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Polycythemia
0.42 and 0.38, respectively
Highly permeable membrane
Plasma
Capillaries
A highly selective membrane
Water
Electrolytes found in the body
ICF and ECF
Concentrations of various solutes
No, they are calculated from other compartments
Osmotic Effect of Electrolytes
No, but water can. Therefore, the concentrations of these solutes determine osmotic gradie
Osmolality
Osmolarity
Osmotic pressure
Osmotic pressure
Rapid osmosis of water
Physiology - Chapter 26
Homeostatic functions of the Kidney?
Physiology - Chapter 45
Fundamental unti of operation for the NS
Much of NS activity arises from mechanisms that activate what?
Sensory input can be stored in form of what?
The brain compares new sensory information with stored memory information to develop what?
At a termination site, axons give off many small branches that end in what?
Synaptic Terminal is apposed to but seperated from an adjacent what?
The narrow space between is called the what?
Synaptic Boutons contain an abundance of what organelle?
They also contain many synatpic vesicles which contain what?
What happens when the NT binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane?
Overwhelming majority of synapses in the brain are what type of synapses?
Transmission of signals at chemical synapses is described as what?
Neuron
Sensory receptors
Memory
Successful strategies to form motor output
Synaptic terminals
Post synaptic structure (either soma or dendrite)
The synaptic cleft
Mitochondria
NTs
Alters membrane permeability to ions
Chemical
One Way
Small-molecule, rapidly acting transmitters can be synthesized and packed into what?
SmNT have _______ action and usually act open or close an ion channel.
Aside from this action, they can activate enzymes to alter what?
Where are smNT recycled?
Acetyl CoA and Choline yeild what?
What is the enzyme necessary to synthesize ACH?
Where is ChAT synthesized?
What breaks down ACH?
Where is AChE present?
Choline is transported back to where for reuse?
Transmitter agents that are typically synthesized in the Soma as integral parts of large proteins?
Are larger or small amounts of neuroactive peptide released, as compared to smNT?
Are vesicles for neuroactive peptides recycled
An important feature of neuropeptides is what?
What can neuropeptides do?
Neuronal resting membrane potential?
Move to a MORE POSITIVE value is also called what?
Move to a MORE NEGATIVE value is also called what?
Depolarization makes the cell more/less excitable?
At rest, excellular sodium is higher/lower than intracellular?
At rest, excellular potassium is higher/lower than intracellular?
The electrical potential that opposes movement of that ion down its concentration gradient?
Nerst potenital for sodium
Would you expect sodium to move in or out with a resting membrane potential of -65 mV?
Some does leak in however, and potassium leaks out - what corrects this?
Neuronal membrane is maintained at -65 mV b/c it is much more permeable to ?
Thus, the interior of the cell is negatively charged and outside it become what?
The interior of the soma consits of what that allows changes in potential to spread throughout the
neuron?
Ligand-gated channel open, Na+ out of cell -> potential in terminal moves closer to +61 mV,
called?
Action potential initated at?
Why would it be initiated there?
Simulaneous discharge of many axon terminals is required to bring post synaptic element to
threshold, called?
Basis of production for an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Nernst Potential for chloride?
This is more negative than resting potential so chloride would be expected to do what?
Occurs when a second postsynaptic potential arrives before the membrane has returned to
resting potential?
Occurs when a number axon terminals over the surface of a neuron are active simultaneously?
At any given time, the neuron is combining all the IPSPs and
Dendrites contain a relatively small number of voltage gated channels and therefore are not able
to what?
However, they can do what?
This mode of tranmission is subject to what?
Therefore synapses on proximal dendrites have more what than distal?
Firing rate of a neuron is directly related to ?
Rapid, repetitive stimulation of a synapse will lead to what
Fatigue will cause what to happen?
The decrease in responsiveness is the direct result of what?
Repetitive stimulation + excitatory neuron after brief rest period = requires less current and
produces more response
More acid EC synaptic environments will cause what to happen to excitability (decrease pH)?
Decrease in the supply of oxygen will cause what?
Increases the excitability of many neurons?
Indirectly increases the activity of neurons by inhibiting certain populations of inhibitory neurons?
Amount of time to cross the synapse that varies in different pools of neurons?
Synaptic delay is influenced by?
Initial segment
Region contains approx. seven times the number of voltage gated channels
Summation
NTs that open Cl- gated channels
-70mV
move into the cell
Temporal Summation
Spatial Summation
EPSPs
Propogate action potentials
Physiology - Chapter 46
Responsible for tast and smell, O2 and CO2 levels in blood, and osmolarity of tissue fluids?
Sensory is convey to the spinal cord using a ______ ____ approach?
They are basically all conveyed the same/differently?
What does allow us to differentiate pain from some other sensation, is where it?
Action potentials in the spinothalamic tract are perceived as?
Action potentials in the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system are perceived as?
Local current generated at the receptor when activated by the appropriate simulus is called?
