Chapter 1.

EDM ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING

1.1 Background of EDM
The history of EDM Machining Techniques goes as far back as the 1770s when it
was discovered by an English Scientist. However, Electrical Discharge Machining
was not fully taken advantage of until 1943 when Russian scientists learned how the
erosive effects of the technique could be controlled and used for machining purposes.
When it was originally observed by Joseph Priestly in 1770, EDM Machining was
very imprecise and riddled with failures. Commercially developed in the mid 1970s,
wire EDM began to be a viable technique that helped shape the metal working
industry we see today. In the mid 1980s.The EDM techniques were transferred to a
machine tool. This migration made EDM more widely available and appealing over
traditional machining processes.
The new concept of manufacturing uses non-conventional energy sources like sound,
light, mechanical, chemical, electrical, electrons and ions. With the industrial and
technological growth, development of harder and difficult to machine materials,
which find wide application in aerospace, nuclear engineering and other industries
owing to their high strength to weight ratio, hardness and heat resistance qualities has
been witnessed. New developments in the field of material science have led to new
engineering metallic materials, composite materials and high- tech ceramics having
good mechanical properties and thermal characteristics as well as sufficient electrical
conductivity so that they can readily be machined by spark erosion. Non-traditional
machining has grown out of the need to machine these exotic materials. The
machining processes are non-traditional in the sense that they do not employ
traditional tools for metal removal and instead they directly use other forms of
energy. The problems of high complexity in shape, size and higher demand for
product accuracy and surface finish can be solved through non-traditional methods.
Currently, non-traditional processes possess virtually unlimited capabilities except for
volumetric material removal rates, for which great advances have been made in the
past few years to increase the material removal rates. As removal rate increases, the
cost effectiveness of operations also increase, stimulating ever greater uses of non1

traditional process. The Electrical Discharge Machining process is employed widely

for making tools, dies and other precision parts.EDM has been replacing drilling,
milling, grinding and other traditional machining operations and is now a well
established machining option in many manufacturing industries throughout the world.
And is capable of machining geometrically complex or hard material
components, that are precise and difficult-to-machine such as heat treated tool steels,
composites, super alloys, ceramics, carbides, heat resistant steels etc. being widely
used in die and mold making industries, aerospace, aeronautics and nuclear industries.
Electric Discharge Machining has also made its presence felt in the new fields such as
sports, medical and surgical, instruments, optical, including automotive R&D areas.
1.2 Introduction of EDM
Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is an electrothermal non-traditional machining
Process, where electrical energy is used to generate electrical spark and material
removal mainly occurs due to thermal energy of the spark.
EDM is mainly used to machine difficult-to-machine materials and high strength
temperature resistant alloys. EDM can be used to machine difficult geometries in
small batches or even on job-shop basis. Work material to be machined by EDM has
to be electrically conductive.

Fig 1.1 Die Sink Type EDM Machine

1.3 Principle of EDM

In this process the metal is removed from the work piece due to erosion cause by
rapidly recurring spark discharge taking place between the tool and work piece. A thin
gap is maintained between the tool and work piece by a servo system.Both tool and
workpiece are submerged in a dielectric fluid .Kerosene/EDM oil/deionized water is
very common type of liquid dielectric although gaseous dielectrics are also used in
certain cases.

Figure1. 2 Working principle of Electric discharge machining

In this fig.1.2 is shown the electric setup of the Electric discharge machining. The tool
is cathode and work piece is anode. When the voltage across the gap becomes
sufficiently high it discharges through the gap in the form of the spark. And positive
ions and electrons are accelerated, producing a discharge channel that becomes
conductive. It is just at this point when the spark jumps causing collisions between
ions and electrons and creating a channel of plasma. A sudden drop of the electric
resistance of the previous channel allows that current density reaches very high values
producing an increase of ionization and the creation of a powerful magnetic field. The
moment spark occurs sufficiently pressure developed between work and tool as a
result of which a very high temperature is reached and at such high pressure and
temperature that some metal is melted and eroded.Such localized extreme rise in
temperature leads to material removal. Material removal occurs due to instant
4

