolayers,itwouldeithernotbementionedatallorbeonlymentionedinthefirst
stanza.Alltheseinferencesaremadebytheofficiantasherecallstheformulafromhis
memory.[43]

Thewrittentradition:prosecommentary
Withtheincreasingcomplexityofmathematicsandotherexactsciences,bothwritingand
computationwererequired.Consequently,manymathematicalworksbegantobewritten
downinmanuscriptsthatwerethencopiedandrecopiedfromgenerationtogeneration.
"Indiatodayisestimatedtohaveaboutthirtymillionmanuscripts,thelargestbody
ofhandwrittenreadingmaterialanywhereintheworld.TheliteratecultureofIndian
sciencegoesbacktoatleastthefifthcenturyB.C....asisshownbytheelementsof
MesopotamianomenliteratureandastronomythatenteredIndiaatthattimeand
(were)definitelynot...preservedorally."[44]

Thedesignofthedomesticfirealtarintheulba
Stra

Theearliestmathematicalprosecommentarywasthatonthework,ryabhaya(written499CE),aworkonastronomyandmathematics.The
mathematicalportionoftheryabhayawascomposedof33stras(inverseform)consistingofmathematicalstatementsorrules,but
withoutanyproofs.[45]However,accordingto(Hayashi2003,p.123),"thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthattheirauthorsdidnotprovethem.It
wasprobablyamatterofstyleofexposition."FromthetimeofBhaskaraI(600CEonwards),prosecommentariesincreasinglybeganto
includesomederivations(upapatti).BhaskaraI'scommentaryontheryabhaya,hadthefollowingstructure:[45]
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Rule('stra')inversebyryabhaa
CommentarybyBhskaraI,consistingof:
Elucidationofrule(derivationswerestillrarethen,butbecamemorecommonlater)
Example(uddeaka)usuallyinverse.
Setting(nysa/sthpan)ofthenumericaldata.
Working(karana)ofthesolution.
Verification(pratyayakaraa,literally"tomakeconviction")oftheanswer.Thesebecamerarebythe13thcentury,derivations
orproofsbeingfavouredbythen.[45]
Typically,foranymathematicaltopic,studentsinancientIndiafirstmemorisedthestras,which,asexplainedearlier,were"deliberately
inadequate"[44]inexplanatorydetails(inordertopithilyconveythebarebonemathematicalrules).Thestudentsthenworkedthroughthe
topicsoftheprosecommentarybywriting(anddrawingdiagrams)onchalkanddustboards(i.e.boardscoveredwithdust).Thelatter
activity,astapleofmathematicalwork,wastolaterpromptmathematicianastronomer,Brahmagupta(fl.7thcenturyCE),tocharacterise
astronomicalcomputationsas"dustwork"(Sanskrit:dhulikarman).[46]

Numeralsandthedecimalnumbersystem
ItiswellknownthatthedecimalplacevaluesysteminusetodaywasfirstrecordedinIndia,thentransmittedtotheIslamicworld,and
eventuallytoEurope.[47]TheSyrianbishopSeverusSebokhtwroteinthemid7thcenturyCEaboutthe"ninesigns"oftheIndiansfor
expressingnumbers.[47]However,how,when,andwherethefirstdecimalplacevaluesystemwasinventedisnotsoclear.[48]
TheearliestextantscriptusedinIndiawastheKharohscriptusedintheGandharacultureofthenorthwest.ItisthoughttobeofAramaic
originanditwasinusefromthe4thcenturyBCEtothe4thcenturyCE.Almostcontemporaneously,anotherscript,theBrhmscript,
appearedonmuchofthesubcontinent,andwouldlaterbecomethefoundationofmanyscriptsofSouthAsiaandSoutheastAsia.Both
scriptshadnumeralsymbolsandnumeralsystems,whichwereinitiallynotbasedonaplacevaluesystem.[49]
TheearliestsurvivingevidenceofdecimalplacevaluenumeralsinIndiaandsoutheastAsiaisfromthemiddleofthefirstmillenniumCE.[50]
AcopperplatefromGujarat,Indiamentionsthedate595CE,writteninadecimalplacevaluenotation,althoughthereissomedoubtastothe
authenticityoftheplate.[50]Decimalnumeralsrecordingtheyears683CEhavealsobeenfoundinstoneinscriptionsinIndonesiaand
Cambodia,whereIndianculturalinfluencewassubstantial.[50]

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Thereareoldertextualsources,althoughtheextantmanuscriptcopiesofthesetextsarefrommuchlaterdates.[51]Probablytheearliestsuch
sourceistheworkoftheBuddhistphilosopherVasumitradatedlikelytothe1stcenturyCE.[51]Discussingthecountingpitsofmerchants,
Vasumitraremarks,"When[thesame]claycountingpieceisintheplaceofunits,itisdenotedasone,wheninhundreds,onehundred."[51]
Althoughsuchreferencesseemtoimplythathisreadershadknowledgeofadecimalplacevaluerepresentation,the"brevityoftheirallusions
andtheambiguityoftheirdates,however,donotsolidlyestablishthechronologyofthedevelopmentofthisconcept."[51]
Athirddecimalrepresentationwasemployedinaversecompositiontechnique,laterlabelledBhutasankhya(literally,"objectnumbers")used
byearlySanskritauthorsoftechnicalbooks.[52]Sincemanyearlytechnicalworkswerecomposedinverse,numberswereoftenrepresentedby
objectsinthenaturalorreligiousworldthatcorrespondencetothemthisallowedamanytoonecorrespondenceforeachnumberandmade
versecompositioneasier.[52]AccordingtoPlofker2009,thenumber4,forexample,couldberepresentedbytheword"Veda"(sincethere
werefourofthesereligioustexts),thenumber32bytheword"teeth"(sinceafullsetconsistsof32),andthenumber1by"moon"(sincethere
isonlyonemoon).[52]So,Veda/teeth/moonwouldcorrespondtothedecimalnumeral1324,astheconventionfornumberswastoenumerate
theirdigitsfromrighttoleft.[52]Theearliestreferenceemployingobjectnumbersisaca.269CESanskrittext,Yavanajtaka(literally"Greek
horoscopy")ofSphujidhvaja,aversificationofanearlier(ca.150CE)IndianproseadaptationofalostworkofHellenisticastrology.[53]Such
useseemstomakethecasethatbythemid3rdcenturyCE,thedecimalplacevaluesystemwasfamiliar,atleasttoreadersofastronomical
andastrologicaltextsinIndia.[52]
IthasbeenhypothesizedthattheIndiandecimalplacevaluesystemwasbasedonthesymbolsusedonChinesecountingboardsfromasearly
asthemiddleofthefirstmillenniumBCE.[54]AccordingtoPlofker2009,
Thesecountingboards,liketheIndiancountingpits,...,hadadecimalplacevaluestructure...Indiansmaywellhavelearnedof
thesedecimalplacevalue"rodnumerals"fromChineseBuddhistpilgrimsorothertravelers,ortheymayhavedevelopedthe
conceptindependentlyfromtheirearliernonplacevaluesystemnodocumentaryevidencesurvivestoconfirmeither
conclusion."[54]

