1.

364 Notes: 2

SITE INVESTIGATION
Methodology, Stratigraphy and Groundwater Monitoring

TYPES OF PROJECT
- New works (siting criterion)
- Condition assessment of existing structures (repair, retrofit)
- Sources of suitable construction materials (disposal of waste materials)
TYPES OF SITE
- Compact: buildings, bridges etc.
- Extended: railways, roads, transmission lines, pipelines
INFORMATION FROM SITE INVESTIGATION
1. Stratigraphy
- geometry of subsurface deposits (areal extent, thickness, depth)
- identification of geological units
(need to establish resolution relevant to problem)
2. Location and character of bedrock
- type, fissured/jointed/intact. other features (faults, solution cavities etc.)
- importance of local geological environment
3. Location & character of groundwater
- hydraulic regime (aquifer and aquitard layers)
- factors affecting in situ pressures
- chemical composition
4. Engineering Properties of Main Soil Layers
Shear strength - cohesive and frictional components (drainage conditions)
Deformation (compressibility, shear stiffness)
Flow resistance (permeability/hydraulic conductivity)
Consolidation
- links deformation of soil skeleton to displacement/flow of pore water
- controls rate of pore pressure dissipation
* Measure soil properties using laboratory tests on soil samples and/or in situ tests

2-1

1.364 Notes: 2

PROGRESS OF SITE INVESTIGATION

* Typically there are four phases of site investigation associated with a project:
1. Reconnaissance
- uses available information sources
(see list of geological sources from DM7)
- use for background/feasibility studies
2. Preliminary Investigation
- identify first order site characteristics
stratigraphy, bedrock character, groundwater regime
identify site specific problems
typically includes series of borings
some limited field testing for engineering properties
- Often this data forms the basis for Major Design Decisions
- Often constrained by budget and time
3. Detailed Site Investigation
- provide data for designer and/or contractor
- program of laboratory testing
- perform detailed analyses/interpretation of data
- Often this data arrives too late to affect major design decisions
4. Verification
- additional investigations performed during construction
- monitoring of field performance (part of observational approach)
* Cost of site investigation approx. 0.5-1.0% of project capital costs
SCOPE OF SITE INVESTIGATION
1. Low Level Projects
- Minimal site investigation (site visit; test pits?)
- Satisfy code requirements
2. Normal Level Projects
- Geotechnical engineer defines scope of site investigation
- Addresses all main design issues (key engineering properties)
3. High Level Projects
- Intensive site investigation (minimize risk)
- Requires extensive soil property characterization
2-2

1.364 Notes: 2

RECONNAISSANCE; INITIAL SITE INVESTIGATION

Geological Information
(USGS, NOAA, USDA, GSA)
- topographic maps
- maps of subsurface and surficial geology
- water supply papers
- bulletins -- detailed geological descriptions
Aerial Photography
(USGS, NASA, Skylab, Eros)
- planning of large projects
Boring Compilations
- previous soils investigations
e.g. BSCE collection dates from 1914
- also available from state agencies such as Mass. Highway Dept.; MBTA etc.
Adjacent Facilities
- buildings (and their foundations), excavations, subways etc
- utilities (power, sewer, water supply etc.)
History of site
- pre-existing foundations/construction
- sources of contamination etc.

2-3

1.364 Notes: 2

From Rowe (1972)

2-4

1.364 Notes: 2
SOURCES

OF

GEOLOGICAL

INFORMATION

(FROM

DM7.1)

Series
U.S.
Geological
Survey
(USGS)

Description of Material
Consult USGS Index of Publications from Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, D.C. Order publications from
Superintendent of Documents. Order maps from USGS,
Washington, D.C. Contact regional distribution offices
for information.

Geological
index map

Individual maps of each state showing coverage and sources

of all published geological maps.

Folios of
the Geo
logical
Atlas of
the United
States

Contains maps of bedrock and surface materials for many

important urban and seacoast areas. When out of print,
obtain folios through suppliers of used technical
literature.

Geological
including
Quadrangle
Maps of
United
States

This series supplants the older geological folios

areal or bedrock geology maps with brief descriptive text.
Series is being extended to cover areas not previously
investigated.

Bulletins,
profes
sional
papers,
circulars,
annual
reports,
monographs

General physical geology emphasizing all aspects of earth

sciences, including mineral and petroleum resources,
hydrology and seismicity. Areal and bedrock geology maps
for specific locations included in many publications.

Water
specific supply
papers
observations

Series includes papers on groundwater resources in

localities and are generally accompanied by description of
subsurface conditions affecting groundwater plus
of groundwater levels.

Topographic
maps

Topographic contour maps in all states, widespread coverage

being continually expanded.

Libraries

Regional office libraries contain geological,seismological

information from many sources. Data on foreign countries
are often suitable.

2-5

1.364 Notes: 2

Series
National
Oceanic and
Atmospheric
Administra
tion (NOAA),
National
Ocean Survey
(NO 5)

Description of Material
Consult Catalog 1, Atlantic and Gulf Coasts; 2, Pacific
Coast, 3, Alaska; 4, Great Lakes; and 5, Bathymetric Maps
and Special Charts. Order from Distribution Service,
National Ocean Survey, Riverdale, Maryland 20840.

Nautical
Charts

Charts of coastal and inland waterways showing available

soundings of bottom plus topographic and cultural features
adjacent to the coast or waterways.

U.S.
Department of
Agriculture
(USDA), Soil
Conservation
Service.

Consult list of Published Soil Surveys, USDA, Soil Conser

vation Service, January 1980 (published annually). Listing
by states and countries.

Soil maps
and reports

Surveys of surface soils described in agricultural terms.

Physical geology summarized. Excellent for highway or
airfield investigations. Coverage mainly in midwest, east,
and southern United States.

State
Geological
Surveys/State
Geologists
Office

Most states provide excellent detailed local geological maps

and reports covering specific areas or features in the
publications of the state geologists. Some offices are
excellent sources of information on foreign countries.

Geological
Society of
America (GSA)

Write for index to GSA, P.O. Box 9140, 3300 Penrose Place,
Boulder, Colorado, 80302.

Monthly
bulletins,
special
papers, and
memoirs.

Texts cover specialized geological subjects and intensive

investigations of local geology. Detailed geological
maps are frequently included in the individual articles.

