PART5STRUCTURALLOADSANDDESIGN

TABLEOFCONTENTS

SECTION

5.1SCOPE2
5.2DEFINITIONS2
5.3DESIGNREQUIREMENTS3
5.4DESIGNLOADSANDEFFECTS6
5.5LIMITSTATEDESIGN7
5.6DEADLOADS.14
5.7LIVE(IMPOSED)LOADSDUETOUSEANDOCCUPANCY.14
5.8DYNAMICLOADING..19
5.9EFFECTSOFWIND..21

5.10EFFECTSOFEARTHQUAKE..58
APPENDIXA127

PART5STRUCTURALLOADSANDPROCEDURES

5.1SCOPE
5.1.1 This section covers all dead loads and imposed loads which shall be
sustainedandtransmittedbyabuildingandcertainstructureswithoutexceeding
thestresslimitationsspecifiedelsewhereintheCode.Itappliesto:

(1) newbuildingsandnewstructures;
(2) alterationsandadditionstoexistingbuildingsandstructures;
(3) existingconstructionsonchangeofuse.

5.1.2Thispartofthecodedoesnotcover
(1) loadsonroadsandrailbridges;
(2) loadsonstructuressubjecttointernalpressurefromcontents,(e.g.bunkers
silosandwatertanks)whichshouldbecalculatedindividually;
(3) loadsduetomachineryvibration,exceptthoseduetosomegantrycranes;
(4) loadsduetolifts;
(5) loadsincidentaltoconstruction;
(6) testloads.
Theseloadsarecoveredbyspecialized(proprietory)documentsproducedbymanufacturers.

5.2DEFINITIONS
5.2.1 Unless otherwise specified the following definitions shall apply for the
purposesofthispartoftheCode.

Dead Loads: The force due to the static weight of all permanent structural and
nonstructural components of a building, such as walls, partitions, floors,

roofs,fixedserviceequipmentandallotherpermanentconstruction.

Live (Imposed) Loads: The load assumed to be produced by the intended

occupancy or use including distributed, concentrated, impact, inertia forces but
excludingwindandearthquakeloads.
WindLoads:Allloadsduetotheeffectofwind,pressureorsuction.
2

EarthquakeLoads:Allloadsduetotheeffectofearthquake.

5.3DESIGNREQUIREMENTS
5.3.1 (1) Buildings and their structural members including formwork and
falsework shall be designed to have sufficient structural capacity to resist safely
andeffectivelyallloadsandeffectsofloadsandinfluencesthatmayreasonably
beexpected,havingregardtotheexpectedservicelifeofbuildings.

5.3.1(2) All permanent and temporary structural members, including formwork

and falsework of a building, shall be protected against loads exceeding the
designloadsduringtheconstructionperiodexceptwhen,asverifiedbyanalysis
or test, temporary overloading of a structural member would result in no
impairmentofthatmemberoranyothermember.Inaddition,precautionsshall
be taken during all stages of construction to ensure that the building is not
damagedordistortedduetoloadsappliedduringconstruction.

5.3.2DesignBasis
Buildingsandtheirstructuralmembersshallbedesignedbyoneofthefollowing
methods:
(1)

analysisbasedonwellestablishedprinciplesofmechanics;

(2) evaluationofagivenfullscalestructureoraprototype
byaloadingtest;
(3) Studiesofmodelanalogues(modeling).

5.3.3Deflections
(1) Structural members shall be designed so that their deflections under
expectedserviceloadswillbeacceptablewithregardto:
(a)

theintendeduseofbuildingormember;

(b)

possibledamagetononstructuralmembersandmaterials;

(c)

possible damage to the structure itself and, where significant, the

additionaleffectsofloadsactingonthedeformedstructure.

(2) Deflectionslistedinclause5.3.3(1)shallbetakenintoaccountinallstructures
and structural members made of material susceptible to deflections,
3

deformationsorchangesinloaddistributionduetocreep,shrinkageorother
effectsinthematerialsofwhichtheyarecomposed.

(3) Thelateraldeflectionofbuildingsduetodesignwindandgravityloadsshall
becheckedtoensurethatnonstructuralelements,whosenatureisknown
atthetimethestructuraldesigniscarriedout,willnotbedamaged.Except
asprovidedinClause5.3.3(4)andunlessotherwiseapproved,thetotaldrift
perstoreyunderdesignwindandgravityloadsshallnotexceed1/500ofthe
storeyheight.

(4) ThedeflectionlimitsrequiredinClause5.3.3(3)doesnotapplytoindustrial
buildings or sheds if it is known by experience that greater movement is
acceptable.

5.3.4VibrationsofFloors
(1) Special considerations shall be given to floor systems susceptible to
vibration to ensure that such vibration is acceptable for the intended
occupancyofthebuilding.

(2) Lateral Deflections of Tall Buildings: Unusually flexible buildings and

buildingswhoseratioofheighttominimumeffectivewidthexceeds4to1
shall be investigated for lateral vibrations under dynamic wind loading.
Lateral accelerations of the building shall be checked to ensure that such
accelerationsareacceptabletotheintendedoccupancyofthebuilding.

(3) Stability under Compressive stress: Provision shall be made to ensure

adequatestabilityofastructureasawhole,andadequatelateral,torsional
and local stability of all structural parts which may be subject to
compressivestress.