BakhshaliManuscript
TheoldestextantmathematicalmanuscriptinSouthAsiaistheBakhshaliManuscript,abirchbarkmanuscriptwrittenin"Buddhisthybrid
Sanskrit"[12]intheradscript,whichwasusedinthenorthwesternregionoftheIndiansubcontinentbetweenthe8thand12thcenturies
CE.[55]Themanuscriptwasdiscoveredin1881byafarmerwhiledigginginastoneenclosureinthevillageofBakhshali,nearPeshawar(then
inBritishIndiaandnowinPakistan).OfunknownauthorshipandnowpreservedintheBodleianLibraryinOxfordUniversity,themanuscript
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hasbeenvariouslydatedasearlyasthe"earlycenturiesoftheChristianera"[56]andaslateasbetweenthe9thand12thcenturyCE.[57]The
7thcenturyCEisnowconsideredaplausibledate,[58]albeitwiththelikelihoodthatthe"manuscriptinitspresentdayformconstitutesa
commentaryoracopyofananteriormathematicalwork."[59]
Thesurvivingmanuscripthasseventyleaves,someofwhichareinfragments.Itsmathematicalcontentconsistsofrulesandexamples,written
inverse,togetherwithprosecommentaries,whichincludesolutionstotheexamples.[55]Thetopicstreatedincludearithmetic(fractions,square
roots,profitandloss,simpleinterest,theruleofthree,andregulafalsi)andalgebra(simultaneouslinearequationsandquadraticequations),
andarithmeticprogressions.Inaddition,thereisahandfulofgeometricproblems(includingproblemsaboutvolumesofirregularsolids).The
Bakhshalimanuscriptalso"employsadecimalplacevaluesystemwithadotforzero."[55]Manyofitsproblemsareofacategoryknownas
'equalisationproblems'thatleadtosystemsoflinearequations.OneexamplefromFragmentIII53visthefollowing:
"Onemerchanthassevenasavahorses,asecondhasninehayahorses,andathirdhastencamels.Theyareequallywelloffinthe
valueoftheiranimalsifeachgivestwoanimals,onetoeachoftheothers.Findthepriceofeachanimalandthetotalvalueforthe
animalspossessedbyeachmerchant."[60]
Theprosecommentaryaccompanyingtheexamplesolvestheproblembyconvertingittothree(underdetermined)equationsinfour
unknownsandassumingthatthepricesareallintegers.[60]

ClassicalPeriod(4001600)
ThisperiodisoftenknownasthegoldenageofIndianMathematics.ThisperiodsawmathematicianssuchasAryabhata,Varahamihira,
Brahmagupta,BhaskaraI,Mahavira,BhaskaraII,MadhavaofSangamagramaandNilakanthaSomayajigivebroaderandclearershapeto
manybranchesofmathematics.TheircontributionswouldspreadtoAsia,theMiddleEast,andeventuallytoEurope.UnlikeVedic
mathematics,theirworksincludedbothastronomicalandmathematicalcontributions.Infact,mathematicsofthatperiodwasincludedinthe
'astralscience'(jyotistra)andconsistedofthreesubdisciplines:mathematicalsciences(gaitaortantra),horoscopeastrology(horor
jtaka)anddivination(sahit).[46]ThistripartitedivisionisseeninVarhamihira's6thcenturycompilationPancasiddhantika[61](literally
panca,"five,"siddhnta,"conclusionofdeliberation",dated575CE)offiveearlierworks,SuryaSiddhanta,RomakaSiddhanta,Paulisa
Siddhanta,VasishthaSiddhantaandPaitamahaSiddhanta,whichwereadaptationsofstillearlierworksofMesopotamian,Greek,Egyptian,
RomanandIndianastronomy.Asexplainedearlier,themaintextswerecomposedinSanskritverse,andwerefollowedbyprose
commentaries.[46]

Fifthandsixthcenturies
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SuryaSiddhanta
Thoughitsauthorshipisunknown,theSuryaSiddhanta(c.400)containstherootsofmoderntrigonometry.Becauseitcontainsmanywordsof
foreignorigin,someauthorsconsiderthatitwaswrittenundertheinfluenceofMesopotamiaandGreece.[62]
Thisancienttextusesthefollowingastrigonometricfunctionsforthefirsttime:
Sine(Jya).
Cosine(Kojya).
Inversesine(Otkramjya).
Italsocontainstheearliestusesof:
Tangent.
Secant.
LaterIndianmathematicianssuchasAryabhatamadereferencestothistext,whilelaterArabicandLatintranslationswereveryinfluentialin
EuropeandtheMiddleEast.
Chhedicalendar
ThisChhedicalendar(594)containsanearlyuseofthemodernplacevalueHinduArabicnumeralsystemnowuseduniversally(seealso
HinduArabicnumerals).
AryabhataI
Aryabhata(476550)wrotetheAryabhatiya.Hedescribedtheimportantfundamentalprinciplesofmathematicsin332shlokas.Thetreatise
contained:
Quadraticequations
Trigonometry
Thevalueof,correctto4decimalplaces.
AryabhataalsowrotetheAryaSiddhanta,whichisnowlost.Aryabhata'scontributionsinclude:
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Trigonometry:
(Seealso:Aryabhata'ssinetable)
Introducedthetrigonometricfunctions.
Definedthesine(jya)asthemodernrelationshipbetweenhalfanangleandhalfachord.
Definedthecosine(kojya).
Definedtheversine(utkramajya).
Definedtheinversesine(otkramjya).
Gavemethodsofcalculatingtheirapproximatenumericalvalues.
Containstheearliesttablesofsine,cosineandversinevalues,in3.75intervalsfrom0to90,to4decimalplacesofaccuracy.
Containsthetrigonometricformulasin(n+1)xsinnx=sinnxsin(n1)x(1/225)sinnx.
Sphericaltrigonometry.
Arithmetic:
Continuedfractions.
Algebra:
Solutionsofsimultaneousquadraticequations.
Wholenumbersolutionsoflinearequationsbyamethodequivalenttothemodernmethod.
Generalsolutionoftheindeterminatelinearequation.
Mathematicalastronomy:
Accuratecalculationsforastronomicalconstants,suchasthe:
Solareclipse.
Lunareclipse.
Theformulaforthesumofthecubes,whichwasanimportantstepinthedevelopmentofintegralcalculus.[63]
Varahamihira
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Varahamihira(505587)producedthePanchaSiddhanta(TheFiveAstronomicalCanons).Hemadeimportantcontributionstotrigonometry,
includingsineandcosinetablesto4decimalplacesofaccuracyandthefollowingformulasrelatingsineandcosinefunctions:

Seventhandeighthcenturies
Inthe7thcentury,twoseparatefields,arithmetic(whichincludedmensuration)andalgebra,beganto
emergeinIndianmathematics.Thetwofieldswouldlaterbecalledpgaita(literally"mathematicsof
algorithms")andbjagaita(lit."mathematicsofseeds,"with"seeds"liketheseedsofplants
representingunknownswiththepotentialtogenerate,inthiscase,thesolutionsofequations).[64]
Brahmagupta,inhisastronomicalworkBrhmaSphuaSiddhnta(628CE),includedtwochapters(12
and18)devotedtothesefields.Chapter12,containing66Sanskritverses,wasdividedintotwosections:
"basicoperations"(includingcuberoots,fractions,ratioandproportion,andbarter)and"practical
mathematics"(includingmixture,mathematicalseries,planefigures,stackingbricks,sawingoftimber,
andpilingofgrain).[65]Inthelattersection,hestatedhisfamoustheoremonthediagonalsofacyclic
quadrilateral:[65]
Brahmagupta'stheorem:Ifacyclicquadrilateralhasdiagonalsthatareperpendiculartoeachother,then
theperpendicularlinedrawnfromthepointofintersectionofthediagonalstoanysideofthequadrilateral
alwaysbisectstheoppositeside.