Geological

Publications include general geological maps of North and

maps South America, maps of glacial deposits, and
Pleistocene aeolian deposits.

2-6

1.364 Notes: 2
PRINCIPAL SOIL DEPOSITS (from DM7.1, 1982)
Major
Division

Principal Soil Deposits

Pertinent Engineering
Characteristics

SEDIMENTARY
SOILS
Residual
Material
formed by
disintegration
of underlying
parent rock or
partially
indurated
material.

Residual sands and fragments of

gravel size formed by solution and
leaching of cementing material,
leaving the more resistant particles; commonly quartz.

Generally favorable
foundation conditions.

Residual clays formed by decomposition of silicate rocks, disintegration of shales, and solution of
carbonates in limestone. With few
exceptions becomes more compact,
rockier, and less weathered with
increasing depth. At intermediate
stage may reflect composition,
structure, and stratification of
parent rock.

Variable properties
requiring detailed
investigation.
Deposits present
favorable foundation
conditions except in
humid and tropical
climates, where depth
and rate of weathering
are very great.

Peat. A somewhat fibrous aggregate

of decayed and decaying vegetation
matter having a dark color and odor
of decay.

Very compressible.
Entirely unsuitable
for supporting
building foundations.

Organic
Accumulation
of highly
organic
material
formed in
place by the
growth and
subsequent
decay of plant
life.

Muck. Peat deposits which have

advanced in stage of decomposition
to such extent that the botanical
character is no longer evident.

2-7

1.364 Notes: 2

Major
Division

Principal Soil Deposits

Pertinent Engineering
Characteristics

TRANSPORTED
SOILS
Alluvial
Material
transported
and deposited
by running
water.

Floodplain deposits. Deposits laid

down by a stream within that
portion of its valley subject to
inundation by floodwaters.
Point bar. Alternating deposits of arcuate ridges and
swales (lows) formed on the
inside or convex bank of mitigating river bends. Ridge
deposits consist primarily of
silt and sand, swales are
clayfilled.
Channel fill. Deposits laid
down in abandoned meander
loops isolated when rivers
shorten their courses.
Composed primarily of clay;
however, silty and sandy soils
are found at the upstream and
downstream ends.
Backswamp. The prolonged
accumulation of floodwater
sediments in flood basins
bordering a river. Materials
are generally clays but tend
to become more silty near
riverbank.
Alluvial Terrace deposits.
Relatively narrow, flatsurfaced,
riverflanking remnants of floodplain deposits formed by entrenchment of rivers and associated
processes.

2-8

Generally favorable
foundation conditions;
however, detailed investigations are
necessary to locate
discontinuities. Flow
slides may be a
problem along
riverbanks. Soils are
quite pervious.
Finegrained soils are
usually compressible.
Portions may be very
heterogeneous. Silty
soils generally
present favorable
foundation conditions.
Relatively uniform in
a horizontal
direction. Clays are
usually subjected to
seasonal volume
changes.

Usually drained,
oxidized. Generally
favorable foundation
conditions.

1.364 Notes: 2

Major
Division

(cont d)
Materials
transported
and deposited
by running
water.

Principal Soil Deposits

Estuarine deposits. Mixed deposits

of marine and alluvial origin laid
down in widened channels at mouths
of rivers and influenced by tide,
of body of water into which they
are deposited.
AlluvialLacustrine deposits.
Material deposited within lakes
(other than those associated with
glaciation) by waves, currents, and
organochemical processes. Deposits
consist of unstratified organic
clay or clay in central portions of
the lake and typically grade to
stratified silts and sands in
peripheral zones.
Deltaic deposits. Deposits formed
at the mouths of rivers which
result in extension of the
shoreline.
Piedmont deposits. Alluvial
deposits at foot of hills or
mountains. Extensive plains or
alluvial fans.

Aeolian
Material
transported
and deposited
by wind.

Loess. A calcareous, unstratified

deposit of silts or sandy or clayey
silt traversed by a network of
tubes formed by root fibers now
decayed.

Dune sands. Mounds, ridges, and

hills of uniform fine sand
characteristically exhibiting
rounded grains.

2-9

Pertinent Engineering
Characteristics

Generally finegrained
and compressible. Many
local variations in
soil conditions.

Usually very uniform

in horizontal
direction.
Finegrained soils
generally
compressible.

Generally finegrained
and compressible. Many
local variations in
soil condition.
Generally favorable
foundation conditions.

Relatively uniform
deposits characterized
by ability to stand in
vertical cuts. Collapsible structure.
Deep weathering or
saturation can modify
characteristics.
Very uniform grain
size; may exist in
relatively loose
condition.

1.364 Notes: 2

Major
Division

Glacial
Material
transported
and deposited
by glaciers,
or by melt
water from
the glacier.

Principal Soil Deposits

Pertinent Engineering
Characteristics

Glacial till. An accumulation of

debris, deposited beneath, at the
side (lateral moraines), or at the
lower limit of a glacier (terminal
moraine). Material lowered to
ground surface in an irregular
sheet by a melting glacier is known
as a ground moraine.

Consists of material
of all sizes in
various proportions
from boulders and
gravel to clay.
Deposits are
unstratified. Generally present favorable
foundation conditions;
but, rapid changes in
conditions are common.

GlacioFluvial deposits. Coarse and

finegrained material deposited by
streams of meltwater from glaciers.
Material deposited on ground
surface beyond terminal of glacier
is known as an outwash plain.
Gravel ridges known as kames and
eskers.

Many local variations.

Generally present
favorable foundation
conditions.

GlacioLacustrine deposits. Material deposited within lakes by

meltwater from glaciers. Consisting
of clay in central portions of lake
and alternate layers of silty clay
or silt and clay (varved clay) in
peripheral zones.

Very uniform in a
horizontal direction.

Shore deposits. Deposits of sands

and/or gravels formed by the transporting, destructive, and sorting
action of waves on the shoreline.

Relatively uniform and

of moderate to high
density.

Marine
Material
transported
and deposited
by ocean waves
and currents
in shore and
offshore
areas.

Marine clays. Organic and inorganic

deposits of finegrained material.

2-10

Generally very uniform

in composition. Compressible and usually
very sensitive to remolding.

1.364 Notes: 2

Major
Division

Colluvial
Material
transported
and deposited
by gravity.

Principal Soil Deposits

Talus. Deposits created by gradual

accumulation of unsorted rock
fragments and debris at base of
cliffs.

