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    IAS

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    901 views76 pages

    Solid State Physics

    Uploaded by

    JAIVEERU37
    IAS

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 76
    COSCOHKBSMONNRHNBDOODADNANDBOHODOBM9ONVDIAIDDA Boy a New , 20+b= «x O- [x- Abe, -2denG= wA- fp snlerference Consbuctives, Now ee diffe action , ee | > Veet AS 6 p kee ke + G.. ae Gen Lae Eqpattone a o) ag diteciin le frente to : Fe le plane of, Uffraction coe ee Tt Cables Reciprocal a Latuice Vveckos , Se Ihe Uke (GI + 28.6 5 (Gi 2c2=0 of ~ (CE eer 2m Jn Ce (4076), =O = Abo mote (2) iA A) ee . : k a en i) (for I" odes (MY intecforce Tools 4 Coup, tot shoucte _Avtermi nation Optical [ Comentional Mitrorcopy not iffident a Ira, Atz buing peur & Gite Laer, Remember that Resdlving Pomex 4 A = 4000-180 4 ¢ ¢ fox €> Ucatlawng » AG Guilt hors 29 Aacbvirg power © & B by There cee ww Ayer + o> Te Owcopy Meet On seater TAaremission 67 PM Cresety a deanning > mulrescefy 7 Renn bore thar AL @_ tre Ordon el A ac. Me shouta be’ Of Order of 2 Atrudure Ww be de Dee ae A & haw Assctving power, rhruchurs Cant be dotesmunca | ¢ P Aehertis solids 3 (D Magnetic Padestier CK pane, Magnetism » Dia Cevmeasitity abe BrOOCCHBHOKHSC ECVE HORSHAM ANH A SFAMDFRM ANDO Greritler Merninall Jo Common to bath pu & oulput . Ad. O Medium — input Umpdance oi oulljut ae an # Also (allect gonittin follower. Kcairs the ae om a Bo ns at te emitth. With 4 robag po ar ne © bein _oulhat_irfeben be CWrsent Fam vot i oat ae me c @ in pig «Tes IerTe “Vac = O-FV » Be(Ze\ d-(E eee { z we E sen = (02025 ( pts] Uinall - 2eigral Epacalees ee |) BIT Fist, fina @ pov Vea BC Analy mall Sarl Ten Aeploue De ky for BITS 4 wrod and fe uk i Ron Rout. edDOMOFCHCHOLCSCOSOOSCE DOHSOOO OBST INGI2BIOGG | : ‘ohh @ Cube Copiale a () Aorple Cubic % Coodinalic, aa = ae % Piutring Fraction > ‘Voluora qf Atiorna witn Unit cele ee ‘Vetume of Unit Gu CO neem 2 Uo : : > Pp-F-= fasixt : - 4eh) ; Gye] (ioidanati, numer = 8 aa ; MN x ng_FAadtion pre [2b baw a = ee ava Oe 2 cu ay ut 4th) a In “a fe Fe s Pr- - [Ul Lae Cy, A 212 = ion 232 = 3 «ABC ABC ABC... e@ecocoeen@aeonvoecneccon i) = Conbu I Layer Dita Oxabhy Oven ees 2 baer. R > Conk Spe ond spore, 4 2 Layer B Axe tr touch eae 2A ees oa OH Ga “uh ay =AZ.- 4 xk 7 Vetume of Cipnt = Or # _ = Gx Rx Ax Wh a oDee Vdumme a abons = 6x baw? afte 447] oe e © oO © e ce Cc 2 & axe) © © © 6 © © © © G © © © . @ a) 6 © -@ ° © -@ e e ° © e © Low Lattice / pac dathe - oo» ms q Unaginary fount tn 3-dirwnsional Space , each Aanrag adentical Br nDtrding © Pabterm Unit + dative Containg Small group uf points cally patlerm Unit - Which Atfeat ateet bam diredios, | arama of & Ee trotaltin _Opreter a T- 18+ mPtuc © (Mn) € LZ PPaimitie Ransletion vectur > PPimitive Unit cell A fraction 2 ben- primitive © Unit GU» Puildery block ons (oi hattic , Pamittive Unit Ge ae Smallest avolume poll i, itz Join near, Lattice point ° anegrer- Ae Cole : a = Velie erclgecd Wreyrer- Fert= Ge SB gc baie ce ox Cappatat AKts 7 Aho batiice (14) © Compornt Of Cypial_Labion & b,c fe ob ee ‘ fp (Be Gans Colt ) IL (body CPritired Cool ) @ piumbem of effetive Lattice point belonging ta ce ©© 7. @ = ° we Ne * A) + (89 | a © © oo AAbtice direction a g aoe orale ara dsherg - © eee GR. © Teraaeres : ee 2s e © [Ry [aX Kany . ae . : k = Cnientabion gen by Milles Indices ee o KALE KL ad Ge Minflified ey Oe © ts Cuptal nes, Dritrtep, Are Wtssund vo G4 Jeni 1 einen Upetng be ie Ogre : i Oe ' Trtrplonar spauing LS e ° ° [Rikake : fo ubee falatee (a-b=c) zg @ i ° - P Loose Pachicl, e e [ace] e ce fe | i? Cnet ow.'6 8 [Akamerd Gubee (do gtrwetural e 4 € 1 Packing Hpcciony, 34% (of bot» abms are came) ‘ V7 Ceotdinatie umber: Y V Newest muythour dis tame = A? &) 4 "Yd Rosie jo. fee peruian (effetives, 4 atom. LA: Y atom at alterna, telraedred svoles (pes 9 oe CBetm basis: St Atom ) to Ge Cc