Brahmagupta'stheoremstatesthat
AF=FD.

Chapter12alsoincludedaformulafortheareaofacyclicquadrilateral(ageneralisationofHeron'sformula),aswellasacompletedescription
ofrationaltriangles(i.e.triangleswithrationalsidesandrationalareas).
Brahmagupta'sformula:Thearea,A,ofacyclicquadrilateralwithsidesoflengthsa,b,c,d,respectively,isgivenby

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wheres,thesemiperimeter,givenby
Brahmagupta'sTheoremonrationaltriangles:Atrianglewithrationalsides

forsomerationalnumbers

andrationalareaisoftheform:

and .[66]

Chapter18contained103Sanskritverseswhichbeganwithrulesforarithmeticaloperationsinvolvingzeroandnegativenumbers[65]andis
consideredthefirstsystematictreatmentofthesubject.Therules(whichincluded
and
)wereallcorrect,withone
exception:

.[65]Laterinthechapter,hegavethefirstexplicit(althoughstillnotcompletelygeneral)solutionofthequadraticequation:

Totheabsolutenumbermultipliedbyfourtimesthe[coefficientofthe]square,addthesquareofthe[coefficientofthe]middle
termthesquarerootofthesame,lessthe[coefficientofthe]middleterm,beingdividedbytwicethe[coefficientofthe]
squareisthevalue.

Thisisequivalentto:

Alsoinchapter18,Brahmaguptawasabletomakeprogressinfinding(integral)solutionsofPell'sequation,[68]

where

isanonsquareinteger.Hedidthisbydiscoveringthefollowingidentity:[68]

Brahmagupta'sIdentity:

whichwasageneralisationofanearlier

identityofDiophantus:[68]Brahmaguptausedhisidentitytoprovethefollowinglemma:[68]
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Lemma(Brahmagupta):If
,then:

isasolutionof

and,

isasolutionof

isasolutionof
Hethenusedthislemmatobothgenerateinfinitelymany(integral)solutionsofPell'sequation,givenonesolution,andstatethefollowing
theorem:
Theorem(Brahmagupta):Iftheequation

hasanintegersolutionforanyoneof

thenPell'sequation:

alsohasanintegersolution.[69]
Brahmaguptadidnotactuallyprovethetheorem,butratherworkedoutexamplesusinghismethod.Thefirstexamplehepresentedwas:[68]
Example(Brahmagupta):Findintegers

suchthat:

Inhiscommentary,Brahmaguptaadded,"apersonsolvingthisproblemwithinayearisamathematician."[68]Thesolutionheprovidedwas:

BhaskaraI
BhaskaraI(c.600680)expandedtheworkofAryabhatainhisbookstitledMahabhaskariya,AryabhatiyabhashyaandLaghubhaskariya.
Heproduced:
Solutionsofindeterminateequations.
Arationalapproximationofthesinefunction.
Aformulaforcalculatingthesineofanacuteanglewithouttheuseofatable,correcttotwodecimalplaces.

Ninthtotwelfthcenturies
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Virasena
Virasena(8thcentury)wasaJainmathematicianinthecourtofRashtrakutaKingAmoghavarshaofManyakheta,Karnataka.Hewrotethe
Dhavala,acommentaryonJainmathematics,which:
Dealswiththeconceptofardhaccheda,thenumberoftimesanumbercouldbehalvedeffectivelylogarithmstobase2,andlists
variousrulesinvolvingthisoperation.[70][71]
Firstuseslogarithmstobase3(trakacheda)andbase4(caturthacheda).
Virasenaalsogave:
Thederivationofthevolumeofafrustumbyasortofinfiniteprocedure.
ItisthoughtthatmuchofthemathematicalmaterialintheDhavalacanattributedtopreviouswriters,especiallyKundakunda,Shamakunda,
Tumbulura,SamantabhadraandBappadevaanddatewhowrotebetween200and600CE.[71]
Mahavira
MahaviraAcharya(c.800870)fromKarnataka,thelastofthenotableJainmathematicians,livedinthe9thcenturyandwaspatronisedbythe
RashtrakutakingAmoghavarsha.HewroteabooktitledGanitSaarSangrahaonnumericalmathematics,andalsowrotetreatisesaboutawide
rangeofmathematicaltopics.Theseincludethemathematicsof:
Zero
Squares
Cubes
squareroots,cuberoots,andtheseriesextendingbeyondthese
Planegeometry
Solidgeometry
Problemsrelatingtothecastingofshadows
Formulaederivedtocalculatetheareaofanellipseandquadrilateralinsideacircle.
Mahaviraalso:

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Assertedthatthesquarerootofanegativenumberdidnotexist
Gavethesumofaserieswhosetermsaresquaresofanarithmeticalprogression,andgaveempiricalrulesforareaandperimeterofan
ellipse.
Solvedcubicequations.
Solvedquarticequations.
Solvedsomequinticequationsandhigherorderpolynomials.
Gavethegeneralsolutionsofthehigherorderpolynomialequations:

Solvedindeterminatequadraticequations.
Solvedindeterminatecubicequations.
Solvedindeterminatehigherorderequations.
Shridhara
Shridhara(c.870930),wholivedinBengal,wrotethebookstitledNavShatika,TriShatikaandPatiGanita.Hegave:
Agoodruleforfindingthevolumeofasphere.
Theformulaforsolvingquadraticequations.
ThePatiGanitaisaworkonarithmeticandmensuration.Itdealswithvariousoperations,including:
Elementaryoperations
Extractingsquareandcuberoots.
Fractions.
Eightrulesgivenforoperationsinvolvingzero.
Methodsofsummationofdifferentarithmeticandgeometricseries,whichweretobecomestandardreferencesinlaterworks.
Manjula
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Aryabhata'sdifferentialequationswereelaboratedinthe10thcenturybyManjula(alsoMunjala),whorealisedthattheexpression[72]