Pertinent Engineering
Characteristics

Previous movement
indicates possible
future difficulties.
Generally unstable
foundation conditions.

Hillwash. Fine colluvium consisting

of clayey sand, sand silt, or clay.
Landslide deposits. Considerable
masses of soil or rock that have
slipped down, more or less as
units, from their former position
on steep slopes.

Pyroclastic

Ejecta. Loose deposits of volcanic

ash, lapilli, bombs, etc.

Material
ejected from
volcanoes and
transported by
gravity, wind
and air.

Pumice. Frequently associated with

lava flows and mud flows, or may be
mixed with nonvolcanic sediments.

2-11

Typically shardlike
particles of silt size
with larger volcanic
debris. Weathering and
redeposition produce
highly plastic, compressible clay. Unusual and difficult
foundation conditions.

1.364 Notes: 2

Example of Uncertainties in Geological Mapping (after Baecher, 1978)

2-12

1.364 Notes: 2

UNUSUAL SITE CONDITIONS

check list - description given in DM7, Canadian Foundations Manual
PROBLEM SOILS

PROBLEM CONDITIONS

Organic Soils
Normally Consolidated Clays
Sensitive Clays
Swelling and Shrinking Clays
Loose Granular Soils
Calcareous Sands
Metastable Soils (e.g. loess)
Glacial Till
Artifical Fills
Residual soils
Soluble Rocks
Shales

Meander loops and cutoffs

Relic Landslides
Kettle holes
Mined areas
Permafrost
Noxious or explosive gases
Extremes of temperature
Sulphate soils and groundwater
Karst topography
Perched water tables
Artesian Water Pressures

2-13

1.364 Notes: 2
FROM CANADIAN FOUNDATIONS MANUAL (1985)

CHAPTER 5

UNUSUAL SITE CONDITIONS

5.1

INTRODUCTION

The following paragraphs give brief descriptions of the types of soil, rock,
or conditions, that require precautionary measures to achieve satisfactory
design and performance. Early recognition of these types of soil, rock, or
conditions is essential to allow sufficient time for adequate investigations
and the development of designs.
5.2

PROBLEM SOILS

5.2.1 ORGANIC SOILS

Soils containing significant amounts of organic materials, either as colloids
or in fibrous form, are generally weak and will deform excessively under load.
Such soils include peat, and organic silts and clays typical of many
estuarine, lacustrine, or fluvial environments. Such soils are usually not
satisfactory as foundations for even very light structures because of
excessive settlements that can result from loading the soil.
5.2.2 NORMALLY CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
Organic clays of softtomedium consistency, which have been consolidated only
under the weight of existing conditions, are found in many areas. Typical of
these are the clays of the Windsor Lake St. Clair region and the varved clays
in the northern parts of Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec. Imposition of
additional load, such as a building, will result in significant longterm
settlement. The magnitude and approximate rate of such settlement can be
predicted from analyses based on carefully conducted consolidation tests on
undisturbed samples. Such studies should be made before any significant
structure is founded on or above these clays, in order to determine whether
settlements will be acceptable, considering the characteristics and purpose of
the structure.

Driving piles through normally consolidated plastic clays may cause heave or
displacements of previously driven piles or adjacent structures. The bottom of
excavations made in such soils may heave, and adjoining areas of structures
may move or settle, unless the hazards are recognized and proper precautions
taken to prevent such movements.
Special precautions may be necessary in sampling and testing varved clays. Any
analysis should take into account the important differences in properties
between the various layers in the clays.
5.2.3 SENSITIVE CLAYS
Sensitive clays are defined as having a remoulded strength of 25% or less of
the undisturbed strength. Some clays are much more sensitive than this, having
a remoulded to undisturbed strength ratio of 1 to 20, or even 1 to 50, are

2-14

1.364 Notes: 2
known. Typically, such have field moisture contents equal to or greater than
their liquid limits, and such relations may indicate their presence.
Extensive deposits of sensitive clays occur in some areas, as for example, the
Champlain clays of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa River Valleys. Where such clays
have been preconsolidated by partial desiccation, or by the weight of
materials subsequently eroded, foundations may be placed on the clays,
provided that the foundation load produces shearing stresses under the
foundations that are well within the shear strength of the clay, or else
excessive settlement and possibly catastrophic failure will result. Disastrous
flow slides have developed in the Champlain clays in a number of places, and
the hazard must always be considered. Deep excavations in sensitive clays are
extremely hazardous, because of possible severe loss in shear strength,
resulting from strains within the soil mass beneath and adjacent to the
excavation.
Determination of the physical properties necessary for evaluating the
significance of sensitive clays to a proposed structure requires taking and
testing of both undisturbed and remoulded samples of the clays and thorough
analysis of the possible hazards involved. Because of the extreme sensitivity
of such clays to even minor disturbances, taking and testing undisturbed
samples requires sophisticated equipment and techniques, and should be
attempted only by competent personnel experienced in this type of work.
5.2.4 SWELLING AND SHRINKING CLAYS
Swelling and shrinking clays are clays that expand or contract markedly upon
changes in moisture content. Such clays occur widely in the provinces of
Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan and are usually associated with lacustrine
deposits. Shallow foundations constructed on such clays may be subject to
movements brought about by volume changes, because of changes of the moisture
content in the clays. Deep foundations supporting structural floors can be
damaged if the enclosing clay is confined. Special design provisions should be
made, which take into account the possibility of movements or swelling
pressures in the clays (see Chapter 17).

5.2.5 LOOSE, GRANULAR SOILS

All granular soils are subject to some compaction or densification when
subjected to vibration. Normally, this is of significance only below the
permanent water table. Sands above the water table, as a rule, will be only
slightly compacted by most building vibration, because of friction developed
between the grains from capillary forces. Usually for sands in a compact to
dense state, settlements induced by vibration will be well within normal
structural tolerance, except for very heavy vibration, as from forging hammers
or similar equipment. However, if the sands are be in a loose to very loose
state, significant settlement may safely result from even minor vibrations or
from nearby pile driving. In some cases, earthquakes have brought about the
liquefaction of very loose sands, as occurred in Niigata, Japan. In this
event, structures supported above such soils may be completely destroyed.
Loose sands will settle significantly under static load only. Such settlements
may exceed allowable tolerance. Consequently, loose sands should be
investigated carefully and their limits established; densification or
compaction of such deposits may be essential before structures can be safely

2-15

1.364 Notes: 2
founded above them.

5.2.6 METASTABLE SOILS

Metastable soils include several types of soil, abnormally loosely deposited,
which may collapse on saturation. Such collapses will cause severe or even
catastrophic settlement of structures founded in or above these soils. Loess
is the most common metastable soil. Because metastable soils are strong and
stable when dry, they can be misleading in investigations, and extreme care
should be taken to ensure identification and proper foundation design wherever
such soils occur. The open, porous structure, which is the usual means of
identification, may be completely collapsed by the boring techniques. Where
such conditions may be anticipated, borings should be done by auger methods,
and test pits should be dug, from which undisturbed samples may be taken for
determining accurately inplace densities.