oD a oy) ce a ae > c -2ne (anil, 5:2™) z (Zine Blea) . VY Te (an Glo be Sten Unberpenetration 4 2 fee 9 Lattices. —_———_—— vy Coordinate, Number: 6 oe Bt. fee por, C4) 2 Odkedral yoda (4) tne Viturd 0+ Urkerbenabeating foc Lehices Atl angle (46,0 -40 Lad or) : Iv Oxdro rhembee Cee ( atte oy) (ave) 7 (a=b#0) i QA bore mate prtercepts of 2, 2 ond O-5 A. om te Coyle pene axes En ee Cops tal ine ee Determin tre Mille Trica o 7 2 tre More Sa os Bc es ees [) AY pole! ie es 3 foe Lose anes “Vector be 3A, 2A ora LA a ee ae a Mill Dod ces of Pane Are (3, 1,2) 2D Deoy (Scattering + Interferencs) Jeter Gn aberric eleetvon is Larackiatteh by a bom of amonothremal'c X-Aage ee Stab — vibtating talr pees oe yt bm Ret of treident beam, Aimee an Accelarated ° emis tadcations , Be vibrating Elecbrony eesent © iscde a Logstal become Seue. of fecomduy tadrati se having Same rewire, Qs Orudlent Mo raga. Huse Secomeru, e2eeeaoeeceeooea0oosgsgn ago 00 eco i 1% Spread ut in all Aiaediens , Its Called cattery” | of Xe Aug Vise Steorceany Cuante Unteatoe Come fructive erly Ly Cestaln directions , beabsy fb fee oy & . callin LAue’s PATTERN, diffrcadibn pattern, © Anavysiy Obras igs _Tacatrurd | ( Ref tooo + Drtexfenncs) aks divin of Ciffeacion Aime can Me 4ccouet fom - gon Comcdentd ble Aeftruk froma tet paralal atric a by COs hructrive hype 4 Avsulling ee a 2 dsin@ = na Bragg fans Inet, puta Bones dersanes lst» Arcreace th vl ee max ford & srOat 12 Nea on Late’s Treatment} : Ven “Laue Chracdoca te catteny x Ly € Undinidual atoms, & be cuted , fiettowwca freer Ae “Wt du rot Considers . batter ference, Note brad y Aapestion fe 5 place ee | Jexecdrnind, eae O v= #2 RRR) EB © © (Whe Ae m7 7) ° le oF AP= es (2. N) © Ina B-d ana, H may Conude Guth avy Of be 2 Cyptalle Geatic ax, A+ am & fe Octurence of Oi fieadon Tranima Qn (a-N = 2x hk! = Jank [ k , n aw (TN) = 2xk 2n a on C@a) : ee = aan bk aA tohee bk LO Aehreseny 3 wntgon, hairy HOF as n, @0220000000098 eoeeeveeeceecoeeec es WZ) aibeon dre ee Wace a plane | afteas tke & Aalecbiog Hane C pres, om noxt pag? ad Wrese THImel “45 WV. tableqapce UK DOME, z i Honte We Cam lareite 2A SHO Cosck= nNaA Luner 2b cin6 Lapa nkRA Spations nha al 2) 217i 2 20 #8 Cosy = 1) We ino eleylaman sacing pe fore (h,4 2) US gtren by oT all a f a oe Cesx = - ep = < tay & - Hire, pe ° 2) For 2 0, Airediinal Csi cron, Cob, py ccatteniy Trak ane peporberad t» (4) A) a (£) ¢ Ales. we tren, Caectlonl Costints of ral bo ary (hk 2) Are prsporttoral tb bh he oe Hence fuatlaniy Tweed Nob Sarre Norms & te Hone Un kg Ot Pe Arhelray plane Chis) Prahfina te be Aiflesing flare. © ExterimenTar MetHooS () dae Mebod ; i fod Metered. . 2) Rotating 2) Powder Malhed es mice ae [+ SO Ley) 7 ges) G2) 1,2 ® ReCPRO CAL LATTICE @ * aie Oct yariou sets pesabtel "ge chasis, de, Era dhretigped Reciprocal Lattice sl. 1) Ear Port In Aeufrocal Satta COueyera, to particular Sek 4 feral Planes a De keer Lapee . 2) Distonte 1 Aelprocal Lattice pov fren Cuabibarecty . fe Ouyin , Curcssct, ” prportional to be valiplonan tpaacing 4 Chrerespordiing parattal pares of de dex tat 2 Atcifrocal Mattice @ Civereet balestind! tp Velline of COrrexpenday Unit Coll of of dive eee eG o Reciprocal Lattes Vector Cinetion = ritremat 19 Ake) Mane Anne Not brat & Veetox Lamon Oe be poo tn te AeecpoceD Lattice ts a Kecprueat Lattice nate ax= 2x [eee] cr “ae ao) eee 27 Exh ] nb, aos &. (Exo) ®@ecoeooeeeececaneoeooon « lone, ever Crystal Us Omowakd Gtr 2 byes of Lattice ¥ diner Lattice and Aeciprocal Labiice . t fe ° Che) Tz 4+ nb +H Gea eee ee ea Go yD axl mrtmb os meth 4 Suiryple Gabe. Chic | BCC Lattice] ce 2 ' a Mea Za |e a= 4 (t+ f-/ @ Lp ge a(t) a. 2 . ee eee eo KO ee ac iss) c ( aaa ora pa ute dim Jvae iS ae) : is > b aot etzatl, || 27 Ke ne Gap a - 2c (Lore print Be £ (jth) a Ge Ac pt) 0 4 Fee pee ai eerenaniaiaTt EO Brogye Lars tn Reciprocal taitie In Aéciprocal Labticg lhe an, poor O (net Nee ontly, a Aashice pont) dian, OA