The maximum receptor potential amplitude of about 100 mV is achieved when membrane Na+ is
at its?
When is a self propogating action potential initiated in the fiber?
Receptor potential is proportional to the?
As stimulus intensity increases, the action potentials will increase in
Sensory receptors can ____ to their stimuli?
Compression anywhere on the pacinian corpuscle will cause what?
Any type of change in the central fiber leads to what?
The fluid will redistribute within the corpuscle in response to the what
Chemoreceptors
Labeled Line
Same, action potential from pain is the same as action potential from temperature
Terminates in the NS
Pain
Touch or pressure
Receptor Potential
Maximum
When the receptor potenital exceeds a set value
Stimulus intenisty
frequency
adapt
Indentation, elongation, or defromation of the central fiber
Increase in membrane permability
Applied pressure
A process that may involve the gradual inactivation of the sodium channels over time?
Continue to transmit signals with little change in frequency so long as the stimulus is still
present?
Another name for slowly adapting fibers?
Examples of Tonic Receptors?
Accomodation
Slowly adapting fibers
Tonic Receptors
Golgi Tendon Organs
Pain Receptors
Baroreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Rapidly adapting fibers
Rate Receptors and Movement Detectors
Pacinian Corpuscle
Receptors of the Semi Circular Canals
Joint Receptors (proprioceptors)
Type A
Type C
Type A
Group 1b (Type A)
Small
a neuronal pool
Receptive field
Facilitated
More, they require less depolarization to reach threshold
Amplifying divergence
Corticospinal Tract
Divergence into multiple tracts
Dorsal column -> Cerebellum and Lower Brain
Convergence
Multiple sources
Convergence
Physiology - Chapter 47
Includes both tactile and position sensations?
Detects increases or decreases in temperature?
Detects tissue damage or the release of specific pain-mediating molecules?
Sensations that originate from stimulation of body surface structures (skin and sub c tissues,
muscle, fasica, tendons)?
Sensory signals that arise from internal organs (endodermally derived structures)?
Touch, pressure, vibration are each detected by what general class of tactile receptors?
Found in varying density in all areas of the skin (as well as cornea of the eye)?
Encapsulated, rapidly adapting receptor found in non-hairy areas of skin (fingertips) - senitive to
lighest touch?
Mechanoreception
Thermoreception
Nociception
Exteroceptive
Visceral Sensations
Mechanoreceptors
Free Nerve Endings
Meissners' corpuscle
Found in glabrous skin but are also present in moderate numbers in hairy skin surfaces, slow
adapting - continuous touch?
Entwined at base of each hair, rapidly adapting, detect movement of objects over the skin that
displaces hair?
Encapsulated, located at skin and deeper tissues and joint capsules, little adaptation - signal
continous touch/movement?
Present in the skin and deeper tissues, such as fascia - Adapt rapidly, important for vibration and
mechanical change?
Most of these receptors transmit signals over what type of fibers?
Are linked to small myelinated fibers and unmyelinated type C fibers that conduct at slow
velocity?
Detect the most rapid change in vibration - linked to large, myelinated fibers?
Sense of tickle or itch is linked with what type of receptor?
Signals that orgininate in the thermoreceptors and nociceptors are processed along what system?
Signals that originiate in the mechanoreceptors are processed along what system?
Somatosensory information for the face is carried mainly along branches of what nerve?
Some of the DC-ML fibers enter the SC and synapse in the?
Most of the DC-ML fibers enter the SC and do not synapse until they travel upward and reach
what?
Where is the dorsal column nuclei located?
Lower extremity fibers synapse in what part of the dorsal column nuclei?
Upper extremity fibers synapse in what part of the dorsal column nuclei?
Axons of the cuneate and gracilis form what?
Where does the medial lemniscus cross the midline?
Where does the bundle travel next?
Where do the axons then terminate?
Axons of the VPL neurons then enter the posterior limb of the?
From the internal capsule, where do these axons then project?
Information for the LE travels in what part of the dorsal column?
Information for the UE travels in what part of the dorsal column?
LE information terminates in what part of the VPL?
UE information terminates in what part of the VPL?
LE information then travels to what part of the SI?
UE information then travels to what part of the SI?
Tacticle somatosensory information travels from the fact through what nerve?
Where does CN V enter the BS?
Where does CN V terminate in the BS?
Axons from CN V cross the midline, course rostrally, and terminate where?
LE projects toward the _______ part of the hemisphere in the SI?
UE projects toward the _______ part of the hemisphere in the SI?
Most characteristic of the six horizontally arranged layers of the cortex?
Why is the the most characteristic layer?
In the most anterior part of area 3 in the SI, the vertical columnar arrays are concered with what?
In the most posterior part of area 3 in the SI, the vertical columnar arrays are concerned with
what?
In area 1, the verical columnar arrays process what?
In area 2, the vertical columnar arrays are concered with what?