5.2.7 GLACIAL TILL

Till is unsorted and unstratified glacial drift deposited directly by and
underneath glaciers. Its soil grains are usually angular and all size
fractions are normally present (Legget, 1962, 1979, 1983). Basal till
(consolidated under the full weight of the glacier) is normally very dense,
whereas ablation till (deposited from the glacier during ablation) may not be
dense. Till is generally a good foundation material, but problems have arisen
with the presence of soft layers and large boulders in some tills. Till may be
difficult to excavate. Finegrained till is generally frost susceptible.
5.2.8 FILL
An engineered fill placed under careful control may be an extremely dense
material, more uniform, more rigid, and stronger than almost all natural
deposits. When not placed under controlled conditions, it may be a
heterogeneous mass of rubbish, debris, and loose soil of many types totally
useless as a foundation material. It may, of course, also be some combination
intermediate between these extremes. Unless the conditions and quality control
under which a fill was placed are fully known, the fill must be presumed
unsatisfactory for use under foundations. Investigations must establish its
limits, depths, and characteristics throughout.
5.3
PROBLEM ROCKS
5.3.1 VOLCANIC ROCKS
Parts of the Canadian Cordillera and the Western Interior Plains have
extensive deposits of geologically young volcanic rocks. Some tuffs within
these volcanic sequences have high porosities, low densities, and low shear
and compressive strengths. These materials weather rapidly, in some places, to
smectites (swelling clay minerals; montmorillonite).
5.3.2 SOLUBLE ROCKS
Rocks such as limestone, gypsum, rock salt, and marble are subject to high
rates of solution by groundwater, and may contain solution channels, caverns,
and sinkholes, which may cave to the earths surface. These conditions present
special foundation problems (Calembert et al., 1973).
5.3.3 SHALES
Shales are the most abundant of sedimentary rocks and commonly the weakest

2-16

1.364 Notes: 2
from the standpoint of foundations. Two special problems with certain shale
formations have been identified in Canada.
In Western Canada, the Bearpaw Formation and other shales of Cretaceous age
have been found to swell considerably when stress release or unloading leads
to the absorption of water by the clay minerals, in combination with exposure
to air. Bearpaw shales also have a low frictional resistance, which may create
slope stability problems for both excavations and construction on or near
natural slopes in Bearpaw shales. Special advice should be sought if Bearpaw
or comparable shales are encountered along deep river valleys.
In Eastern Canada, volumetric expansion of some shale formations, caused by
the weathering of iron sulphide minerals (mainly pyrite), accelerated by
oxidizing bacteria, has occurred in a few localities. Conditions leading to
mineralogical alteration seem to be related to lowering the groundwater table
and to raising of the temperature in the shale, particularly when the shale is
highly fractured. These conditions enhance bacterial growth and oxidation of
the sulphide minerals. Where these conditions are encountered, special
provisions should be considered to reduce heat loss from the building spaces
to the supporting shale. Shales often weather rapidly when exposed to air in
excavations. Special measures are warranted to avoid prolonged contact with
air.
As the effect of chemical degradation of foundation rock on the performance of
the structure may become obvious only several years after the completion of
the structure, the problem can only be avoided by recognition of potential
difficulties at the time of Site exploration and the taking of remedial
measures during design and construction phases of the project.

5.4
PROBLEM CONDITIONS
5.4.1 MEANDER LOOPS AND CUTOFFS
Meandering streams from time to time develop chute cutoffs across meander
bends, leaving disused, crescentshaped waterfilled channels, called oxbow
lakes, which later fill with very soft, organic silts and clays. Frequently,
these crescentshaped features can be detected in aerial photographs or from
accurate topographic maps. The soils filling these abandoned waterways can be
weak and highly compressible. It is necessary, therefore, that their limits be
determined and the depths of the soft, compressible soils be established.
5.4.2 LANDSLIDES
The possibility of landslides should always be considered. Whereas landslides
in an active state are readily identifiable, old landslides or unstable soils
in a potential landslide state are more difficult to detect. They may be
signalled by hummocky conditions, by bowed trees, by tilted or warped strata,
or by other evidence of displacement. The presence of sensitive clays
increases significantly the risk of landslides. The stability of such an area
may be so marginal that even minor disturbances such as a small excavation
near the toe of a slope, or slight changes in groundwater conditions or
drainage, may activate a slide. It is simpler to take precautions to avoid
triggerring a landslide than to stop one in motion, but it is better still to
avoid the landslide or potential landslide area altogether.
The banks of actively eroding rivers are always in a state of