vaporization of the material as well as due to melting. The molten metal is not
removed completely but only partially.
As the potential difference is withdrawn, the plasma channel is no longer sustained.
As the plasma channel collapse, it generates pressure or shock waves, which
evacuates the molten material forming a crater of removed material around the site of
the spark .
1.4 Types of EDM
Basically, there are two different types of EDM:
1.4.1 Die-sinking type.
1.4.2 Wire-cut type.
1.4.1 Die-sinking EDM
In the Sinker EDM Machining process, two metal parts submerged in an insulating
liquid are connected to a source of current which is switched on and off automatically
depending on the parameters set on the controller. When the current is switched on, an
electric tension is created between the two metal parts. If the two parts are brought
together to within a fraction of an inch, the electrical tension is discharged and a spark
jumps across. Where it strikes, the metal is heated up so much that it melts. Sinker
EDM, also called cavity type EDM or volume EDM consists of an electrode and
workpiece submerged in an insulating liquid such as, more typically, oil or, less
frequently, other dielectric fluids. The electrode and workpiece are connected to a
suitable power supply. The power supply generates an electrical potential between the
two parts. As the electrode approaches the workpiece, dielectric breakdown occurs in
the fluid, forming a plasma channel, and a small spark jumps.
These sparks usually strike one at a time because it is very unlikely that different
locations in the inter-electrode space have the identical local electrical characteristics
which would enable a spark to occur simultaneously in all such locations. These
sparks happen in huge numbers at seemingly random locations between the electrode
and the workpiece. As the base metal is eroded, and the spark gap subsequently
increased, the electrode is lowered automatically by the machine so that the process
5

can continue uninterrupted. Several hundred thousand sparks occur per second, with
the actual duty cycle carefully controlled by the setup parameters.

Fig1.3 Die Sink Type EDM Machine

1.4.2 Wire-cut EDM

Wire EDM Machining (also known as Spark EDM) is an electro thermal production
process in which a thin single-strand metal wire (usually brass) in conjunction with
de-ionized water (used to conduct electricity) allows the wire to cut through metal by
the use of heat from electrical sparks .A thin single-strand metal wire, usually brass, is
fed through the workpiece, submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid, typically deionized
water. Wire-cut EDM is typically used to cut plates as thick as 300mm and to make
punches, tools, and dies from hard metals that are difficult to machine with other
methods.
Wire-cutting EDM is commonly used when low residual stresses are desired, because
it does not require high cutting forces for removal of material. If the energy/power per
pulse is relatively low (as in finishing operations), little change in the mechanical
properties of a material is expected due to these low residual stresses, although
material that hasn't been stress-relieved can distort in the machining process. Due to
the inherent properties of the process, wire EDM can easily machine complex parts
and precision components out of hard conductive materials.
6

Fig 1.4 Wire Cut Type EDM Machine

1.5 Important characteristics of EDM

a) Spark On-time (pulse time or Ton): The duration of time (s) the current is allowed
to flow per cycle. Material removal is directly proportional to the amount of energy
applied during this on-time. This energy is really controlled by the peak current and
the length of the on-time .
b)Spark Off-time (pause time or Toff ): The duration of time (s) between the sparks
(that is to say, on-time). This time allows the molten material to solidify and to be
wash out of the arc gap. This parameter is to affect the speed and the stability of the
cut. Thus, if the off-time is too short, it will cause sparks to be unstable.
c)Arc gap (or gap): The Arc gap is distance between the electrode and workpiece
during the process of EDM. It may be called as spark gap.
d)Discharge current (current Ip): Current is measured in amp allowed to per cycle.
Discharge current is directly proportional to the Material removal rate.
e)Duty cycle (): It is a percentage of the on-time relative to the total cycle time. This
parameter is calculated by dividing the on-time by the total cycle time .
f)Voltage (V): It is a potential that can be measure by volt.It also effects the material
7

removal rate.
1.6 Advantages of EDM
a)Any material that is electrically conductive can be cut using the EDM process.
b)Hardened workpieces can be machined eliminating the deformation caused by heat
treatment.
c)X, Y, and Z axes movements allow for the programming of complex profiles using
simple electrode.
d)Complex dies sections and molds can be produced accurately, faster, and at lower
costs.
e)Due to the modern NC control systems on die sinking machines, even more
complicated work pieces can be machined.
f)The high degree of automation and the use of tool and work piece changers allow
the machines to work unattended for overnight or during the weekends.
g)Forces are produced by the EDM-process and that, flushing and hydraulic forces
may become large for some work piece geometry. The large cutting forces of the
mechanical materials removal processes, however, remain absent.
h)Thin fragile sections such as webs or fins can be easily machined without
deforming the part.
1.7 Limitation of EDM
a)The need for electrical conductivity To be able to create discharges, the work
piece has to be electrically conductive. Isolators, like plastics, glass and most
ceramics, cannot be machined by EDM, although some exception like for example
diamond is known. Machining of partial conductors like Si semi-conductors, partially
conductive ceramics and even glass is also possible.
b)Predictability of the gap - The dimensions of the gap are not always easily
predictable, especially with intricate work piece geometry. In these cases, the flushing
conditions and the contamination state of differ from the specified one. In the case of
die-sinking EDM, the tool wear also contributes to a deviation of the desired work
piece geometry and it could reduce the achievable accuracy. Intermediate measuring
of the work piece or some preliminary tests can often solve the problems.

c)Low material removal rate- The material removal of the EDM-process is rather low,
especially in the case of die-sinking EDM where the total volume of a cavity has to be
removed by melting and evaporating the metal. With wire-EDM only the outline of
the desired work piece shape has to be machined. Due to the low material removal
rate, EDM is principally limited to the production of small series although some
specific mass production applications are known.
d)Optimization of the electrical parameters - The choice of the electrical parameters
of the EDM process depends largely on the material combination of electrode and
work piece and EDM manufactures only supply these parameters for a limited amount
of material combinations.