o Hoag FX) tn derectien Of vaevdens Ay bean ft kt Hrmnate, om G baltic port A Maw cxcle from DO wir OA Aadivs Grd dthrk Conrdinate fm AB A at Orpen) aa Unters the circle , ee oe (AL key re (&.) Stee = (nhrban) Ohne Oa oe ectas 4 OF fe as A‘o'= G4) wate A'U'= k fg’: Fucprocal Latin “vector G oo lolz Jo's’) > EGP ko [Gr 2kG 0 g@aannegeeseeosv Oe Oe aHeeaD | | © Basitheuin Zones ees © From Eval Contuction , Lic bow abe Pe pore Unttracer Be_Evalel Amik frectppocet Lattice all Prese k ~ value, Poa Bag afc A bavtlouin Pou Low of A Croce frolic Or te Ateprocad Battice CAA am Brags baton + fe guano oo) a a: SS G= 2a KE +h) # a Consider att o hos), be > ke FG). be a4 a hoo, bet bye 26g), bE i 7 6,5 | eF99000 ; "6 © © 1 a) © © eo © © © , a e @ e ° a 7) ° © ° @ ° @ e a e ie cry Aarrdrmber lun are Taking Aavifroced Labzee) ane (7%)¢ ory) ( va thy 7, ute by) (FP ie pezo) ce ry oD) 2x ( (yet) b+ kbd 7 Like &),00) , O41, 0,6 ¥ Combination © ; ae : wef), 26 eh) 2 fate io AT con vig. 28 (#¢ ji, (Fh ( a devasd Or Ge (12 feed) Ece gee an Cif = a ite we tof ee bs ( ifr 2 [ Qk e+ Brkt); * (Btke2) z) soy (aus Seat © Alta bird values for sefled ire chimp (whic + AL Owib valu hke pet at cei fia 28 4: BCC : Owen voblite h+k+h Mh cue ? he (nd O29 (ety Foe: aM odd Ot all Wr Value, Of Ake Veeco a Sete OP 290,40 (310 { ; 4 Ptr db0r OD done + a. fe uke Crytals i [Berkel a: Batice parsmetin, @ @&= nM) 1's efperive atime te 4 Cubic | N f Crystal CFEC 4) c Me Méeutas Wert ta vt) ) et on brystal Bord Peony of Holi to ae Qture Dawe em be. n& b0v0d Polirtkal , Tron : ee ae | Ee @*) , KE(-~, #) But fr ors tp Undenetond Bond Bbructine 4 Lolicle | ue ane ot a fatty IS MEM get attndiol) c | (ma) FS 9-- -@ --@ - ote manent : : | ; ! ! | \ { ‘ —Y @ Read, Bord Aadune fram Hee Urn 7 - aint cE Om P (cin bea?) 4 cos (KA) = Cos (ka a Orly Presse values 4 ajar alldourd wack LHS fis bebunin 1 Oat “tL yy frien, Do te fodlning Contos Ge dtaum - wale ee we. ee ? Spectiusro Consia 4 ene ot : x (sed 4 bards Ancreases witty X COR remy), Gakacat Cor discontinuity) 27 ka= tne DRinds Qu dstenbinue, ar ke 2E +2e tan, plate > | CG io . ye : NY LB — e » E-k ‘ : te Brullouin Domes Yo brag Afar At Pitre Loumdanies Jatt ba duscontinuilés i E-k Gwe. TMb An(4a) + Coe (4a) LHS. Cuswe LEO RP abou Et extended 200 sclom) te puiow Ek Cie Un for cndcamuate Botra @ Fes Leesely bound ,» Vib 0 Ee LO mem k Fos te : Vibo © 5) wm ka =0 Ka ann abe (tht (m-1,2,3,... ) Poa) Ue Cndeperdint of be = ee UbZrma*) fh ) ek 4 f S E v ® x by, Brillouin Zorus We imon for diffrachion 2k-G+ G*= 0 Fox one -dimunsion Case, Paimitie Lattic atten a, = A lose > Recpuocal Lattice ecto, OF = Gz z 7 Recifweet Late vet. G = War = 2AM x ht us ite k= kets ky Gt dee 2 2h.G+ GeO 2 2. 2EM%kKe + (2an9"s0 9 ky = (MX “a . a CCOMOHSHSCOOCHOOOC COCO H8OF90000999999090999 | No.9) Worehnetion i a bord i eee i pled = pd ee ee cy Se > [k= (234) Nes : G4). (4) = (2). » dk: GE) an > dn= & dk > Total me. ctalas - form = fF ke dk ie ax a oe ae ae 1 78y } ae (Ey) But each state con Oyo, 2 electrons 2 bah bawh fas a manirwm 2N elechen stale te. Gn Qtupmodale 2 elections. 8 Effective Maus (B)- 6 @eoeoeeeeeve@ceeeeoseeoeeeoone 8290999999908, » m*e Foe Ch : ee it = AY : = gqe fe @ ° Coney of rugatrve reaey Bi op a a Ben ae Abese +(z) Due bw 4 Ofplid vs Gre Cisedtion witt Lead to gun ae * fe opposite diaectien | sing = gals rtd . Fo, Albabe metals , et ae & Condinctiin (bing place Prashl, boegh electrons. Hourmer * i ol for Whtch Cntr, bOndk tr Cee eS excspt for electron Veedneies ak Tp of bord, Drese Megalive Charge ae mats Vadintin Mag be Coraidercd As porttive Charge A positive mass posticle, Called HOLES wher Gt a Ove \ Aeigsl Cami, b produce Condu af : dae ¢ le [rat eae | 7 ‘ Affection 0. fue electrons Ba ce ey, ‘ 3 Soe : dze : : fir 1 % (ee) aoe tb UA electran ee ee ee cleclaen a © behaves toll a& : 1 Aehaves a heany a : fae is 5 ae ain le eee De i ‘ BONE ae fey a fh 5 = mie a