couldbeapproximatelyexpressedas

Heunderstoodtheconceptofdifferentiationaftersolvingthedifferentialequationthatresultedfromsubstitutingthisexpressioninto
Aryabhata'sdifferentialequation.[72]
AryabhataII
AryabhataII(c.9201000)wroteacommentaryonShridhara,andanastronomicaltreatiseMahaSiddhanta.TheMahaSiddhantahas18
chapters,anddiscusses:
Numericalmathematics(AnkGanit).
Algebra.
Solutionsofindeterminateequations(kuttaka).
Shripati
ShripatiMishra(10191066)wrotethebooksSiddhantaShekhara,amajorworkonastronomyin19chapters,andGanitTilaka,an
incompletearithmeticaltreatisein125versesbasedonaworkbyShridhara.Heworkedmainlyon:
Permutationsandcombinations.
Generalsolutionofthesimultaneousindeterminatelinearequation.
HewasalsotheauthorofDhikotidakarana,aworkoftwentyverseson:
Solareclipse.
Lunareclipse.
TheDhruvamanasaisaworkof105verseson:
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Calculatingplanetarylongitudes
eclipses.
planetarytransits.
NemichandraSiddhantaChakravati
NemichandraSiddhantaChakravati(c.1100)authoredamathematicaltreatisetitledGomematSaar.
BhaskaraII
BhskaraII(11141185)wasamathematicianastronomerwhowroteanumberofimportanttreatises,namelytheSiddhantaShiromani,
Lilavati,Bijaganita,GolaAddhaya,GrihaGanitamandKaranKautoohal.AnumberofhiscontributionswerelatertransmittedtotheMiddle
EastandEurope.Hiscontributionsinclude:
Arithmetic:
Interestcomputation
Arithmeticalandgeometricalprogressions
Planegeometry
Solidgeometry
Theshadowofthegnomon
Solutionsofcombinations
Gaveaprooffordivisionbyzerobeinginfinity.
Algebra:
Therecognitionofapositivenumberhavingtwosquareroots.
Surds.
Operationswithproductsofseveralunknowns.
Thesolutionsof:
Quadraticequations.
Cubicequations.
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Quarticequations.
Equationswithmorethanoneunknown.
Quadraticequationswithmorethanoneunknown.
ThegeneralformofPell'sequationusingthechakravalamethod.
Thegeneralindeterminatequadraticequationusingthechakravalamethod.
Indeterminatecubicequations.
Indeterminatequarticequations.
Indeterminatehigherorderpolynomialequations.
Geometry:
GaveaproofofthePythagoreantheorem.
Calculus:
Conceivedofdifferentialcalculus.
Discoveredthederivative.
Discoveredthedifferentialcoefficient.
Developeddifferentiation.
StatedRolle'stheorem,aspecialcaseofthemeanvaluetheorem(oneofthemostimportanttheoremsofcalculusandanalysis).
Derivedthedifferentialofthesinefunction.
Computed,correcttofivedecimalplaces.
CalculatedthelengthoftheEarth'srevolutionaroundtheSunto9decimalplaces.
Trigonometry:
Developmentsofsphericaltrigonometry
Thetrigonometricformulas:

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Keralamathematics(13001600)
TheKeralaschoolofastronomyandmathematicswasfoundedbyMadhavaofSangamagramainKerala,SouthIndiaandincludedamongits
members:Parameshvara,NeelakantaSomayaji,Jyeshtadeva,AchyutaPisharati,MelpathurNarayanaBhattathiriandAchyutaPanikkar.It
flourishedbetweenthe14thand16thcenturiesandtheoriginaldiscoveriesoftheschoolseemstohaveendedwithNarayanaBhattathiri
(15591632).Inattemptingtosolveastronomicalproblems,theKeralaschoolastronomersindependentlycreatedanumberofimportant
mathematicsconcepts.Themostimportantresults,seriesexpansionfortrigonometricfunctions,weregiveninSanskritverseinabookby
NeelakantacalledTantrasangrahaandacommentaryonthisworkcalledTantrasangrahavakhyaofunknownauthorship.Thetheoremswere
statedwithoutproof,butproofsfortheseriesforsine,cosine,andinversetangentwereprovidedacenturylaterintheworkYuktibh
(c.1500c.1610),writteninMalayalam,byJyesthadeva,andalsoinacommentaryonTantrasangraha.[73]
TheirdiscoveryofthesethreeimportantseriesexpansionsofcalculusseveralcenturiesbeforecalculuswasdevelopedinEuropebyIsaac
NewtonandGottfriedLeibnizwasanachievement.However,theKeralaSchooldidnotinventcalculus,[74]because,whiletheywereableto
developTaylorseriesexpansionsfortheimportanttrigonometricfunctions,differentiation,termbytermintegration,convergencetests,
iterativemethodsforsolutionsofnonlinearequations,andthetheorythattheareaunderacurveisitsintegral,theydevelopedneitheratheory
ofdifferentiationorintegration,northefundamentaltheoremofcalculus.[75]TheresultsobtainedbytheKeralaschoolinclude:
The(infinite)geometricseries:

[76]Thisformulawasalreadyknown,for

example,intheworkofthe10thcenturyArabmathematicianAlhazen(theLatinisedformofthenameIbnAlHaytham(9651039)).[77]
Asemirigorousproof(see"induction"remarkbelow)oftheresult:

forlargen.Thisresultwasalso

knowntoAlhazen.[73]
Intuitiveuseofmathematicalinduction,however,theinductivehypothesiswasnotformulatedoremployedinproofs.[73]
Applicationsofideasfrom(whatwastobecome)differentialandintegralcalculustoobtain(TaylorMaclaurin)infiniteseriesfor
,

,and

[74]TheTantrasangrahavakhyagivestheseriesinverse,whichwhentranslatedtomathematicalnotation,can

bewrittenas:[73]

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where,forr=1,theseriesreducestothestandardpowerseriesforthesetrigonometricfunctions,forexample:

and

Useofrectification(computationoflength)ofthearcofacircletogiveaproofoftheseresults.(ThelatermethodofLeibniz,using
quadrature(i.e.computationofareaunderthearcofthecircle,wasnotused.)[73]
Useofseriesexpansionof

toobtainaninfiniteseriesexpression(laterknownasGregoryseries)for :[73]

Arationalapproximationoferrorforthefinitesumoftheirseriesofinterest.Forexample,theerror,

,(fornodd,andi=1,

2,3)fortheseries:

Manipulationoferrortermtoderiveafasterconvergingseriesfor :[73]