1.8 Application of EDM

1.The EDM process is most widely used by the mould-making tool and die industries,
but is becoming a common method of making prototype and production parts,
especially in the aerospace, automobile and electronics industries in which production
quantities are relatively low.
2.It is used to machine extremely hard materials that are difficult to machine like
alloys, tool steels, tungsten carbides etc.
3.It is used for forging, extrusion, wire drawing, thread cutting.
4.It is used for drilling of curved holes.
5.It is used for internal thread cutting and helical gear cutting.
6.It is used for machining sharp edges and corners that cannot be machined effectively
by other machining processes.
7.Higher Tolerance limits can be obtained in EDM machining. Hence areas that
require higher surface accuracy use the EDM machining process.
8.Ceramic materials that are difficult to machine can be machined by the EDM
machining process.
9.Electric Discharge Machining has also made its presence felt in the new fields such
as sports, medical and surgical, instruments, optical, including automotive R&D areas.
10.It is a promising technique to meet increasing demands for smaller components
usually highly complicated, multi-functional parts used in the field of microelectronics.
9

Chapter 2:Experimental set up

2.1 Introduction
In this chapter we are going to discuss about the experimental set-up and describe
briefly the objective of our project.
2.2 Experimental set up
For this experiment the whole work was done by Electric Discharge Machine, model
ELECTRONICA- EMS-5535/PS 50 (die-sinking type) and positive polarity for tool
was used to conduct the experiments. Paraffin oil was used as dielectric fluid. With
pressure

flushing

of

rectangular

shaped

cu

tool

with

pressure

of

0.6kg/cm2.Experiments were conducted with positive polarity of tool.

2.3 EDM major parts
2.3.1)Dielectric reservoir, pump and circulation system.
2.3.2)Power generator and control unit.
2.3.3)Working tank with work holding device.
2.3.4)X-y table accommodating the working table.
2.3.5)The tool holder.
2.3.6)The servo system to feed the tool.
2.3.1)Dielectric reservoirs pump and circulation system - Dielectric reservoirs and
pump are used to circulate the EDM oil for every run of the experiment and also used
the filter the EDM oil.
2.3.2)Power generator and control unit - The power supply control the amount of
energy consumed. First, it has a time control function which controls the length of
time that current flows during each pulse; this is called on time. Then it control the
amount of currentallowed to flow during each pulse. These pulses are of very short
duration and are measured in microseconds. There is a handy rule of thumb to
determine the amount of current a particular size of electrode should use: for an
efficient removal rate, each square inch of electrode calls for 50 A. Low current level
for large electrode will extend overall machine time unnecessarily.
10

Conversely, too heavy a current load can damage the workpiece of electrode.The
control unit control all the function of the machining for example of Ton, Ip, duty
cycle, putting the values and maintain the workpiece the tool gap.

Fig 2.1 Control Unit

2.3.3)Working tank with work holding device All the EDM oil kept in the working
tank working tank is used to supply the fluid during the process of machining.
2.3.4)X-y table accommodating the working table They are used for the moment of
the workpiece in X and Y direction.

2.3.5)The tool holder The tool holder hold the tool with the process of machining.

11

Fig2.2 The tool holder with workpiece and tool .

2.3.6 The servo system to feed the tool - The servo control unit is provided to maintain
the pre determined gap. It senses the gap voltage and compares it with the present
value and the difference in voltage is then used to control the movement of servo
motor to adjust the gap.
2.4 Selection of the work piece
It is capable of machining of hard material component such as heat treated tool steels,
composites, super alloys, ceramics, carbides, heat resistant steels etc. The higher
carbon grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting
tools, etc. For analysis of the effect of EDM machining on the properties of the rails
like hardness,surface finish and also to analyze why early used 52R grade of mild
steel material for narrow gauge have been replaced by 90R grade of mild steel for use
in broad gauges.The workpiece used are 52R and 90R grades of mild steel.

Fig 2.3 Grade 52R

Fig 2.4 Grade 90R

12

2.5 Tool Design

The tool design for Electric discharge machining for using Cu, brass, Al alloys silver
tungsten alloys etc. In this experiment using the copper tool electrode and the design
of copper tool is rectangular .