eo Aettean ' @ Cerductor @ T-OK FOr Compleisd, flea fond, (4) 50 3 NY=O 2 brtulaten > Fp maxinwm Nay » bond Shedd be {cea apto onfbonion powt haraclen > Paslly filed Bord has “rut Lic Viapoata ti in Sobeds aoregnchan : 9 Magroksm , om graral in tolide is due : — Ubin sof eledvons = esta “melin af elecbons . he AL we etn SOL? Utah dle nak Contin fesmranans agra 2° orb eee re Of elections 3 dliveted Poppa to | . Tngateh Cures due to change q tléctin motion, Ateordns te jen gs ta but © © Ditannagretim Cris im al matinee i ee oT peace anger eff Lile fasenegratin, frbomget dus. Manipal by matt & ngalie elue of F. Hargis Camical Deo lat Ceebron ule Asan Wuttleus vn a Cirtulan Ort bicbr (of zadtus f) fein lw. 2 on p2 Ze f bce -p* 2 7 oo bane mp? Nos On external anagretic filets Bo appeed , Pe e (xe) = eC poB 7 Net fom = Fe Ose a OUP = Ze> — eph8 une = 770 ba," - efo8 ? w+ (eb pO om Se Ge Ce (mee? 2m We >7 eB ex he 2m 4 Ay = Leb 2x 2m Due tb dang > frgnsy, Cus Ald » te © exp int Leof jee) 2) Magnetic Mamet = - te For 2 elednow , total trdived x nA @ ao é coe ZA mudt eal zc mot erat, jf , bub Aare, ee ee — Aensider & passmagretic Ok dn E- - jub= pe Cos fi >» E: - pb ps Con oft Luett LOlkimdnn cabribulton, ae Now Lub Ces @ of é ey) ra dieing Onion 9 heb cn cob des Uigey Whar 2 Neg 4 wa 5 ot gods, axe (sce) hs ce (sg) 2x sv8 dB dren kk & 6 Constert. w Each Gre Cortedul memint cert G @) 2 M= [ree dn = nf nese dn [dn - ns cee) N gin@ e ree pn [ {oe é es ae Cab dé : - : . (is : A}: fe ioe, fOr: Lawgprin finctubn snot 2], £0 = B) = it) aa) Smee = Be) Ct Cut? cont me BES) =) Re ian a ee f(D x4 Fessoragnetiion (Fe, Ne, Co) © Alto Cuiocialsa cuir Mimarant cifole Amemint, but here : magnetic moments Adjacent Atoms Are Abigred tr a partiata direction Oem cy tH aleence of applied rare pe do Satin kat extsb Wen Be Ahsne Applica Pict, vs Called SPONTANEOUS = MAGNETIZATION, Tr bxios Vib a Carihcal tonpersdbue “Te , Celle Curie TEMPERATURE 6 Aiare Guin Temprcboa , Pwemel Offs offset tre shen = abigrmirk — Ona feromegratic bulstana S&ems, paramniq - De ts barge And posthie , VAues Corb Prperatine ae sell as Applied pes Chyaterais Loop) Z Auypodrsois : Oo fe ng malin Contain & 6 Gf Small Aiytena calles : Lghcth Axe hee, nagrozead - Masritude q spertineite Aonteg mele Later i Sumer ds 6 t E i : presince 2 Gh “eld BE, Wik ferde te prod a parallel Ahgmmt Ca athorve difeles . Field be tb Groumed to be pispoxtional to x Omepetiatio mM 4 eatk CLomatn . Be 2 Weess Feta / Erchane Res) Di Weis Fietd Contant — (wndependonk of trperatton te be qpite roy a+ Compares be apsticd fous (xl000T) (x 17) From quanitm Peon, we Can deacver 2 Cares Ms(0) S OST Te co) O, Ti, ~~ ic ae Fz) i raphy a, eis Ret Lot brflaina ty Hasrtery ite [ ee cxcsing trderadion beltixe, atoms. Tmtoradtin arises due th Pavll exchuion Prcible Ong Change tr Aedatiie Oritrtaliey 2 Shing Csmdd — Aisturs * slatixe Oe Charge, Date Jroduang rlevaution betuen tye atoms ) Mince, De orchdnge » Uileradtion bellice, neigshouny, dipoles 1 & (c dubslan ce — Yeraral, On Urttrmal cotenye fd Be, Wher —Abigne Pim tn a particulars divection’. Domain eBbnutire Aucosdiy NGL, Aoman shuchira pee eee as q beat crengy Conapratic fet i Greciogie ergy + Doman tall encigg,) “Tan Pagretiraion Produad to Kromet materiel ts D pooh airy | Some at ee ge pasts dematie dirt. Opplcea 8 2) botatibr 4 disc, | Ma pebeain, along free ana = A PZ aP3 eg —— region snap a fa ae » Apacs bee ae Ani baie (Mno) ‘att Marin are eal & Ofpeatic b tar Bder DI Coraptite Cancellation Y tee o Me ) for T7 Iw T+8 -8 ( fel) @ Ldandicat i Orbifernemagrction ex capt magrahicalhon us 4 met Completely Cancelled, - | 8 Atsemble foromagrai & = bes poses Be Cemst (Gna not Zero) te. dohin Cerduutor is Cskd th te sc fied Until cs ese tomce becornes OC (hetomee Corduuctor) , : tre « & tn te matenal fom ao, & : oS A sats pechive afplued held. Comat Ainge bedi Coole fea Lx a oa Aomeca UL a7 eee —] (#0 p-O