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Usingtheimprovedseriestoderivearationalexpression,[73]104348/33215forcorrectuptoninedecimalplaces,i.e.3.141592653.
Useofanintuitivenotionoflimittocomputetheseresults.[73]
Asemirigorous(seeremarkonlimitsabove)methodofdifferentiationofsometrigonometricfunctions.[75]However,theydidnot
formulatethenotionofafunction,orhaveknowledgeoftheexponentialorlogarithmicfunctions.
TheworksoftheKeralaschoolwerefirstwrittenupfortheWesternworldbyEnglishmanC.M.Whishin1835.AccordingtoWhish,the
Keralamathematicianshad"laidthefoundationforacompletesystemoffluxions"andtheseworksabounded"withfluxionalformsandseries
tobefoundinnoworkofforeigncountries."[78]
However,Whish'sresultswerealmostcompletelyneglected,untiloveracenturylater,whenthediscoveriesoftheKeralaschoolwere
investigatedagainbyC.Rajagopalandhisassociates.TheirworkincludescommentariesontheproofsofthearctanseriesinYuktibhgiven
intwopapers,[79][80]acommentaryontheYuktibh'sproofofthesineandcosineseries[81]andtwopapersthatprovidetheSanskritversesof
theTantrasangrahavakhyafortheseriesforarctan,sin,andcosine(withEnglishtranslationandcommentary).[82][83]
TheKeralamathematiciansincludedNarayanaPandit(c.13401400),whocomposedtwoworks,anarithmeticaltreatise,GanitaKaumudi,
andanalgebraictreatise,BijganitaVatamsa.NarayanaisalsothoughttobetheauthorofanelaboratecommentaryofBhaskaraII'sLilavati,
titledKarmapradipika(orKarmaPaddhati).MadhavaofSangamagrama(c.13401425)wasthefounderoftheKeralaSchool.Althoughitis
possiblethathewroteKaranaPaddhatiaworkwrittensometimebetween1375and1475,allwereallyknowofhisworkcomesfromworks
oflaterscholars.
Parameshvara(c.13701460)wrotecommentariesontheworksofBhaskaraI,AryabhataandBhaskaraII.HisLilavatiBhasya,acommentary
onBhaskaraII'sLilavati,containsoneofhisimportantdiscoveries:aversionofthemeanvaluetheorem.NilakanthaSomayaji(14441544)
composedtheTantraSamgraha(which'spawned'alateranonymouscommentaryTantrasangrahavyakhyaandafurthercommentarybythe
nameYuktidipaika,writtenin1501).HeelaboratedandextendedthecontributionsofMadhava.
Citrabhanu(c.1530)wasa16thcenturymathematicianfromKeralawhogaveintegersolutionsto21typesofsystemsoftwosimultaneous
algebraicequationsintwounknowns.Thesetypesareallthepossiblepairsofequationsofthefollowingsevenforms:

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Foreachcase,Citrabhanugaveanexplanationandjustificationofhisruleaswellasanexample.Someofhisexplanationsarealgebraic,while
othersaregeometric.Jyesthadeva(c.15001575)wasanothermemberoftheKeralaSchool.HiskeyworkwastheYuktibh(writtenin
Malayalam,aregionallanguageofKerala).Jyesthadevapresentedproofsofmostmathematicaltheoremsandinfiniteseriesearlierdiscovered
byMadhavaandotherKeralaSchoolmathematicians.

ChargesofEurocentrism
IthasbeensuggestedthatIndiancontributionstomathematicshavenotbeengivendueacknowledgementinmodernhistoryandthatmany
discoveriesandinventionsbyIndianmathematiciansarepresentlyculturallyattributedtotheirWesterncounterparts,asaresultof
Eurocentrism.AccordingtoG.G.Joseph'stakeon"Ethnomathematics":
[Theirwork]takesonboardsomeoftheobjectionsraisedabouttheclassicalEurocentrictrajectory.Theawareness[ofIndianand
Arabicmathematics]isalltoolikelytobetemperedwithdismissiverejectionsoftheirimportancecomparedtoGreek
mathematics.ThecontributionsfromothercivilisationsmostnotablyChinaandIndia,areperceivedeitherasborrowersfrom
Greeksourcesorhavingmadeonlyminorcontributionstomainstreammathematicaldevelopment.Anopennesstomorerecent
researchfindings,especiallyinthecaseofIndianandChinesemathematics,issadlymissing"[84]
Thehistorianofmathematics,FlorianCajori,suggestedthatheandothers"suspectthatDiophantusgothisfirstglimpseofalgebraic
knowledgefromIndia."[85]However,healsowrotethat"itiscertainthatportionsofHindumathematicsareofGreekorigin".[86]
Morerecently,asdiscussedintheabovesection,theinfiniteseriesofcalculusfortrigonometricfunctions(rediscoveredbyGregory,Taylor,
andMaclaurininthelate17thcentury)weredescribed(withproofs)inIndia,bymathematiciansoftheKeralaschool,remarkablysometwo
centuriesearlier.SomescholarshaverecentlysuggestedthatknowledgeoftheseresultsmighthavebeentransmittedtoEuropethroughthe
traderoutefromKeralabytradersandJesuitmissionaries.[87]KeralawasincontinuouscontactwithChinaandArabia,and,fromaround1500,
withEurope.Theexistenceofcommunicationroutesandasuitablechronologycertainlymakesuchatransmissionapossibility.However,
thereisnodirectevidencebywayofrelevantmanuscriptsthatsuchatransmissionactuallytookplace.[87]AccordingtoDavidBressoud,
"thereisnoevidencethattheIndianworkofserieswasknownbeyondIndia,orevenoutsideofKerala,untilthenineteenthcentury."[74][88]
BothArabandIndianscholarsmadediscoveriesbeforethe17thcenturythatarenowconsideredapartofcalculus.[75]However,theywerenot
able,asNewtonandLeibnizwere,to"combinemanydifferingideasunderthetwounifyingthemesofthederivativeandtheintegral,showthe
connectionbetweenthetwo,andturncalculusintothegreatproblemsolvingtoolwehavetoday."[75]TheintellectualcareersofbothNewton
andLeibnizarewelldocumentedandthereisnoindicationoftheirworknotbeingtheirown[75]however,itisnotknownwithcertainty
whethertheimmediatepredecessorsofNewtonandLeibniz,"including,inparticular,FermatandRoberval,learnedofsomeoftheideasof
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theIslamicandIndianmathematiciansthroughsourceswearenotnowaware."[75]Thisisanactiveareaofcurrentresearch,especiallyinthe
manuscriptscollectionsofSpainandMaghreb,researchthatisnowbeingpursued,amongotherplaces,attheCentreNationaldeRecherche
ScientifiqueinParis.[75]

Seealso
ShulbaSutras
Keralaschoolofastronomyandmathematics
SuryaSiddhanta
Brahmagupta
Bakhshalimanuscript
ListofIndianmathematicians
Indianscienceandtechnology
Indianlogic
Indianastronomy
Historyofmathematics
ListofnumbersinHinduscriptures

Notes
1. ^abEncyclopaediaBritannica(KimPlofker)2007,p.1
2. ^abcd(Hayashi2005,pp.360361)
3. ^Ifrah2000,p.346:"ThemeasureofthegeniusofIndiancivilisation,towhichweoweourmodern(number)system,isallthegreaterinthatitwasthe
onlyoneinallhistorytohaveachievedthistriumph.Someculturessucceeded,earlierthantheSouthAsiancultures,indiscoveringoneoratbesttwoof
thecharacteristicsofthisintellectualfeat.Butnoneofthemmanagedtobringtogetherintoacompleteandcoherentsystemthenecessaryandsufficient
conditionsforanumbersystemwiththesamepotentialasourown."
4. ^Plofker2009,pp.4447