Fig 2.5 Copper tool electrode

2.6 Mechanism of MRR

The mechanism of material removal of EDM process is most widely established
principle is the conversion of electrical energy it into thermal energy. During the
process of machining the sparks are produced between workpiece and tool .Thus each
spark produces a tiny crater in the material along the cutting path by melting and
vaporization, thus eroding the workpiece to the shape of the tool.

2.6.1 Evaluation of MRR

The material MRR is expressed as the ratio of the difference of weight of the
workpiece before and after machining to the machining time and density of the
material.
Volumetric MRR=(Wb-Wa)/ t
Where ,Wb = Weight of workpiece before machining.
Wa = Weight of workpiece after machining.
t = Machining time = 2hr 15 min.
= Density of mild steel material =7.85gm/cm3
2.7 Conduct of Experiment
52R and 90R grade of mild steel material particulate was using rectangular shaped
Copper tool with cross-section (l*b*h): (49.98*37.86*19.38) mm3. And the
13

Electronica EMS- 5535/PS50 (die-sinking type) of EDM machine are used. Paraffin
oil was used as dielectric fluid. Pressure flushing with rectangular-shaped copper
tool was used to flush away the eroded materials from the sparking zone. In this
experiment except the current all the characteristics were kept constant The
calculation of material removal rate by using electronic balance weighing machine.
This machine capacity is 300 gram and accuracy is 0.001

14

Chapter 3.Microstructure
3.1 Introduction
Microstructure is defined as the structure of a prepared surface or thin foil of material as
revealed by a microscope above 25 magnification. The microstructure of a
material (whichcan be broadly classified into metallic, polymeric, ceramic and
composite) can strongly influence physical properties such as strength,toughness
,ductility,hardness,corrosion resistance high/low temperature behaviour wear
resistance, and so on, which in turn govern the application of these materials
inindustrial practice.
3.2 What is microstructure?
W h e n d e s c r i b i n g t h e s t r u ct u r e o f a m a t e r i a l , w e m a k e a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i
o n bet w e e n i t s c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e a n d i t s m i c r o s t r u c t u r e . T h e t e r m c r y s
ta l st r u c t u r e i s u sed t o d escr i b e t h e av e r a ge pos i t i ons of a t om s w i t hi
n t he uni t c e l l , a nd i s c o m pl e t e l y s pe c i f i e d by t he l a t t i c e t ype a nd t he
fractional coordinates of the atoms). In other words, the crystal structure describes the
appearance of the material on an atomic (or ) lengthscale. The term microstructure is used to
describe the appearance of the material on the nm-cm length scale. Microstructure can be
observed using a range of microscopy techniques. The microstructural features of a
given material may vary greatly when observed at different length scales.

3.3 Why is the microstructure of a material important?

The most important aspect of any engineering material is its structure. The structure of a
material is related to its composition, properties, processing history and performance.
And therefore, studying the microstructure of a material provides information linking its
composition and processing to its properties and performance. Interpretation of
microstructures requires an understanding of the process es by w hi c h va r i ou s st r u c
t u r e s ar e f o r m ed . P h y si ca l Metallurgy i s t h e sc i en ce w h i ch provides
meaningful explanations of the microstructures, through understanding what is happening
inside a metal during the various processing steps. Metallography is the science of
Preparing specimens, examining the structures with a microscope and interpreting the
microstructures.T h e s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s p r e s e n t i n a m a t e r i a l a r e a f u n c t i o
n o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d f o r m o f t h e starting material, and any subsequent heat

treatments and or processing treatments the material receives. Microstructural

analysis is used to gain information on how the material was produced and t h e q u a l i t
y of t h e
r esu l t i n g m at er i al . Mi cr o s t r u ct u r a l f ea t u r es, su c h as g r ai n si
15