Conductor Peseot Concho Penetration Itt aa Conacdir 0 Superconductor Carr a 2 plaw eee c : fw he © aeting point s Laos Pus Faem Arrperes Las , 14 He (A8®) = Dane (oe! o Horne =O due te Mtinmw) Mh , c Tene Or Surfer Camere fer tnit Mirybr = He We Cirens prods & zee M cahich exact, Cobbs FR vrsida tufer Conductor, Dut tO Atsisrily, Ths Uvvent Wh Aman almisst Constant definitely € UWA Wrmrb ve known a4 [Bupercuren ts] » —— Keopoy AB Constant, Lene Atmaine Same, 4 4 nis fs cars AC of be Le Acdued, Corer ima 2 Cut dimly Or F crcrease (Aom te po Poe b 1 sPanface Cirning) . FOX Zor dp ar Curunt dinetly t}proare, @, WALK @ nt possille biyatcat 9 Arpereairunt Cannot berome absolule Zexs he one more pe fusdfce & drilinor . Ao 2 posible Orly i Offic mragretic ha fenelnal, the Suferco ousohs ug bb a Small Wiirrtss "eu be Sef Pag LLL Av: Aersctirwatic Ang on ey 7 Londen Pertration dopo LE ~ 10° A Experainerta lly He(xy = Hela) e@ (scbical free Uahercondiscling + tage be fees a Gr Some Afni, 449, { Tempesabine 7 Fra. Hd) Nem He (> Me ye . fea eD 1 Tye 4 Ora__ Type 2 Siassfrcalien Afending behavieus ty txttrnel maprele feo ke how Sbyetl, Cry fallen Teismer fet Speen Jorma Heer Nomat OP wee, 0.6 . : ®) Peg Ha © — Tie ~ Tote 2 - ow — PL-b Alte, | — opt — — Rard — dfercorduucton — due fe Wy - : yer Dimiba Cepeda © Pace oats = Miler He, fltine begins to Me De Tae tn ee H=He lux Peretrali, Compleed Enbray © PT tum Bie ee ee alll 5 mI Gime is fo Cu) PT oe exated elxtrena in Be mormal te au gadered” tr [he Peberconducting uttage. vie omay Kind Up tp aA debne Pearder ua 1" tn The 2 Ssperconctuctors Ihe Seange ma tage] (6) [Paladin tw pag ge Sls oman Kangen regrets field, SQUID Con be Used Os a Very Sensitive FP encrreter ddr to Characlon'zel a a Ware Lier Laperarunt bakes [lac belivee,, Ony 2 porrt, luhere re Wave bas ‘erent phases. Kan Aare phase Can Also be stabs, Applied electric & moe fe tates hang diferas price Can be wm LQuios. Flows » BCE _ = Eltetren- Prenen- Electre, Lriteraction is the fden of : fpmater qs Cooper paix Which rusube, ix Sporenduclidn Whtr On eleetren mreves oo Kt pro duce. Aattin distortion & seb hebicn. tr dle Ot cildations . Aowe De eleutnon ames vey fat, tt Leaves te Aegon anus before Osccltations Coutd ie opp Mbbrcshile, f | Grobdus eleetaen Asffens to Ades Praough Dis distortey Aegion, jk experimen, Om attradin force. Ths atbractd Note Prat Achubire beture, Clectren és small? ee Pee tohile alr aclian ah Ay Lablice abictortion Cs Ally Aelarded vn tt ~ malls te mar of oe a de bhenens CrmiltdA & hinn Lager Shed ke bRanilio, erpratiy Same Crchusion ia Ataun from Ltolipe Gye he Ueoiahe Spe eigpetca thas Atbala SGurconduutsity b Aen tee = ferrdatin ~ be Peo ke oe kit Rk: 2 eloctrens he v fa G: Lattice dirtretic k A Zz re (Chee phentn- elece» production (rtuactin Tors Terrbenatiixe Phtrerrenon_ Binaing Crengy of Casper four , cattad Oni gap Sp = 10 ey Hone Vrrperatin =< ORM # lok Mave trad Comper par will e Lesko if Laperconductivity duet Confer far Lbupertonductivily Aue PN Eleclnan br & COsper pais have Ophesile shen = Teal choc Pom Can Exist Un Same i = Boson ce Oy Tunbte ' poke ulate at Be ra ime, A SE Cyan Runchion Atprtsert i, Feu Bren frat a System of Came vo. of ‘e- antty ftrm“enengy distriluliv. Za ot sae a Snpercomeluetor _ ne "y @ & Lo Unit Te Alter suc A Curent, Auge Amous a oregy ee A Oe at Pusigh, ds Uy normal Conductors) 27 (lrent purse sagt CAitical : : pe PO as ya ee Superrerdictnr for Mebssrur ee Boond Cuilical — Velue, Cooper past ts Altsaciates Meissner Effeor — Fobloniy dings fa, Looper pain move cui rnebiin erate? maxon a on bo predue a mragnec i Ofpesile t» applied pew Aes 2 tance Carductiity 7 @ @ Pemitiity &E Arscept bhity ve matty if Q_ Thermal Paqportuc, Cag (Girtecr , Pebyes, Dulery ) @ Opbech PAspertie, Adfradive Order (ay © Mherctorductrrity —— Matssren Effet i Tose fhson Cece Hoh Temperature Aeper Conducts inby @ Checturah Prpertes (kamertings Onnes) {Fu jk. 