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5. ^Bourbaki1998,p.46:"...ourdecimalsystem,which(bytheagencyoftheArabs)isderivedfromHindumathematics,whereitsuseisattestedalready
fromthefirstcenturiesofourera.Itmustbenotedmoreoverthattheconceptionofzeroasanumberandnotasasimplesymbolofseparation)andits
introductionintocalculations,alsocountamongsttheoriginalcontributionoftheHindus."
6. ^Bourbaki1998,p.49:Modernarithmeticwasknownduringmedievaltimesas"ModusIndorum"ormethodoftheIndians.LeonardoofPisawrote
thatcomparedtomethodoftheIndiansallothermethodsisamistake.ThismethodoftheIndiansisnoneotherthanourverysimplearithmeticof
addition,subtraction,multiplicationanddivision.RulesforthesefoursimpleprocedureswasfirstwrittendownbyBrahmaguptaduring7thcenturyCE.
"Onthispoint,theHindusarealreadyconsciousoftheinterpretationthatnegativenumbersmusthaveincertaincases(adebtinacommercialproblem,
forinstance).Inthefollowingcenturies,asthereisadiffusionintotheWest(byintermediaryoftheArabs)ofthemethodsandresultsofGreekand
Hindumathematics,onebecomesmoreusedtothehandlingofthesenumbers,andonebeginstohaveother"representation"forthemwhichare
geometricordynamic."
7. ^ab"algebra"2007.BritannicaConciseEncyclopedia(http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article231064).EncyclopdiaBritannicaOnline.16May2007.
Quote:"Afullfledgeddecimal,positionalsystemcertainlyexistedinIndiabythe9thcentury(CE),yetmanyofitscentralideashadbeentransmitted
wellbeforethattimetoChinaandtheIslamicworld.Indianarithmetic,moreover,developedconsistentandcorrectrulesforoperatingwithpositiveand
negativenumbersandfortreatingzerolikeanyothernumber,eveninproblematiccontextssuchasdivision.Severalhundredyearspassedbefore
Europeanmathematiciansfullyintegratedsuchideasintothedevelopingdisciplineofalgebra."
8. ^(Pingree2003,p.45)Quote:"Geometry,anditsbranchtrigonometry,wasthemathematicsIndianastronomersusedmostfrequently.Greek
mathematiciansusedthefullchordandneverimaginedthehalfchordthatweusetoday.HalfchordwasfirstusedbyAryabhatawhichmade
trigonometrymuchmoresimple.Infact,theIndianastronomersinthethirdorfourthcentury,usingaprePtolemaicGreektableofchords,produced
tablesofsinesandversines,fromwhichitwastrivialtoderivecosines.Thisnewsystemoftrigonometry,producedinIndia,wastransmittedtothe
Arabsinthelateeighthcenturyandbythem,inanexpandedform,totheLatinWestandtheByzantineEastinthetwelfthcentury."
9. ^(Bourbaki1998,p.126):"Asfortrigonometry,itisdisdainedbygeometersandabandonedtosurveyorsandastronomersitistheselatter
(Aristarchus,Hipparchus,Ptolemy)whoestablishthefundamentalrelationsbetweenthesidesandanglesofarightangledtriangle(planeorspherical)
anddrawupthefirsttables(theyconsistoftablesgivingthechordofthearccutoutbyanangle
number

onacircleofradiusr,inotherwordsthe

theintroductionofthesine,moreeasilyhandled,isduetoHindumathematiciansoftheMiddleAges)."

10. ^Filliozat2004,pp.140143
11. ^Hayashi1995
12. ^abEncyclopaediaBritannica(KimPlofker)2007,p.6
13. ^Stillwell2004,p.173

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14. ^Bressoud2002,p.12Quote:"ThereisnoevidencethattheIndianworkonserieswasknownbeyondIndia,orevenoutsideKerala,untilthenineteenth
century.GoldandPingreeassert[4]thatbythetimetheseserieswererediscoveredinEurope,theyhad,forallpracticalpurposes,beenlosttoIndia.
Theexpansionsofthesine,cosine,andarctangenthadbeenpasseddownthroughseveralgenerationsofdisciples,buttheyremainedsterileobservations
forwhichnoonecouldfindmuchuse."
15. ^Plofker2001,p.293Quote:"ItisnotunusualtoencounterindiscussionsofIndianmathematicssuchassertionsasthattheconceptofdifferentiation
wasunderstood[inIndia]fromthetimeofManjula(...inthe10thcentury)[Joseph1991,300],orthat"wemayconsiderMadhavatohavebeenthe
founderofmathematicalanalysis"(Joseph1991,293),orthatBhaskaraIImayclaimtobe"theprecursorofNewtonandLeibnizinthediscoveryofthe
principleofthedifferentialcalculus"(Bag1979,294)....Thepointsofresemblance,particularlybetweenearlyEuropeancalculusandtheKeralesework
onpowerseries,haveeveninspiredsuggestionsofapossibletransmissionofmathematicalideasfromtheMalabarcoastinorafterthe15thcenturyto
theLatinscholarlyworld(e.g.,in(Bag1979,285))....Itshouldbeborneinmind,however,thatsuchanemphasisonthesimilarityofSanskrit(or
Malayalam)andLatinmathematicsrisksdiminishingourabilityfullytoseeandcomprehendtheformer.TospeakoftheIndian"discoveryofthe
principleofthedifferentialcalculus"somewhatobscuresthefactthatIndiantechniquesforexpressingchangesintheSinebymeansoftheCosineor
viceversa,asintheexampleswehaveseen,remainedwithinthatspecifictrigonometriccontext.Thedifferential"principle"wasnotgeneralisedto
arbitraryfunctionsinfact,theexplicitnotionofanarbitraryfunction,nottomentionthatofitsderivativeoranalgorithmfortakingthederivative,is
irrelevanthere"
16. ^Pingree1992,p.562Quote:"OneexampleIcangiveyourelatestotheIndianMdhava'sdemonstration,inabout1400A.D.,oftheinfinitepower
seriesoftrigonometricalfunctionsusinggeometricalandalgebraicarguments.WhenthiswasfirstdescribedinEnglishbyCharlesMatthewWhish,in
the1830s,itwasheraldedastheIndians'discoveryofthecalculus.ThisclaimandMdhava'sachievementswereignoredbyWesternhistorians,
presumablyatfirstbecausetheycouldnotadmitthatanIndiandiscoveredthecalculus,butlaterbecausenoonereadanymoretheTransactionsofthe
RoyalAsiaticSociety,inwhichWhish'sarticlewaspublished.Thematterresurfacedinthe1950s,andnowwehavetheSanskrittextsproperlyedited,
andweunderstandthecleverwaythatMdhavaderivedtheserieswithoutthecalculusbutmanyhistoriansstillfinditimpossibletoconceiveofthe
problemanditssolutionintermsofanythingotherthanthecalculusandproclaimthatthecalculusiswhatMdhavafound.Inthiscasetheeleganceand
brillianceofMdhava'smathematicsarebeingdistortedastheyareburiedunderthecurrentmathematicalsolutiontoaproblemtowhichhediscovered
analternateandpowerfulsolution."