2-17

marginal

1.364 Notes: 2
stability. This is particularly true of the outside bends of such rivers,
because active cutting is usually in progress, especially during periods of
high water. Ongoing sloughing of a slope is often an indication of incipient
failure (Eden and Jarrett, 1971).
When a potential landslide area is identified, care should be taken to
investigate it thoroughly and to adopt construction procedures and designs
that will improve the stability. Both the steepness and height of slopes are
important factors influencing the stability. Steepening a natural slope, or
excavating near the toe, or placing fill at the top of slopes, either
temporarily or permanently, will adversely affect the stability of the slope
and may result in slope failure. Proper design analysis is required whenever
such construction works are contemplated. In particular, the design must
consider the aspects of a seasonally varying groundwater regime, as well as
the effect of freezing and thawing of the ground. Arrangement for drainage may
be necessary, at both the top and the toe of the slope. High slopes may
require additional drainage placed horizontally in the sides of the slopes.
5.4.3
KETTLE HOLES
During the deposition of glacial outwash by the retreating continental ice
sheets, large blocks of ice commonly became stranded or trapped in the outwash
deposits. Upon melting, these blocks left depressions in the outwash mantle,
many of which were subsequently filled with peat or with soft organic soils.
Such depressions, known as kettle holes, range in diameter from a few metres
to several hundred metres. Usually, the depths of kettle holes do not exceed
40% of their minimum lateral dimensions; the depths are limited to the angles
of repose of the surrounding materials. Kettle holes are normally easily
identified as shallow surface depressions. In some localities, however, all
obvious surface expression has been destroyed by farming or levelling
operations. In such places aerial photographs will often reveal a difference
in vegetation cover.
5.4.4
MINED AREAS
Sites above or adjacent to mined areas may be subject to severe ground
movements and differential settlements, resulting from subsidence or caving.
For coal mines and other types of mines in horizontal strata, the zone of
disturbance generally does not extend laterally from the edge of the mined
areas for a distance more than half the depth of the mine below the surface.
There is little control of the solution process that occurs in potash or salt
mines, and subsidence may extend several hundred metres beyond the edges of
the mine or well field. Some evidence indicates that the solution may extend
farthest up the dip of the strata.
Investigations must be extremely thorough and all possible data on old mines
should be obtained wherever such differential settlement conditions are
suspected (sources of mine data are given in Subsection 4.9.10). While good
maps for active, or recently closed mines may be available, the accuracy and
reliability of maps or plans for long abandoned mines is frequently poor.
Furthermore, there are many minedout areas, especially in the older mining
regions, for which no records are now available.
5.4.5
PERMAFROST
Permafrost is the thermal condition of the earths crust and surficial
deposits, when its temperature has been below the freezing point continuously

2-18

1.364 Notes: 2
for a number of years. Half of Canadas land surface lies in the permafrost
region, either in the continuous zone where the ground is frozen to great
depths, or in the discontinuous zone where permafrost is thinner, and there
are areas of unfrozen ground.
The existence of permafrost causes problems for the development of the
northern regions extending into the Arctic. Engineering structures are, of
course, greatly affected by the low temperatures. Ice layers give soil a
rocklike structure with high strength. However, heat transmitted by buildings
often causes the ice to melt, and the resulting slurry is unable to
support the structure. Many settlements in northern Canada have examples of
structural damage caused by permafrost. In construction and maintenance of
buildings, normal techniques must, therefore, be modified at considerable
additional cost.
The accumulated experience from careful, scientifically planned and conducted
investigations makes it technically possible to build practically any
structure in the permafrost area (Rowley et al., 1975). Design and
construction in permafrost should, therefore, only be carried out by those who
possess special expertise in this area.
5.4.6
NOXIOUS OR EXPLOSIVE GAS
Noxious or explosive gases, of which methane is the most common, are
occasionally encountered in clay or silt deposits and in landfill sites
containing decaying organic matter. They constitute a hazard to workmen
constructing caissons or deep excavations. Gases may be found in shale or
other sedimentary rock deposits in various areas of the country. These may be
a special hazard in deep excavations, or where borings have encountered such
gases, which have discharged into the construction area. The history of the
local area of discharge of gas from borings, even if only for short periods of
time, should be especially noted and suitable precautions taken.
A particular problem may exist in tunnels or drainage systems where the
oxidation of iron sulphides by bacteria can deplete the free oxygen supply in
poorly ventilated areas so much that persons entering may be asphyxiated. Such
areas should be thoroughly purged with clean air before anyone enters, and
adequate ventilation must be assured while people are present.
5.4.7 EFFECTS OF HEAT OR COLD
Soils should be extremely furnaces or differential is
be protected against contact with surfaces that will
of clay soils beneath alongside ducts carrying
settlements. Therefore, insulation and ventilation
structures.
To prevent the potential collapse
lens formation, the walls must be
a distance equal to maximum frost
be reduced by means of insulation
be provided.

necessary
hot or cold. Desiccation
hot gases will cause
around hightemperature

of retaining walls in the winter due to ice

backfilled with nonfrostheave material for
penetration. The extent of the backfill may
behind the wall. Also, proper drainage must

5.4.8
SOIL DISTORTIONS
Soils distort both laterally and vertically under surface loadings. Lateral
distortion is generally not significant, but severe lateral distortions may

2-19

1.364 Notes: 2
develop in highly plastic soils toward the edge of surface loadings, even
where the loads are not sufficient to cause rupture or mud waves. These
lateral distortions may affect foundations, or structuresupporting piles, or
pipe trenches located in or adjacent to areas subject to highsurface loading,
such as along the edge of fills or a coal pile. Lateral distortions are a
special hazard if sensitive clays are present. In such soils, shearing strains
accompanying the distortions may lead to significant loss of shear strength or
possibly even to flow failures or slides.
Both lateral and vertical displacements may develop when displacementtype
piles are driven. Cohesive soils are especially subject to such displacement.
Previously driven piles or existing foundations may be displaced, or the soil
movements may result in excessive pressures on retaining walls, on sheeting
for excavations, or on buried pipes. Heaved piles may be redriven and used. If
there is significant lateral displacement, the piles may be kinked or bowed
beyond the safe limit of use. These hazards must be evaluated in the
investigation programme. Provision should be made in design and construction
procedures to ensure that other structures or piles are not damaged or
displaced by the driving of adjacent piles. Preboring through the cohesive
strata should be required if there is risk of disturbing existing structures
or previously driven piles.
5.4.9
SULPHATE SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
Suiphates in the soil and groundwater can cause significant deterioration of
Portland cement concrete. Because contact of concrete with sulphates
invariably is due to sulphate solution in the groundwater, isolation of the
concrete by interception or removal of sulphateladen waters will prevent
deterioration of the concrete. An alternative
solution
is
to
use
sulphateresistant cement in the concrete.
The presence of sulphates in the groundwater does not automatically justify
the use of sulphateresistant cement. Highquality watertight concrete is less
susceptible to deterioration by sulphates than lower quality concrete.
Furthermore, the use of sulphateresistant cement does not necessarily make
the concrete sulphateproof.