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Depending on the nature of imp id re. follows: VW Pure or intrinsic semicond @) \06~ Impurity or extrinsic semicondues i present chapter, the effects of impurities and charge carrier in semiconductors are discussed. Jol fe Wales tayestae fe coll andar refered ta the conduction electrons. Bach escaped leaves behind an empty space called a hole which also acts as a current 'b. When a valence electron located adjacent to a hole $ mn crystal, therefore, 1 three-dimensional regular network type structure which, for si =< nsional network as shown in a (Apparently, all the valence electrons in a silicon crystal participate in the formation of covalent bonds and no electron is free to cause conduction nearly empty and the holes move when the valence band i ius the electrons move main} For example, a Hole has larger effective mass and lower than thé corresponding values for an electron. The charge of «hole equal and opposite to that o! jectron. These properties, have been 1. 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This Condition bang: V (a) (b) Fig. 7.4. (a) A trivalent impurity atom (B) in a silicon erystal (0) Energy level diagram of a pype semiconductor, : ‘The energy level corresponding to the electron deficiency of the type known asjacceptors or p-type impurities d ai KROWN 83/GC ype rities and the semiconductor centaini such impiurity atoms is known as « p-type semiconductor. In these semicon, Semiconauctors ductors, holes are the majority carriers and thermally generated electrons af° * ths minority carriers. In this ease, p is quite lntge.as.compared to.% but the- law of mass-acti hen np = nypj= nz. It may also be noted that in either inductors, the overall charge neutrality is maintained ‘#5 no charge is_added to or removed from the material. 74 DRIFT VELOCITY, MOBILITY AND.CONDUCTIVITY OF * INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS (At finite temperatures, due to thermal agitation and lattice vibrations, ce band electrons. are. always present in the conduction “at ordinary temperatures, an intrinsic semiconductor_always. ne free electrons in the conduction band end_an equal number “he valence band) the absence of any applied electric field, Sand holes move in random directions and constitute no is appli ‘and ct yee where the constant ys called the mobility of the charge carrier and is fined wthe drift velocity acavired by a carrier per unit electric field strength semiconductor; since the electrons move in nearly ‘empty conduction band while holes nove in nearly full valence band, the properties such as mobi it electrons are, in general, di from those of ‘mobility and concentration of electrons respect (Then current density due to electrons is In= ney, a4) where ¢ is the elecironic charge. 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Therefore, for energies th a a Yj Eq we have eles Mis £7.9. Conductivity versus os en, se Nit h, Temperature for a typical n-type (7.45) ical conductivity for an n-type ‘conclusions can be drawn ture dependence of el tarting from the vk corre " sponding to the poi ivity is ‘n_temperature. This is due to the increase in the number of conduction electrons as aresult of a are ionized. The temperature corresponding to this is Gr aan () P-type Semiconductor ‘The ease of a p-type semiconductor can be treated in the same way 4s that of an n-type semiconductor: The energy level diagram for a p-type semiconductor is shown in Fig. 7.10. The acceptor impurity atoms occupy the acceptor levels, E,, which lie above the valence band. For T > 0 K, a nergy ofthe donors. This shows Pe ‘that the carrier concentration at moder APUCSTATOS SsuHHUT 30 amd su senwtiog FOIORPUOSTUGS pozruoy mf TV Sao ay SON ATLL yeus ae Giga om WED ba Susn pur "N= PN SUPE 4 us lN= aa IN eso a TONE Nome WRU [WOUND se won st Al aojompuosgiias pox ( Ty pa Fomor Way Wy