ze,
i n c l u s i o n s , impurities, second phases, porosity, segregation or surface
effects, are a function of the startingmaterial and subsequent processing
treatments. The microstructural features of metals are welld e f i n e d a n d d o
c um e n t e d , a n d u n d er st o o d t o b e t h e r e su l t o f s p eci f i c t r eat
m e n t s . T h e s e microstructural features affect the properties of a material, and certain
microstructural features areassociated with superior properties.
3.4 For What is Microstructural Analysis used for?
Microstructural and microstructural examination techniques are employed in areas such
as routinequality control, failure analysis and research studies. In quality
control,microstructural analysis is u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e s t r u c t u r a l
p a ra m e te rs a r e w ith in c e rta in s p e c if ic a t io n s . It is u s e d a s a
criterion for acceptance or rejection. The microstructural features sometimes considered
are grain size, amount of impurities, second phases, porosity, segregation or defects
present. The amount or size of these features can be measured and quantified, and
compared to the acceptance criterion.Various techniques for quantifying microstructural
features, such as grain size, particle or pore size,volume fraction of a constituent, and
inclusion rating, are available for comparative analysis.Microstructural analysis is
used in failure analysis to determine the cause of failure.
3.5 Techniques used.
3.5.1. Metallurgical microscope.
3.5.1.1.Introduction: The metallurgical microscope is the most important tool of the
metallurgist. It consist an objective and an eye-piece. Its primary function is to reveal the
details of the object. The clarity and the extent to which the details are revealed depends
on the degree to which these optical systems are created.
A metallurgical microscope uses a different lighting method than a conventional
microscope and can illuminate solid specimens to identify, inspect, and measure them.
They are like other optical microscopes with the exception of the lighting orientation.
Electronic parts manufacturers, forensic laboratories, and metal foundries all use this type
of instrument.
A conventional microscope illuminates a transparent specimen from below the stage,
making it visible through the eyepiece. Since light cannot penetrate opaque or solid
objects, this is not a suitable method for observing these samples under magnification.
Metallurgical microscopes illuminate objects from above, either with an external light
source or with that light travels through the magnification objectives using beam splitters.
This lighting technique illuminates the entire object without creating distracting or
16

unnecessary reflections.
The eyepiece on a metallurgical microscope may be singular or binocular, and most
microscopes can link directly to a computer for specimen observation on a screen. Field
of view (FOV) varies with microscope brand and model with some offering FOVs of up
to 0.787 inches (20 millimeters) in diameter. The microscopes may have three to four
objective lenses with a range of magnifying capacity. Some versions are capable of
magnifying up to 1,250 times.
Another type of microscope used for industrial purposes is the inverted metallurgical
microscope. This type of instrument has the objective under the stage, which allows
viewing of specimens that vary in size. As individuals typically use a metallurgical
microscope for observing surface structure, large items can be placed on the stage
without anyone coming into contact with the objectives. Researchers also place flasks or
bottles on the stage, observing microorganisms within a liquid environment.
Electronics manufacturers often use a metallurgical microscope as a quality control
instrument, inspecting parts for microscopic defects. Forensic labs use the instrument for
identifying firing patterns on bullets and casings or for analyzing the surface area of
bones and other material. Metal foundries use metallurgic optical microscopes for grain
analysis and to determine the structure of manufactured metals. Scientists use the
microscopes for analyzing and identifying metal components.

17

Fig 3.1 Carlzeiss metallurgical Microscope

Table 3.1

18

3.5.1.2 Principle
A microscope must gather light from a tiny area of a thin, well-illuminated specimen that
is close-by. So the microscope does not need a large objective lens. Instead, the objective
lens of a microscope is small and spherical, which means that it has a much shorter focal
length on either side. It brings the image of the object into focus at a short distance within
the microscope's tube. The image is then magnified by a second lens, called an ocular
lens or eyepiece, as it is brought to your eye. a microscope has a light source and a
condenser. The condenser is a lens system that focuses the light from the source onto a
tiny, bright spot of the specimen, which is the same area that the objective lens
examines.microscopes typically have interchangeable objective lenses and fixed
eyepieces. By changing the objective lenses (going from relatively flat, lowmagnification objectives to rounder, high- magnification objectives), a microscope can
bring increasingly smaller areas into view -- light gathering is not the primary task of a
microscope's objective lens.

Fig 3.2 Schematic Diagram Showing Image Formation

3.5.2.Scanning Electron Microsope.

3.5.2.1 Introduction
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces
images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons
interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be detected and
that contain information about the sample's surface topography and composition. The
electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the beam's position is
combined with the detected signal to produce an image. SEM can achieve resolution
better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in high vacuum, in low vacuum, (in
environmental SEM) in wet conditions and at a wide range of cryogenic or elevated
temperatures.
19

The most common mode of detection is by secondary electrons emitted by atoms

excited by the electron beam. The number of secondary electrons is a function of the
angle between the surface and the beam. On a flat surface, the plume of secondary
electrons is mostly contained by the sample, but on a tilted surface, the plume is
partially exposed and more electrons are emitted. By scanning the sample and detecting
the secondary electrons, an image displaying the tilt of the surface is created.