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17. ^Katz1995,pp.173174Quote:"HowclosedidIslamicandIndianscholarscometoinventingthecalculus?Islamicscholarsnearlydevelopeda
generalformulaforfindingintegralsofpolynomialsbyA.D.1000andevidentlycouldfindsuchaformulaforanypolynomialinwhichtheywere
interested.But,itappears,theywerenotinterestedinanypolynomialofdegreehigherthanfour,atleastinanyofthematerialthathascomedowntous.
Indianscholars,ontheotherhand,wereby1600abletouseibnalHaytham'ssumformulaforarbitraryintegralpowersincalculatingpowerseriesfor
thefunctionsinwhichtheywereinterested.Bythesametime,theyalsoknewhowtocalculatethedifferentialsofthesefunctions.Sosomeofthebasic
ideasofcalculuswereknowninEgyptandIndiamanycenturiesbeforeNewton.Itdoesnotappear,however,thateitherIslamicorIndian
mathematicianssawthenecessityofconnectingsomeofthedisparateideasthatweincludeunderthenamecalculus.Theywereapparentlyonly
interestedinspecificcasesinwhichtheseideaswereneeded.
Thereisnodanger,therefore,thatwewillhavetorewritethehistorytextstoremovethestatementthatNewtonandLeibnizinventedthecalculus.
Theywerecertainlytheoneswhowereabletocombinemanydifferingideasunderthetwounifyingthemesofthederivativeandtheintegral,showthe
connectionbetweenthem,andturnthecalculusintothegreatproblemsolvingtoolwehavetoday."
18. ^Sergent,Bernard(1997),Gensedel'Inde(inFrench),Paris:Payot,p.113,ISBN2228891169
19. ^Coppa,A.etal.(6April2006),"EarlyNeolithictraditionofdentistry:Flinttipsweresurprisinglyeffectivefordrillingtoothenamelinaprehistoric
population"(http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf),Nature440(7085):7556,doi:10.1038/440755a
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F440755a),PMID16598247(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16598247).
20. ^Bisht,R.S.(1982),"ExcavationsatBanawali:197477",inPossehl,GregoryL.(ed.),HarappanCivilisation:AContemporaryPerspective,New
Delhi:OxfordandIBHPublishingCo.,pp.113124
21. ^A.Seidenberg,1978.Theoriginofmathematics.ArchiveforthehistoryofExactSciences,vol18.
22. ^(Staal1999)
23. ^ab(Hayashi2003,p.118)
24. ^ab(Hayashi2005,p.363)
25. ^Pythagoreantriplesaretriplesofintegers(a,b,c)withtheproperty:a2+b2=c2.Thus,32+42=52,82+152=172,122+352=372,etc.
26. ^(Cooke2005,p.198):"ThearithmeticcontentoftheulvaStrasconsistsofrulesforfindingPythagoreantriplessuchas(3,4,5),(5,12,13),

(8,15,17),and(12,35,37).Itisnotcertainwhatpracticalusethesearithmeticruleshad.Thebestconjectureisthattheywerepartofreligious
ritual.AHinduhomewasrequiredtohavethreefiresburningatthreedifferentaltars.Thethreealtarsweretobeofdifferentshapes,butallthreewere
tohavethesamearea.Theseconditionsledtocertain"Diophantine"problems,aparticularcaseofwhichisthegenerationofPythagoreantriples,soas
tomakeonesquareintegerequaltothesumoftwoothers."

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27. ^(Cooke2005,pp.199200):"Therequirementofthreealtarsofequalareasbutdifferentshapeswouldexplaintheinterestintransformationofareas.
AmongothertransformationofareaproblemstheHindusconsideredinparticulartheproblemofsquaringthecircle.TheBodhayanaSutrastatesthe
converseproblemofconstructingacircleequaltoagivensquare.Thefollowingapproximateconstructionisgivenasthesolution....thisresultisonly
approximate.Theauthors,however,madenodistinctionbetweenthetworesults.Intermsthatwecanappreciate,thisconstructiongivesavalueforof
18(322),whichisabout3.088."
28. ^abc(Joseph2000,p.229)
29. ^ab(Cooke2005,p.200)
30. ^Thevalueofthisapproximation,577/408,istheseventhinasequenceofincreasinglyaccurateapproximations3/2,7/5,17/12,...to2,the
numeratorsanddenominatorsofwhichwereknownas"sideanddiameternumbers"totheancientGreeks,andinmodernmathematicsarecalledthePell
numbers.Ifx/yisoneterminthissequenceofapproximations,thenextis(x+2y)/(x+y).Theseapproximationsmayalsobederivedbytruncatingthe
continuedfractionrepresentationof2.
31. ^Neugebauer,O.andA.Sachs.1945.MathematicalCuneiformTexts,NewHaven,CT,YaleUniversityPress.p.45.
32. ^MathematicsDepartment,UniversityofBritishColumbia,TheBabyloniantabledPlimpton322(http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/courses/m446
03/pl322/pl322.html).
33. ^Threepositiveintegers

formaprimitivePythagoreantripleifc2=a2+b2andifthehighestcommonfactorofa,b,cis1.Intheparticular