SuORNSHTETE Puls PuE S101 Share SMpUOSTUNSS Yong “sTeIOW 03 a[qusedu0> 289) al Touro sq STOTSNpuODTLNS Sr yidop s1/-wNO OT 0% ¢-OT WON sot of PUE IS Jo ATARSEGE¢ «ell qT 0) pgOT Wox} BuyBues vopenusou0s ‘Ayumndury 105 (ForonpUoDy Wop Jo woRenusso a : SUEY S'L “Ba Uy UMOYS Se 1949] iy Kian ve pia OU ST EY ON ae ‘amnyesodsos OF a5eax0Uy WHA SPIE Riana behing eo A ee ge tana sondonoe of 30 2(DPE (orn suorompuosmuas siz soyshue 20015 pros soa} ‘uonworsdUss uo ‘yoyAL Cis dxo "y= JA _+) axa’ (=z) N* grag it lureigo om *(op'z) “ba UF (97'L) pu (gp'Z) ‘sba Susy” ( at =) ead “q-4q (92'L) se (92'L) “ba Aq wont st pueq 20uo[ea oxn uy uoneUeoUGD 9[oy OUI, ero (5245) x0 "y= oy . ona 29 ueo (92) “bar tz 01 pameduioo se o8rx) 29 01 g-P9) Surumnssy” (aig fons wo iN : Ca s°N= PN £q woas8 81 sioidooon, pazquot Jo uopeNuooUCS YI, orn lyad csorompuosquas adred 2 sof apo puog “Or'L Bid 188 918 “Joronpuoorures adAi-d w 30 2N MUM uostredios UL uv aNs—/8oN, ytued uotp ‘Ayeansadsor saoidaa -o8 paziuor Jo worenusoud pte ‘uOR ~enuootiog s0rdoooe qwi01 ‘puEq soUsTeA ain uy uoneMuDsU0D ajoy “preg onanp woo otp tt uoRTeUsoUOD woNDaT® 1H9so1 ox °N pure "yd “u 3y “pureq sousqeA 219 ut 1wasexd ospe size sajoy poresouss Aeuzeyp ows ‘S904 asain Woy wedy ‘uononpuos adii-d asneo yorum pureg Suneau snip ‘pureq oxy suonsoyo Subse : ssodooo o5atp Jo ured ° ait 220 Seeptors combine with fone electrons of the donors and ali ‘combine with free holes of the acceptors to produce no net free carriers. Ko, Nij*#N," or simply N,N, (donors and acceptors are assumed to be ionized), the semiconductor behaves as n-type or p-type depending on the relative magnitudes of NV, and N,, and the cases described above-become applicable, SOLVED EXAMPLES sn and hole mobilities in a Si sample are 0.135 and ly. Determine the conductivity of intrinsic Si at 300 K ic carrier concentration is 1.5x10'S atoms/m?. The sample is then 10% phosphorus atoms/m?, Determine the it concentration, conductivity and position of the Fermi level intrinsic level. Solution. Given Example 7.1. The Hy = 0.135 msV-s Hp = 0.048 m/V-s . ny = 15 x 1016 i In the case.of intrinsic semiconductors, n=pamy ‘Therefore, the conductivity is given by o = em (WH, + Hp) = 1.6 x 10° x 1.5 x 1016 x (0.135 + 0.048) = 439 x 104 my! In the extrinsic case, since N, >> 1), and assuming all the donors to be ionized; we have n= N,t = 103 atoms/m3 ‘Therefore, the equilibrium hole concentration is 2 (Ls x10!) =% pate ” 10% ‘The conductivity is given by = 2.25 x 10m o = em, 1.6 x 10-19 x 1073 x 0.135 = 21.6 x 10? (Q-myt Semiconductors m ° @9 From Ea. (7.42), win (2) n Ep-E, = = 8.62 x 10-5 x 300 in| e ———-E, = 0.406 eV ‘The position of the Fermi ©: band diagram is shown in Fi | Example 7.2. In i ————— & lectron and hole mot and 0.04 m?/V-s respectively and the. Fig. 7.11 corresponiding effective masses are 0.068 1m, and 0.5 m, respectively where m, is the rest mass of an electron. Given , the energy band gap at 300 K as 1.43 eV, determine the intrinsic carrier concentration and conductivity. Solution. Given, 0.85 mV-s 0.04 m2/V-s 0.068 m, tp” = 05 my ry = 143 eV T = 300K From Eq. (7.36), the intrinsic carrier concentration is given by yu? pe aye E, CEP tsa) Hn te ™. bs ra (663x107)? a2 ]* 143 » [o.6ex0.sx(o000 |" wel sae At op = 1.94% 10! oF rage ‘ina swosssaidya oip Aq woat® oze pireg oousyea amp ut $9104 puw PUG WoRONpYOD ot UI suONDSTa Jo YOHENUIDUOD iLL “6 "de pueq sip ourtasep 07 osn aq eo Pur sunt 1yBreAs & st Z/I SMEIOA O UI Jo 101d Sy, “ammMeaduI MYA soswesou1 soronpUosTUIS SIsUINUE Ue Jo AYARONpUCS OUL “g id + tuys = © Aq woas8 6¢ “exou04 ut ‘soIonpuooTuIES w JO AYANONPUOD SUL “L ‘wasqe 81 uonnqiNues sone] otp ‘IGionpuootutas podop ATUHOSIUN e UT “susie tp JO Warpes® woRENUSsUOD Jo 109339 tN JopUN SYoI.I80 JO uoNOW oy Woy Sastre yWaLM VOISIP UL “IWaLM YUP op saMAsUES plory SUND[O Ue UI syeLsIEO Jo TONOW oy, “IWeuMo YOIsKIIP otp puE ILM YUP ‘ip — soronpuootues v UE MO