Fig 3.3 VEGA TESCAN Scanning Electron Microscope

20

Table 3.2 Specifications of VEGA TESCAN Scanning Electron Microscope

3.5.2.2 Principle
The types of signals produced by a SEM include secondary electrons (SE), back-scattered
electrons (BSE), characteristic X-rays, light (cathodoluminescence) (CL), specimen
current and transmitted electrons. Secondary electron detectors are standard equipment in
all SEMs, but it is rare that a single machine would have detectors for all possible signals.
The signals result from interactions of the electron beam with atoms at or near the surface
of the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, secondary electron
imaging or SEI, the SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface,
revealing details less than 1 nm in size. Due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM
micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional
appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample. This is exemplified
by the micrograph of pollen shown above. A wide range of magnifications is possible,
from about 10 times (about equivalent to that of a powerful hand- lens) to more than
500,000 times, about 250 times the magnification limit of the best light microscopes.
Back-scattered electrons (BSE) are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample by
21

elastic scattering. BSE are often used in analytical SEM along with the spectra made
from the characteristic X-rays, because the intensity of the BSE signal is strongly related
to the atomic number (Z) of the specimen. BSE images can provide information about the
distribution of different elements in the sample. For the same reason, BSE imaging can
image colloidal gold immuno-labels of 5 or 10 nm diameter, which would otherwise be
difficult or impossible to detect in secondary electron images in biological specimens.
Characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner shell electron
from the sample, causing a higher- energy electron to fill the shell and release energy.
These characteristic X-rays are used to identify the composition and measure the
abundance of elements in the sample.
3.5.2.3 Scanning process and image formation

Fig 3.3 Schematic of an SEM.

In a typical SEM, an electron beam is thermionically emitted from an electron gun fitted
with a tungsten filament cathode. Tungsten is normally used in thermionic electron guns
because it has the highest melting point and lowest vapour pressure of all metals, thereby
allowing it to be heated for electron emission, and because of its low cost. Other types of
electron emitters include lanthanum hexaboride cathodes, which can be used in a
standard tungsten filament SEM if the vacuum system is upgraded and FEG, which may
be of the cold-cathode type using tungsten single crystal emitters or the thermally assisted
Schottky type, using emitters of zirconium oxide.
The electron beam, which typically has an energy ranging from 0.2 keV to 40 keV, is
focused by one or two condenser lenses to a spot about 0.4 nm to 5 nm in diameter. The
beam passes through pairs of scanning coils or pairs of deflector plates in the electron
column, typically in the final lens, which deflect the beam in the x and y axes so that it
scans in a raster fashion over a rectangular area of the sample surface.
When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the electrons lose energy by
repeated random scattering and absorption within a teardrop-shaped volume of the
22

specimen known as the interaction volume, which extends from less than 100 nm to
approximately 5 m into the surface. The size of the interaction volume depends on the
electron's landing energy, the atomic number of the specimen and the specimen's density.
The energy exchange between the electron beam and the sample results in the reflection
of high-energy electrons by elastic scattering, emission of secondary electrons by
inelastic scattering and the emission of electromagnetic radiation, each of which can be
detected by specialized detectors. The beam current absorbed by the specimen can also
be detected and used to create images of the distribution of specimen current. Electronic
amplifiers of various types are used to amplify the signals, which are displayed as
variations in brightness on a computer monitor (or, for vintage models, on a cathode ray
tube). Each pixel of computer videomemory is synchronized with the position of the
beam on the specimen in the microscope, and the resulting image is therefore a
distribution map of the intensity of the signal being emitted from the scanned area of the
specimen. In older microscopes image may be captured by photography from a highresolution cathode ray tube, but in modern machines image is saved to a computer data
storage.

23

Chapter 4. CHEMICAL COMPOSOTION

4.1 Introduction
Chemical composition refers to the arrangement, type and ratio of atoms in molecules
of substances. Chemical composition varies when chemicals are added or subtracted from
a substance, when the ratio of substances changes, or when other chemical changes occur
in chemicals.
The chemical composition of a substance determines the properties of the substance. This
means that the way atoms are put together in something determines the color, density,
strength, and other properties of the thing.
4.2 Technique used:Thermo Scientific Optical Emission Spectrometry
Introduction: Perform rapid elemental analysis of solid metallic samples with optical
emission spectrometry using Arc/Spark excitation. This technique meets the most
demanding analysis needs of the metals industry from production control to R&D, from
incoming material inspection to scrap sorting.
When the exact composition of metal and metals alloys is unknown or uncontrolled,
quality, regulatory compliance and cost are at risk. The Thermo Scientific ARL
3460 Metals Analyzer provides a complete, reliable chemical analysis of metals for a
variety of applications. From identifying alloying and metallurgically relevant
elements from percent to trace level to locating undesired elements, this OE
spectrometer addresses the wide range of elemental analysis requirements of industries
and laboratories working with cast iron, steel, aluminum alloys and other nonferrous
metals and alloys.