Plimpton322example,thismeansthat135002+127092=185412andthatthethreenumbersdonothaveanycommonfactors.Howeversome
scholarshavedisputedthePythagoreaninterpretationofthistabletseePlimpton322fordetails.
34. ^ab(Dani2003)
35. ^ab(Fowler1996,p.11)
36. ^ab(Singh1936,pp.623624)
37. ^ab(Filliozat2004,p.137)
38. ^(Pingree1988,p.637)
39. ^(Staal1986)
40. ^abc(Filliozat2004,p.139)
41. ^abcde(Filliozat2004,pp.140141)
42. ^(Yano2006,p.146)
43. ^abc(Filliozat2004,pp.143144)
44. ^ab(Pingree1988,p.638)
45. ^abc(Hayashi2003,pp.122123)
46. ^abc(Hayashi2003,p.119)
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47. ^abPlofker2007,p.395
48. ^Plofker2007,p.395,Plofker2009,pp.4748
49. ^(Hayashi2005,p.366)
50. ^abcPlofker2009,p.45
51. ^abcdPlofker2009,p.46
52. ^abcdePlofker2009,p.47
53. ^(Pingree1978,p.494)
54. ^abPlofker2009,p.48
55. ^abc(Hayashi2005,p.371)
56. ^(Datta1931,p.566)
57. ^(Ifrah2000,p.464)Quote:"TogivethesecondorfourthcenturyCEasthedateofthisdocumentwouldbeanevidentcontradictionitwouldmean
thatanorthernderivativeofGuptawritinghadbeendevelopedtwoorthreecenturiesbeforetheGuptawritingitselfappeared.Guptaonlybeganto
evolveintoShradstylearoundtheninthcenturyCE.Inotherwords,theBak(h)shalimanuscriptcannothavebeenwrittenearlierthantheninth
centuryCE.However,inthelightofcertaincharacteristicindications,itcouldnothavebeenwrittenanylaterthanthetwelfthcenturyCE."
58. ^(Hayashi2005,p.371)Quote:"ThedatessofarproposedfortheBakhshaliworkvaryfromthethirdtothetwelfthcenturiesCE,butarecentlymade
comparativestudyhasshownmanysimilarities,particularlyinthestyleofexpositionandterminology,betweenBakhshalworkandBhskaraI's
commentaryontheryabhatya.Thisseemstoindicatethatbothworksbelongtonearlythesameperiod,althoughthisdoesnotdenythepossibilitythat
someoftherulesandexamplesintheBakhshlworkdatefromanteriorperiods."
59. ^(Ifrah2000,p.464)
60. ^abAnton,HowardandChrisRorres.2005.ElementaryLinearAlgebrawithApplications.9thedition.NewYork:JohnWileyandSons.864pages.
ISBN0471669598.
61. ^(Neugebauer&Pingree(eds.)1970)
62. ^Cooke,Roger(1997),"TheMathematicsoftheHindus",TheHistoryofMathematics:ABriefCourse,WileyInterscience,p.197,ISBN0471
180823,"ThewordSiddhantameansthatwhichisprovedorestablished.TheSulvaSutrasareofHinduorigin,buttheSiddhantascontainsomany
wordsofforeignoriginthattheyundoubtedlyhaverootsinMesopotamiaandGreece."
63. ^Katz,VictorJ.(1995),"IdeasofCalculusinIslamandIndia",MathematicsMagazine68(3):163174,doi:10.2307/2691411
(https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2691411).
64. ^(Hayashi2005,p.369)
65. ^abcd(Hayashi2003,pp.121122)
66. ^(Stillwell2004,p.77)
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67. ^(Stillwell2004,p.87)
68. ^abcdef(Stillwell2004,pp.7273)
69. ^(Stillwell2004,pp.7476)
70. ^Gupta,R.C.(2000),"HistoryofMathematicsinIndia"(http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=
xzljvnQ1vAC&pg=PA329&lpg=PA329&dq=Virasena+logarithm#v=onepage&q=Virasena%20logarithm&f=false),inHoiberg,DaleRamchandani,
Indu,Students'BritannicaIndia:Selectessays,PopularPrakashan,p.329
71. ^abSingh,A.N.,MathematicsofDhavala(http://www.jainworld.com/JWHindi/Books/shatkhandagama4/02.htm),LucknowUniversity
72. ^abJoseph(2000),p.298300.
73. ^abcdefghi(Roy1990)
74. ^abc(Bressoud2002)
75. ^abcdefg(Katz1995)
76. ^Singh,A.N.Singh(1936),"OntheUseofSeriesinHinduMathematics",Osiris1:606628,doi:10.1086/368443
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F368443).
77. ^Edwards,C.H.,Jr.1979.TheHistoricalDevelopmentoftheCalculus.NewYork:SpringerVerlag.
78. ^(Whish1835)
79. ^Rajagopal,C.Rangachari,M.S.(1949),"ANeglectedChapterofHinduMathematics",ScriptaMathematica15:201209.
80. ^Rajagopal,C.Rangachari,M.S.(1951),"OntheHinduproofofGregory'sseries",Ibid.17:6574.
81. ^Rajagopal,C.Venkataraman,A.(1949),"ThesineandcosinepowerseriesinHindumathematics",JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSocietyofBengal
(Science)15:113.
82. ^Rajagopal,C.Rangachari,M.S.(1977),"OnanuntappedsourceofmedievalKeralesemathematics",ArchivefortheHistoryofExactSciences18:
89102.
83. ^Rajagopal,C.Rangachari,M.S.(1986),"OnMedievalKeralaMathematics",ArchivefortheHistoryofExactSciences35(2):9199,
doi:10.1007/BF00357622(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00357622).
84. ^Joseph,G.G.1997."FoundationsofEurocentrisminMathematics."InEthnomathematics:ChallengingEurocentrisminMathematicsEducation
(Eds.Powell,A.B.etal.).SUNYPress.ISBN0791433528.p.6768.
85. ^Cajori,Florian(1893),"TheHindoos",AHistoryofMathematicsP86,Macmillan&Co.,"Inalgebra,therewasprobablyamutualgivingand
receiving[betweenGreeceandIndia].WesuspectthatDiophantusgothisfirstglimpseofalgebraicknowledgefromIndia"
86. ^FlorianCajori(2010)."AHistoryofElementaryMathematicsWithHintsonMethodsofTeaching(http://books.google.com/books?
id=gZ2Us3F7dSwC&pg=PA94&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false)".p.94.ISBN1446022218

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87. ^abAlmeida,D.F.John,J.K.Zadorozhnyy,A.(2001),"KeraleseMathematics:ItsPossibleTransmissiontoEuropeandtheConsequential
EducationalImplications",JournalofNaturalGeometry20:77104.
88. ^Gold,D.Pingree,D.(1991),"AhithertounknownSanskritworkconcerningMadhava'sderivationofthepowerseriesforsineandcosine",Historia
Scientiarum42:4965.

86.^Bourbaki,Nicolas(1998).ElementsoftheHistoryofMathematics.Berlin,Heidelberg,andNewYork:SpringerVerlag.46.ISBN3
540647678.
87.^BritannicaConciseEncyclopedia(2007),entryalgebra

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Keller,Agathe(2006),ExpoundingtheMathematicalSeed.Vol.1:TheTranslation:ATranslationofBhaskaraIontheMathematical
ChapteroftheAryabhatiya,Basel,Boston,andBerlin:BirkhuserVerlag,172pages,ISBN3764372915.
Keller,Agathe(2006),ExpoundingtheMathematicalSeed.Vol.2:TheSupplements:ATranslationofBhaskaraIontheMathematical
ChapteroftheAryabhatiya,Basel,Boston,andBerlin:BirkhuserVerlag,206pages,ISBN3764372923.
Neugebauer,OttoPingree(eds.),David(1970),ThePacasiddhntikofVarhamihira,Neweditionwithtranslationandcommentary,
(2Vols.),Copenhagen.
Pingree,David(ed)(1978),TheYavanajtakaofSphujidhvaja,edited,translatedandcommentedbyD.Pingree,Cambridge,MA:
HarvardOrientalSeries48(2vols.).
Sarma,K.V.(ed)(1976),ryabhayaofryabhaawiththecommentaryofSryadevaYajvan,criticallyeditedwithIntroductionand
Appendices,NewDelhi:IndianNationalScienceAcademy.
Sen,S.N.Bag(eds.),A.K.(1983),TheulbastrasofBaudhyana,pastamba,KtyyanaandMnava,withText,English
TranslationandCommentary,NewDelhi:IndianNationalScienceAcademy.
Shukla,K.S.(ed)(1976),ryabhayaofryabhaawiththecommentaryofBhskaraIandSomevara,criticallyeditedwith
Introduction,EnglishTranslation,Notes,CommentsandIndexes,NewDelhi:IndianNationalScienceAcademy.
Shukla,K.S.(ed)(1988),ryabhayaofryabhaa,criticallyeditedwithIntroduction,EnglishTranslation,Notes,Commentsand
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Externallinks
ScienceandMathematicsinIndia(http://www.indohistory.com/science_and_mathematics.html)
AnoverviewofIndianmathematics(http://wwwgap.dcs.stand.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_mathematics.html),MacTutorHistory
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OnlinecoursematerialforInSIGHT(http://cs.annauniv.edu/insight/insight/maths/history/index.htm),aworkshopontraditionalIndian
sciencesforschoolchildrenconductedbytheComputerSciencedepartmentofAnnaUniversity,Chennai,India.
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