2-20

1.364 Notes: 2

BOREHOLES
Most commonly used site investigation technique for vertical stratigraphy
All sampling operations are carried out from within boreholes
Many in-situ tests are performed within boreholes
- Standard Penetration Test (SPT - all major classes of soil)
- Field Vane Test (FVT - especially in soft clay)
- Mnard Pressuremeter (especially in soft rock/very hard clay)
- Pumping tests (field permeability measurements)
- Geophysical measurements (e.g., cross-hole tests)
Installation of piezometers (monitoring groundwater)
Location depends on type & size of structure, local geology
W. Teng (1962)
Project

Spacing of Borings (ft)

Uniform*
Average*
Erratic*

Minimum
Number

Multi-storey building

150

100

50

1-2 storey building

200

100

50

100

25

1 to 2

Bridge Piers, Towers

Embankments

1000

500

100

Borrow Pits

500

200

50

* Overall stratigraphic character of foundation soils:

e.g. glacial deposits in Boston are erratic, while many coastal deposits are very uniform.
It is usually good practice to locate and define the character of the bedrock.

2-21

1.364 Notes: 2

H. Aldrich (1972)
Structure

Foundation Type

Area per Boring (ft2)

Large 1 storey structure

(e.g. shopping centre)

Spread footings

7500

Deep foundation

5000

Spread footings

5000

Deep foundation

2500

Spread footings

2500 to 5000

Deep foundation

1500

2-3 Storey Building

(e.g. light mfg.)
Medium to high rise
building
(A >10,000ft2)

Spacing: General rules of thumb

- rarely less than 25ft
- rarely greater than 2000 - 3000ft
Depth: Guidelines for Different Situations - illustrated on subsequent pages
GENERAL RULE:
- Explore all strata which can affect structural performance and foundation design

2-22

1.364 Notes: 2

REQUIREMENTS FOR BORING DEPTH (FROM DM7.1)

Areas of
Investigation
Large structure with
separate closely
spaced footings.

Isolated rigid
foundations.

Long bulkhead or
wharf wall.

Slope stability.

Deep cuts.

High embankments.

Dams and water

retention
structures.

Boring Depth
Extend to depth where increase in vertical stress for
combined foundations is less than 10% of effective
overburden stress. Generally all borings should extend
to no less than 30 ft below lowest part of foundation
unless rock is encountered at shallower depth.
Extend to depth where vertical stress decreases to 10%
of bearing pressure. Generally all borings should
extend no less than 30 ft below lowest part of
foundation unless rock is encountered at shallower
depth.
Extend to depth below dredge line between 3/4 and
11/2 times unbalanced height of wall. Where
stratification indicates possible deep stability
problem, selected borings should reach top of hard
stratum.
Extend to an elevation below active or potential
failure surface and into hard stratum, or to a depth
for which failure is unlikely because of geometry of
cross section.
Extend to depth between 3/4 and 1 times base width of
narrow cuts. Where cut is above groundwater in stable
materials, depth of 4 to 8 ft below base may suffice.
Where base is below groundwater, determine extent of
pervious strata below base.
Extend to depth between 1/2 and 11/4 times horizontal
length of side slope in relatively homogeneous
foundation. Where soft strata are encountered, borings
should reach hard materials.
Extend to depth of 1/2 base width of earth dams or 1
to 11/2 times height of small concrete dams in
relatively homogeneous foundations. Borings may
terminate after penetration of 10 to 20 ft in hard and
impervious stratum if continuity of this stratum is
known from reconnaissance.

2-23

1.364 Notes: 2

Boring Depth Considerations for a Shallow Foundation

2-24

1.364 Notes: 2

Boring Depth Considerations (contd.)

2-25

1.364 Notes: 2
Boring Method

Procedure Utilized

Auger boring

Hand or power operated augering

with periodic removal of
material. In some cases
continuous auger may be used
requiring only one withdrawal.
Changes indicated by examination
of material removed. Casing
generally not used.

Hollowstem flight auger

Power operated, hollow stem

serves as a casing

Washtype boring for undisturbed

or dry sample.

Chopping, twisting, and jetting

action of a light bit as
circulating drilling fluid
removes cuttings from holes.
Changes indicated by rate of
progress, action of rods, and
examination of cuttings in
drilling fluid. Casing used as
required to prevent caving.

Rotary drilling

Power rotation of drilling bit as

circulating fluid removes cutting
from hole. Changes indicated by
rate of progress, action of
drilling tools, and examination
of cutting in drilling fluid.
Casing usually not required
except near surface.

Applicability
Ordinarily used for shallow
explorations above water table in
partly saturated sands and silts,
and soft to stiff cohesive soils.
May be used to clean out hole
between drive samples. Very fast
when powerdriven. Large diameter
bucket auger permits examination
of hole. Hole collapses in soft
soils and soils below groundwater
table.
Access for sampling (disturbed or
undisturbed) or coring through
hollow stem. Should not be used
with plug in granular soil. Not
suitable for undisturbed sampling
in sand and silt.
Used in sands, sand and gravel
without boulders, and soft to
hard cohesive
soils. Most common method of
subsoil exploration. Usually can
be adapted for inaccessible
locations, such as on water, in
swamps, on slopes, or within
buildings. Difficult to obtain
undisturbed samples.
Applicable to all soils except
those containing much large
gravel, cobbles, and boulders.
Difficult to determine changes
accurately in some soils. Not
practical in inaccessible
locations because of heavy truck
mounted equipment, but
applications are increasing.

TYPES OF BORING METHODS IN SOILS

2-26

1.364 Notes: 2

WASH BORING

2-27

1.364 Notes: 2

2-28

1.364 Notes: 2

2-29

1.364 Notes: 2

COMPARISON OF LAB AND IN-SITU SOIL TESTS

(modified from Jamiolkowski et al., 1985)
Laboratory Tests
Advantages

Disadvantages

- Well-defined boundary conditions

- Strictly controlled drainage conditions
- Pre-selected stress or strain path
- Uniformity of stress and/or strain in the sample
(in principle)
- Soil nature and physical features fully identified

- Size of sample limited, (are properties

representative of in-situ soil mass?)
- Sample disturbance inevitable in some soils
- Non-uniformity of sample in practice.
Development of shear planes
- Expensive and time consuming

In-Situ Tests
Advantages

Disadvantages

- Large volume of soil tested, therefore should reflect

more accurately in-situ fabric of soils
- Possibility of obtaining continuous record of soil
profile
- Can be conducted in soils which are difficult to
sample
- Soils tested in their natural environment
- Cheaper and less time consuming

- Boundary conditions are poorly defined*

- Drainage conditions are not controlled*
- Large degree of disturbance caused by insertion of
device in the ground (leading to highly nonuniform fields of stress and strains around the
test device)
- Complex modes of deformation and failure are
imposed on the soil
-Interpretation of engineering properties primarily
empirical/ indirect**
- The nature of the soil is not examined directly+

* with the possible exception of the Self Boring PressureMeter (SBPMT)

+ with the exception of the Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
** with the possible exception of the SBPMT and cone penetration tests (CPT)

2-30

1.364 Notes: 2
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL SAMPLES
Class
1

Quality

Identification

Undisturbed

a. Block samples

Properties that can be

Measured

b. Stationary piston
samples

Footnote No.