Fig 4.1 Thermo Scientific Optical Emission Spectrometer ARL 3460

24

Table 4.1 ARL 3460 Specifications

Spectrometer
Spectrometer design: Paschen-Runge vacuum polychromator made of special cast iron and temperature
controlled
to 0.1 at 38 C. Maximum 60 channels.
Focal length: 1 m
Primary slit width: 20 m
Secondary slit width: 20, 25, 37.5, 50, 75, 100, 150 m
Type of detector: Photomultiplier tube 28 mm, 10-stage side window tubes, fused quartz, glass
or MgF2 windows
Grating type: 1080, 1667 or 2160 gr/mm, selected by analytical task
Resolution: Dependent on grating, secondary slit and spectral order
Sample stand: Argon flushed, water-cooled table with self-contained, closed loop cooling system
Electronics
Spectrometer control: ARL MMB 386 Microprocessor utilizing CMOS technology with Status Measuri
Card.
A/D converters and attenuators included for each channel.
Programmable attenuators: Up to 24, available as an option
Dynamic range: 106:1
Enclosure: Built-in dust protection with high capacity cooling fans
Requirements
Ambient temperature: 16-30C (62-86F); maximum gradient 5 C/hour
Relative humidity: 20-80 %
Voltage: 230 V (+10 %/-15 %), single-phase with protective ground (5kVA regulator required if
fluctuations exceed 10 %)
Current: 12 A, including PC, screen and printer
Frequency: 50 or 60 Hz
Grounding: < 1
Argon: > 99.996 % maximum 5 ppm oxygen (maximum 2 ppm oxygen for samples with high
Si content). Optional argon purifier available and recommended for low carbon analysis.
For VUV lines (nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine), argon purifier included
Consumption
Electrical power: Max 3.5 kVA
Argon: 3.5 l/min during analysis, 0.35 l/min stand-by
Compliance to norms: 98/37/EEC Machinery
73/23/EEC Low voltage material
89/336/EEC Electromagnetic compatibility
Dimensions and weight
Overall dimensions: 166.5 x 91 x 119 cm or 65 x 47 x 36 inches, including excitation stand
Weight: 450 kg. or 992 lb approximately
Accessories and options: Small samples analysis kit
Argon purification systems
Voltage stabilization systems
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
Suction device accessory to exhaust toxic fumes
Stand upgrade for semi-automatic operation
Data communication software options
Analytical results processing software options

25

Chapter 5.

EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIVE,WORK,
ANALYSIS AND ITS CONCLUSION.

26

5.1 Objective
To determine the Material Removal Rate by Electric Discharge Machine,surface
grain size by Micro-Structure and by studying chemical composition and
making the comparison between 52R and 90R grades of mild steel of Indian
rails.

5.2 Experimental work

5.2.1 EDM Machining
5.2.1.1 Material Removal Rate:It is defined as the ratio of difference in weights before
machining and after machining to the time taken for machining.
MRR=Wb-Wa/t
Wb-weight before machining
Wa-weight after machining
t- time taken for machining
-density of metal

a)Material Removal Rate of 52R grade of mild steel.

Wb=300gm
Wa=297gm
t=135min
=7.85gm/cm3
MRR=((300-297)*1000)/(7.85*135)
=2.83mm3/min

27

Graph 5.1.MRR vs Current for 52R Grade

b) Material Removal Rate of 90R grade of mild steel.

Wb=170gm
Wa=165gm
t=135min
=7.85gm/cm3
MRR=((170-165)*1000)/(7.85*135)
=4.72 mm3/min

28

Graph 5.2 .MRR vs Current for 90R Grade

29

5.2.2.Micro-structure
5.2.2.1 Carlzeiss Metallurgical Microscope
a)52R grades of mild steel

Fig 5.1 100X Magnification (52R)

Fig 5.2 500X (52R)Magnification

Here the dark region represents grains size which are big and inter-molecular spacing
between two grains is large as compared to 90R.
b)90R grades of mild steel

Fig 5.3 100X Magnification (90R)

Fig 5.3 500X Magnification (90R)

Here the dark region represents grains size which are small and inter-molecular spacing
between two grains is small as compared to 52R.
5.2.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscope

30

a)52R grade of mild steel

Fig 5.5 52R

Here the dark region represents grains size which are big and inter-molecular spacing
between two grains is large as compared to 90R.

Graph 5.3 Graph between intensity of light vs electron volt (52R)

This graph shows the highest amount of magnesium ,secondly that of silicon and thirdly
iron.
b)90R grades of mild steel

31

Fig 5.6 90R

Here the dark region represents grains size which are small and inter-molecular spacing
between two grains is small as compared to 52R.

Graph 5.4 Graph between intensity of light vs electron volt (90R)

This graph shows the highest amount of silicon,secondly magnesium and thirdly iron.