stuOLMO Jo sodA OM) “TEINS UI “9 -voonpuos odéi-d mim asomp 0 paxsoyaid Knsow az uonanpuos SooIA9p ous] “Safoy WEI AuTIGour sores oALY suoNsaIg “ploy ooo yun vu soqae9 © Aq panne Afooros ox 88 QOH “5 -sropmes Awour oip poussy om Teuoyvur odéi-d otp ut suonsop> pus odAi-u otp Ut s9joy ou, “sz01LTe Ayofeu alte are sioronpuoorwes adK-d ain uy sojoy pue adAi-u axp ur Suoso9}o ayp, ‘(uonoapuos adxid) saj0y 10 (WononpUOD adér-t) SUONDDIO raKpID Aq Aqureur sf vononpucs sip ‘oIonpuoofUras aIsuUINX 10 padop v UI “y -roquinu Ut yenbo om pure poreseuo8 Atpeuss1p ‘ame sojoy pUE suonsafs ‘soIonpUooTUIDS oIsUINWY 30 Ind e UY “E “pug soustea orp ut ronpucs s910l| pue pug uoHIonpuoS om UE ONPuOD suONDdIa “s2foy pure sUO;D—Y “zyn quqsaad are s1atsies ywaxmo Jo sadhy ois ‘JOLonpuosntuas w UT °Z “29 “SPO ‘dU ‘SYED ‘9D ‘Is oF sfersayeus oserp Jo sajdurexy 9 JO qwofoUJa0s omeraduien eaneBou pure Ag. | JO s9pI0 1p JO 1} PUE sIoIONpUIOD Jo eso1p UBeMIOg BULA JANPYOD TRoNdSIS oxy Yara s[eHayeUE are sioronpuooriHas “T + AQVINAAS A2 960 = fg OI x ost = “a < aa 2) = (# He 62) ge ee ee feos 1 ay a : suorompuosques wamye 977 = Zon = 70 ureuyo cy = toy = 1d “soe = ele + 2e = tL “Meee = Lz + 07 = ae om “MON ae, 10 i _ ya Cie ome (2-4) fe Passordxo 0q ose uto uonenbs eaoqe Sy, “AiAnsIsex stp sqwosaidar d axoym u ) 3 2 (#) 6. h_ ) 2) ays oo : a= {( . oad oA E 6° To wom “Ayeancedsax Ty pue Ly samesedusas we sopranonpuoo ain ore Zo pue !o Jy ds Mu ws welts) (see) 2-2 Aq wea wweisuos © s1 5 azaym (E-) et = = |dxa daay Maee = (J tem eae 108 om “(9f'L) “bg Bus wus = 9 ‘2Aey om “rOIONpUOOTMES oISUENUY UE JO -~ToRNIOS, Pweg ABs000 ou $1 FeUA “DoZE TE M-tUYO O'Z PUT Do0%, W uNyo $y 51 JoIONpuOoTUIDs oIsuENUT UE JO ANANSISOZ ou, “EL opdUIOX, : OD) (-OIx9L'2 = HO 0+SB'O)%:,01XH6 1X6)-O1K9'T = i+ hu = 9 Aq wari s¢ ksisnanpuce sty, s91shyg 27015 PHOS wwe ‘The intrinsic carrier concentration’is mono Qnkr\"?) ea Ey y= 2(2EE) (oi mp) en — VERY SHORT QUESTIONS What js an intrinsic semiconductor? What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Explain the concept of hole. ‘What type of carriers is present in 3 semiconductor? Define mobility of a charge carrier, What is doping? : e ‘Draw the energy level diagram for an n-type semiconductor and label it, Draw the enrgy level diagram for a p-type semiconductor and'labet it What are majority carriers and minority carriers? Define law of mass-action. For what type of semiconductors does it hold? Define drift velocity of a carrier? What are degenerate semiconductors? Which has greater mol lectron or hole? Can a semiconductor containing both n-type and p-type impurities behave as intrinsic semiconductor? Give reason. “YE5 Nie SHORT QUESTIONS Give the properties of holes vis-a-vis electrons. Explain the conduction mechanism for n-type and p-type semicon- ductors. ‘What are donors and acceptors? Give two examples of each. Derive and discuss the law of mass action. Explain the concepts of drift current and diffusion current. How are they different? Obtain an expression for conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor How does it vary with temperature? Show a typical variation of conductivity with temperature for an extrinsic semiconductor and explain the different regions, Define the Fermi level. What is its importance in electronic grade materials? LONG QUESTIONS Discuss the current conduction in semiconductors. How do conduc- tivity of a semiconductor and a metal change with impurity content? Explain the difference in behaviour of these two materials due to change in conductivity. Derive expression for density of free eleccrons and holes in an intrin- sic semiconductor. Show that the Fermi level lies halfway between the valence band and the conduction band. ‘What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Discuss the variation of the Fermi level with temperature for an n-type semiconductor. 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