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J,
K

1,2

Slightly disturbed Open thin-walled

tube sampler

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J

Substantially
disturbed

Open thick walled

tube sampler, e.g.
split spoon
driven samplers

A, B, C, D, E, G

Totally disturbed

Random samples
A, C, D, E, G
from augers, test pits

Slurried materials Wash borings

Properties:
A - Stratigraphy
B - Stratification
C - Organic content
D - Grain size distribution
E - Atterberg limits
F - Relative density

5
6

G - Water content
H - unit weight
I - Permeability
J - Compressibility, Consolidation
K - Shear strength

Notes:
1. Certain materials such as clean sands cannot be sampled without disturbance except by using
special techniques such as freezing. Block samples are best when dealing with sensitive, varved
or fissured clays.
2. Samples should be stored in conditions of controlled humidity and temperature.
3. Samples of this type are currently also used for shear strength tests. This practice is not optimal,
but may be satisfactory for uniform, insensitive clays. Radiography can be used to select the
best quality samples for these tests
4. Best use of these tests for estimating engineering properties is through correlations using the
Atterberg limits.
5. These samples should be kept in air-tight containers.
6. Crude but effective interpretation of stratification can be obtained by visual classifications of
washings.
2-31

1.364 Notes: 2

SOURCES OF SAMPLE DISTURBANCE IN COHESIVE SOILS

Heading
1. Stress
Relief

Item

Remarks

1.1. Change in stresses due to . Excessive reduction in o~ due to light dril

drilling hole
ling mud causes excessive deformations in
extension
Overpressure causes excessive deformations
in compression
1.2.Eventual removal of in situ . Resultant shear strain should usually be
shear stress
small
1.3.Eventual reduction (removal) . Loss of negative u (soil suctiOn) due to preof confining stress
sence of coarser grained materials

2. Sampling
Technique

3. Handing
procedures

2.1. Sampler geometry:

Diameter/Length
Area ratio
Clearance ratio
Accessories piston,
coring tube, inner
foil, etc.

Expansion of gas (bubbles and/or dissolved

gas)
These variables affect:
. Recovery ratio
. Adhesion along sample walls

2.2.Method of sampler advance

2.3.Method of extraction

. Thickness of remolded zone along interior

wall
. Continuous pushing better than hammering
. To reduce suction effect at bottom of sample,
use vacuum breaker

3.1.Transportation

. Avoid shocks, changes in temperature, etc.

3.2.Storage

. Best to store at in situ temperature to

minimize bacteria growth, etc.
Avoid chemical reactions with sampling tube
Opportunity for water migration increases
with storage time
. Minimize further straining

3.3.Extrusion, trimming, etc.

2-32

1.364 Notes: 2

Conceptual Models of Disturbance Below Base of Borehole (Hvorslev, 1949)

2-33

1.364 Notes: 2

Observations of Sample Disturbance (Hvorslev, 1949)

2-34

1.364 Notes: 2

2-35

1.364 Notes: 2

2-36

1.364 Notes: 2

2-37

1.364 Notes: 2

2-38

1.364 Notes: 2

2-39

1.364 Notes: 2

2-40

1.364 Notes: 2

Specimen Sizes Necessary to Obtain Representative Engineering Properties of Soils

(After Rowe, 1972)

2-41

1.364 Notes: 2

Theoretical model (Strain Path Method) Indicating the Minimum level of disturbance associated
with pushing a sampling tube in clay (Baligh et al., 1987)

2-42

1.364 Notes: 2

SEISMIC REFLECTION AND REFRACTION SURVEYS

Seismic reflection and refraction tests are widely used to find the depth to bedrock based on
measurements made at the ground surface. The seismic reflection test measures arrival times of
direct and reflected waves, while the refraction test measures the first arrival times of waves for a
linear array of receiver geophones.
In both methods, an impulse sends stress waves propagating into the underlying soil from
the Source. The two principal types of body waves are p-waves (Primary/compressional or
longitudinal) and s (Secondary/shear waves). P-waves are analogous to sound waves. They travel
through solids and fluids and cause particle motions (local compression or dilatation) parallel to
their direction of travel. In contrast, S waves cause shearing deformations in which the particles are
displaced orthogonal to the direction of s-wave travel. Fluids have no shear resistance and hence,
cannot transmit shear waves:

The direction of wave travel can then be used to sub-divide s-waves into SV and SH components
(describing movements in the vertical and horizontal planes respectively).
The velocities of wave propagation in an elastic medium are:
K + 43G
G
vp =
and vs =

where is the mass density of the soil, K and G are the elastic bulk and shear modulus,
respectively.
The p and s-wave velocities can be related through the Poissons ratio, :
vp
2(1 )
=
1 2
vs
(e.g., for = 0.3, vp/vs = 1.87)
2-43

1.364 Notes: 2

SEISMIC REFLECTION
- example of uniform soil over horizontal rock interface
- single receiver

The impulse at S generates stress waves (mainly p-wave) that propagate radially away from
the source. Figure (a) shows the hemispherical wavefront at selected time intervals. Some of the
wave energy travels along the direct path from S to R with direct travel time, td, while another
fraction is reflected back from the horizontal rock interface, with travel time tr to the receiver:
td =

x
v p1

and

tr =

4H 2 + x2
v p1

where x is the specified distance between S and R, vp1 is the p-wave velocity in the soil layer.
The velocity of wave propagation can be determined from td, while the depth to bedrock is found
from the measured arrival times of the reflected waves, tr:
1 2 2
H =
t r v p1 x 2
2
The distance x must be carefully selected to avoid ambiguity in the interpretation of tr and td
(see Fig. b).
Soil-rock interfaces are rarely horizontal and soil layers will have important depth variations
in vp (or vs). The principle of seismic reflection can easily be extended using multiple receivers.
For example an inclined rock interface can be identified with two receivers:
v p1 =
If x A = 0 :
z =

t rA v p1

sin =

2-44

xA
x
= B
t dA
t dB

2
v2p1( t rA + t rB )( t rB t rA ) x 2B
2 t rA v p1x B

1.364 Notes: 2

SESIMIC REFRACTION TEST

The seismic refraction test measures the first arrival of waves (regardless of path) at each receiver in
a linear array. One of the receivers is always located at the source.