32

5.2.3 Actual Chemical Composition Before EDM

Table 5.1 Chemical composition of 90R
s. no
Material
1
Carbon (C)
2
Silicon (Si)
3
Manganese (Mn)
4
Phosphorous (Ph)
5
Sulphur (S)
6
Chromium (Cr)
7
Copper (Cu)
8
Nickel (Ni)
9
Titanium (Ti)
10
Molybednum (Mo)
11
Aluminum (Al)
12
Tungeston (Tu)
13
Arsenic (As)
14
Tin (Sn)
15
Iron (I)
16
Nitrogen (N)
17
Cobalt (Co)

value
0.7945
0.2344
1.2164
0.02334
0.02838
0.0255
0.00522
0.01026
0.0024
0.00056
0.0042
0.0021
0.00386
0.0010
97.6168
0.024

Table 5.2 Chemical composition of 52R

s. no
Material
1
Carbon (C)
2
Silicon (Si)
3
Manganese (Mn)
4
Phosphorous (Ph)
5
Sulphur (S)
6
Chromium (Cr)
7
Copper (Cu)
8
Nickel(Ni)
9
Titanium (Ti)
10
Molybednum (Mo)
11
Aluminum (Al)
12
Tungeston (Tu)
13
Arsenic (As)
14
Tin (Sn)
15
Iron (I)
16
Nitrogen (N)
17
Cobalt (Co)

value
0.70036
0.1182
1.185
0.0345
0.04145
0.045
0.03185
0.0027
0.00062
0.0428
0.0102
0.0027
0.0359
0.0051
97.6521
0.0207
0.0268

33

5.3 ANALYSIS
From the experiment on EDM machine we see that the material removal rate of the
grade 90R is more than the grade 52R but mild steel has high themal conductivity
hence the machinability of grade 90R should be better than grade 52R because material
removal rate of grade 90R should be greater than grade 52R .

From the microstructure we see that the grains size of grade 90R of mild steel are
small and the inter-molecular spacing between the grains is less and the grains are
uniformly distributed as compared to the grains of 52R.Hence the surface finish of
grade 90R is better than the surface finish of grade 52R.

From the graphs obtained from SEM we see that the amount of magnesium is high in
52R than 90R that shows it is having more tensile strength .The amount of silicon is
high in 90R than 52R so it will be having more hardness and high wear resistance .
Then the amount of iron is high in 90R that shows it is having more
as
compared to 52R.

Further from the chemical composition we get that the percentage of carbon at the layer
is more in 90R hence it will show more hardness.

34

5.6 Conclusion
From our analysis we conclude that hardness and surface finish of 90R is better as it is
having more carbon content and fine grain size with uniformity in its formation and it
is having high machinability as its material removal rate is high but mild steel has high
thermal conductivity so the high MRR is an indication of good machinability

35

6. REFERENCES
[1 ]. Dhar, s., Purohit, r., Saini, n., Sharma, a. and Kumar, G.H., 2007. Mathematical
modeling of electric discharge machining of cast Al-4Cu-6Si alloy-10 wt.% sicp
composites. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 193(1-3), 24-29.
[2]. El-Taweel, T.A., 2009. Multi-response optimization of EDM with Al-Cu-Si-tic P/M
composite electrode. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,
44(1-2), 100-113.
[3]. Lin, y.-., Cheng, C.-., Su, B.-. and Hwang, L.-., 2006. Machining characteristics and
optimization of machining parameters of SKH 57 high-speed steel using electricaldischarge machining based on Taguchi method. Materials and Manufacturing Processes,
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[4]. J. Simao, H.G. Lee, D.K. Aspinwall, R.C. Dewes, and E.M. Aspinwall
2003.Workpiece surface modification using electrical discharge machining,, 43 (2003)
121128
[5]. Singh, P.N., Raghukandan, K., Rathinasabapathi, M. And Pai, B.C., 2004. Electric
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Materials Processing Technology, 155-156(1-3), 1653-1657.
[6]. *Department of Mechanical Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia
**Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Bangladesh University of
Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh,
email: akamin@iiu.edu.my
[7]. Lee, S.H. and Li, X.P., 2001. Study of the effect of machining parameters on the
machining characteristics in electrical discharge machining of tungsten carbide. Journal
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[8]. MATHEMATICAL MODELING AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS FOR
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM) OF AL-20% SI-CP CAST METAL
MATRIX COMPOSITE
S. Dhar and R. Purohit
Department of Manufacturing Processes and Automation Engineering, Netaji Subhash
Institute of
Technology, Dwarka, New Delhi, India - 110087 E-mail: sushidhar@yahoo.com
[9].W.S. Lau, T.M. Yue, T.C. Lee and W.B. Lee, Journal of Materials Processing
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Technology, Vol.
48, 1995, pp.199-205.
[10] Text book of Manufacturing science by Amitabha Ghose & Asok mallik in 2005
West press private Ltd.
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37