Lesions that involve the primary somatosensory cortex result in:
Lesions that involve Brodman's Area 5 and 7 (assoication cortex for somatic sensation) result in:
Merkels' discs
Hair end-organs
Ruffini's end-organs
Pacinian corpuscles
Large, myelinated fibers that exhibit rapid conduction
Free Nerve Endings
Pacinian corpuscles
Free Nerve Endings
Anterolateral
Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal
Trigeminal
Gray Matter
Dorsal Column Nuclei
Caudal Medulla
Nucleus Gracilis
Nucleus Cuneatus
Medial Lemniscus
Caudal Medulla
Thalamus
VPL (Ventrolateral Posteior Nucleus)
Internal capsule
Primary Somatosensory Cortex (Postcentral Gyrus)
Medial
Lateral
Laterally
Medially
Medial Part of the SI
Arm section of the SI (contralateral to the body)
Trigeminal
Midpontine Levels
Trigeminal Sensory Nucleus
VPN (Ventral Posteriomedial Nucleus)
Medial
Mid-Lateral
Layer IV
Receives the important projections from VPL and VPM of the ventrolateral thalamus
Muscle Afferents
Cutaneous Input
Determined by the combination of primary sensory neurons, dorsal column nuclear neurons, and
thalamic neurons?
Used to determine and individuals ability to distinguish two simultaneously applied cutaneous
stimuli as separate?
Where can two stimuli be applied close together and still felt as 2 sepearte points with no
overlap?
How far apart must two stimuli be to be felt as separate points on the back?
Mechanism used throughout the NS to "sharpen" signal transmission?
Where does lateral inihibition occur in the DC-ML system?
Particularly sensative for detecting rapidly changing repetitive stimuli (basis for vibartory sense)?
Awareness of body position or body movement is called what?
Combination of what is used by the NS to produce a sense of proprioception?
What type of endings are rapidly acting receptors responsible for detecting the rate of change in
movement?
What accounts for the DC-ML ability to localize stimuli fairly well?
What accounts for the less effective localization ability seen in the anterolateral system?
Different Characteristics of the Anterolateral System, compared to the DCML?
3. Exploring an object, only touch the side that is ipsilateral to the lesion, ignore the contra
side (amorphosynthesis)
Receptive field for an SI cortical neuron
Two-point discrimination test
Lips and Fingertips
30-70 mm
Lateral Inhibition
At the level of DC nuclei and in the thalamic nuclei
DC-ML (Pacinian and Meissners)
Proprioception
Combination of tactile, muscle, and joint capsule receptors
Ruffini's end-organs
Point-to-point organization
Relative diffuseness
1. Velocity of transmission is approx. 1/2 that of the DCML
2. Degree of localization is poor
3. Gradations in intestity are far less pronounced
4. Ability to transmit rapid repetitive signals is poor
Pain, Temperature, tickle, itch, crude touch, and sexual sensations
Physiology - Chapter 48
Protective mechanism for the body?
Not just a sensation but a response to tissue damage?
Felt within 0.1 sec after stimulation?
Begins 1 second or more after the painful stimulus?
Usually associated with tissue damage?
Slow pain can be referred as what?
All pain receptors are what?
Found in the largest density where?
Activated by mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli?
Mechanical and Thermal stimuli tend to elicit what?
Chemical stimuli tend to elicity what?
What two chemical stimuli enchance the sensitivity of pain receptors but do NOT excite them?
Items that excite the pain receptors?
Pain receptors adapt very quickly/slowly/ or sometimes not at all?
Activation of these receptors can become progressively greater as the pain continues, what is this
called?
Fast pain trasmitted over what type of fibers?
Slow, chronic type of pain transmitted over what type of fibers?
A primiarly excite neurons in lamina ___ of the dorsal horn?
Wheras, C fibers synapse with neurons in the?
From the Substania Gelantinosa -> deeper into gray matter -> active neurons in what lamina(s)?
Neurons that receive A give rise to the?
Neurons that receive C give rise to the?
Neospinothalamic Tract axons cross the midline where?
NST ascends what of the SC as part of the anterolateral system?
Where do some of the NST fibers terminate in the BS?
Where do the majority of the NST fibers terminate?
Pain
Pain
Fast Pain
Slow Pain
Slow Pain
Burning, aching, or chronic pain
Free Nerve Endings
Skin, periosteum, arterial walls, joints, dura, and cranial vault
Pain receptors
Fast Pain
Slow Pain
Substance P and prostaglandins
Bradykinin, serotonin, histamine, potassium, acids, ACH, and proteolytic enzymes
Slowly
Hyperalgesia
A
C
I
Substania Gelatinosa
Mainly V, but also VI and VII
Neospinothalamic Tract
Paleospinothalamic Tract
Close to their origin
White matter
Reticular Formation
VPL of the thalamus (from here they project to the SI cortex)
Paleospinothalamic Tract
Terminate in BS -> fibers from BS (reticular) -> intralaminar nuclei and posterior nuclei of th
and to the hypothalamus