Simple case with uniform soil overlying a horizontal rock interface. The figure shows the
wavefronts at a succession of time intervals. As the wavefront reaches the rock some of the rays
will be reflected and other will be refracted according to the angle of incidence. There is a critical
angle of incidence, ic, (that is defined by Snells law: sin ic = v1/v2) at which the reflected wave will
travel parallel to the rock interface. As the rock is generally much stiffer than the overlying soil, v2
>> v1. Hence, the wavefront (at a selected time such as t9) has a portion defined by the direct wave
and a portion controlled by the head wave. Beyond a critical distance xc the first arrivals at the
surface are from the head wave (i.e., the rays that are critically refracted at the interface). The travel
times for the head wave to reach the nth receiver can be written as:
2-45

1.364 Notes: 2

For xn > xc:

xn

H
ic

Soil
v1

Rock

v2

x n- 2Htani c

The travel times for the direct and head waves to reach the nth receiver are:
x
t dn = n
v1
2H
(x n 2H tan i c ) x n + 2H 1 1
t hn =
+
v1 cos i c
v2
v2
v12
v 22
Assuming that sinic = v1/v2 (Snell's law).
Hence, the two waves will arrive simultaneously at a critical distance xc:
xc
x
1
1
= c + 2H 2 2
v1
v2
v1
v2
From which the layer depth can be found:
x
v 2 v1
H = c
2
v 2 + v1
For a layered profile in which the stiffness (and hence, wave velocity) increase with depth, it is
possible to interpret the thickness of each layer:

2-46

1.364 Notes: 2

In this case the thickness of the kth layer is given by:

2
2
2
2
k
H j v k +1 v k v j v k v k +1 v j
x ck v k +1 v k
Hk =
+
k2
2
2
2 v k +1 + v k
v

v
j =1 v j

k +1
k

The interpretation of layered profiles become much more complex if the contrast in layer velocities
becomes small, or in situations where a layer of low velocity exists below one of high velocity.
Note: The ray paths of waves become curved in soil layers where the stiffness (velocity) increases
with depth - such as sands, gravels and normally consolidated clays. For example if the velocity
increases linearly with depth (i.e., stiffness ~ z2), then the ray paths follow circular arcs:

2-47

1.364 Notes: 2

USE OF SEISMIC REFRACTION FOR MEASURING DEPTH OF WEATHERED GRANITE

(Lee & DeFreitas, 1990)

2-48

1.364 Notes: 2

THE PIEZOCONE PENETROMETER

(after Baligh et al., 1981)

- Piezocone has cross-sectional area, A = 10cm2 or 15cm2

- Device is jacked into soil at a steady rate of penetration, U = 2cm/sec

2-49

1.364 Notes: 2

VERTICAL SOIL PROFILING USING THE PIEZOCONE

2-50

1.364 Notes: 2

ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF PIEZOMETERS

(Dunnicliff, 1993)
Type
Advantages
Limitations and Precautions
Observation well
Simple, inexpensive, universally available. Can Not applicable if perched or artesian
be driven in place.
water tables present. Metal elements
may corrode. Long time lag.
Open standpipe
Simple. inexpensive, reliable, usually has no
Porous filter can plug due to repeated
metallic elements. Long performance record.
water inflow and outflow. Long time
Can be converted to pneumatic type. Selflag. Tubing must be raised nearly
deairing.
vertical. Cannot be used if
piezometric level is above top of
standpipe. Freezing problems.
Subject to damage by construction
equipment and consolidation of soil
around standpipe.
Closed hydraulic
Simple. Reliable. Long experience record.
Freezing problems. Tubing must not
Less time lag and less prone to damage than
be significantly above piezometric
open standpipe piezometer. Allows central
elevation. Periodic de-airing required.
observation system to be used.
Pneumatic
Stable. Easy to read. Short time lag. Capability Durability in excess of 10 years not
of purging lines. Minimum Interference to
proven. Attention is necessary to
construction. Level of tubes and readout
several detailed features in making
independent of level of tip. No freezing
selection -- see text in this Session,
problems. Can be adapted for continuous
Section 3.5 and Session E, Section
recording. Allows central observation system 9.3. More expensive than above
to be used. Continuous flow type has
types.
moderate dynamic response.
Vibrating wire
Easy to read. Can be used to read negative
Sensitive to temperature if thermal
strain gage
pore pressures. Short time lag. Minimum
coefficients of body and wire are not
interference to construction. Level of wires
matched. Some versions subject to
and readout independent of level of tip.
zero drift. Not suitable for dynamic
Suitable for automatic recording. Allows
readings. Overvoltage protection and
central observation system to be used.
grounding system necessary in
Frequency signal permits data transmission
regions of thunderstorm activity.
over long distances. No freezing problems.
Similar cost to pneumatic
Version available with in-place calibration
piezometers. Zero drift may occur if
check.
subjected to impact.
Semi-conductor
Easy to read. Can be used to read negative
Some versions sensitive to
strain gage
pore pressures. Short time lag. Suitable for
temperature. Long term stability not
dynamic measurements and automatic
yet verified. Data can be falsified if
recording. Minimum interference to
transmitted over long distances.
construction. Level of wires and readout
Overvoltage protection and ground
independent of level of tip. Allows central
system necessary in regions of
observation system to be used. No freezing
thunderstorm activity. Similar cost to
problems. Version available for estimating in- pneumatic piezometers. Zero drift
situ soil properties.
may occur if subjected to impact.

2-51

1.364 Notes: 2

2-52

1.364 Notes: 2

Pneumatic Piezometer

2-53

1.364 Notes: 2

Vibrating Wire Piezometer

Casagrande M-206 Piezometer (push-in type)

2-54