5.3.5DesigndrawingsandCalculations
(1) Structural drawings submitted with the application to build shall bear the
signatureofthedesigner.
4

(2)Drawingssubmittedwiththeapplicationtobuildshallindicateinadditionto
thoseitemsspecifiedelsewhereinothersectionsofPart5,applicabletoaspecific
material:

(a) the name and address of persons responsible for the structural

design;

(b)thecodeorstandardtowhichthedesignconforms;
(c)thedimensions,locationandsizeofallstructuralmembersinsufficient

detailtoenablethedesigntobechecked;

(d)sufficientdetailtoenabletheloadsduetomaterialsof

constructionincorporatedinthebuildingtobedetermined;

(e)allintendedusesandoccupancies;
(f) all effects and loads, other than dead loads used in the design of

structuralmembers.

(3)Thecalculationsandanalysismadeinthedesignofthestructuralmembers,includingpartsand
componentsofabuildingshallbeavailableuponrequestforinspectionbytheauthorityhaving
jurisdiction.

(4) Structural integrity: Buildings and structural systems shall provide such structural integrity,
strength or other defenses that the hazards associated with progressive collapse due to local
failure causedbysevere overloads or abnormal eventsnotspecificallycoveredinthis section
arereducedtoalevelcommensuratewithgoodengineeringpractice.

5.3.6InspectionofConstruction
(1)

Inspection of the construction of any building or part thereof shall be carried out by the
designer,orbyanothersuitablyqualifiedpersonresponsibletothedesigner,toensurethat
theconstructionconformswiththedesign.

(2)

The designer or another suitably qualified person familiar with the design concept and
responsibletothe designer, shallreview all shop drawings and other drawingsrelevantto
thedesigntoensureconformancetothedesign.

(3)

WorkmanshipandMaterials:Workmanshipandmaterialsshallbeinspectedandallreports
of material tests shall be reviewed by the designer or another suitably qualified person
responsibletothedesignerduringtheprocessofconstruction.
5

(4)

Offsite inspections: Where a building or a component of a building is assembled off the

building site, in amannerthat it cannotbe inspectedon site, approved offsite inspection
shall beprovidedwhenrequiredbytheauthorityhavingjurisdictiontoensurecompliance
withthisCode.

(5)

InspectionReports:Copiesofallinspectionreportsshallbemadeavailablebythedesigner
uponrequesttotheauthorityhavingjurisdiction.

5.4DESIGNLOADSANDEFFECTS
5.4.1(1)ExceptasprovidedforinClause5.4.2,thefollowingcharacteristicloads,forcesandeffects
shall be considered in the design of a building and its structural members and
connections:
GK Dead load: Is the selfweight of the structure and the weight of finishes, ceilings, services

and partitions (see BS 6399: Part 1, Loadings for buildings. Code of practice for dead and

imposedloads)andAppendixA.

QK

Live(orImposedorVariable)load:Duetointendeduseandoccupancy(includeloadsdue
to movable partitions and vertical loads due to cranes) and rain (see BS 6399:Part1 and
Table5.6).

WK

Wind load: Depends on the location, shape and dimension of the buildings (see BS 6399:

Part2,Loadingsforbuildings:Codeofpracticeforwindloads)andSection5.9ofthisPart.

EnNominalearthloads: Earthandhydrostaticpressure,surcharge,horizontalcomponentsof

staticorinertiaforces(seeBS8004:CodeofpracticeforFoundations).

EEarthquakeload(SeeSection5.10ofthisPart)
T Contraction or expansion due to temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture
changes, creep in component materials, movement due to differential
settlementorcombinationthereof.

5.4.2(1)Whereabuildingorstructuralmembercanbeexpectedtobe
subjectedtoloads,forcesorothereffectsnotlistedinClause5.4.1(1);
sucheffectsshallbetakenintoaccountinthedesignbasedonthemost
appropriateinformationavailable.
(2)Ifitcanbeshownbyengineeringprinciplesorifitisknownfrom
experience,thatneglectofsomeoralltheeffectsduetoTdonot
affectthestructuralsafetyandserviceability,theyneednotbe
consideredinthecalculations.
5.4.3 Structural design shall be carried out in accordance with Section 5.5 Limit
StateDesign.

5.5LIMITSTATEDESIGN
5.5.1(1)InthissectionthetermLimitStatemeansthoseconditionsofabuildingstructure
inwhichthebuildingceasestofulfillthefunctionortosatisfytheconditionsforwhich
itwasdesigned.
LimitStateDesignadmitsthatastructurecanbecomeunsatisfactoryinvariousways,
allofwhichneedtobeconsideredagainstdefinedlimitsofacceptability.
Byprovidingsufficientmarginsofsafetyagainstinherentvariabilityinloading(actions),
materialproperties,environmentalconditions,designmethodsandconstruction
practices,limitstatedesignaimsatgivinganacceptableprobabilitythatthestructure
willperformsatisfactorilyduringitsintendedworkinglife.

Thelimitstatescanbeplacedintwocategories:
(a)Ultimatelimitstates,whicharethosecorrespondingtomaximumloadcarrying
capacityandsafetyofpeopleandthestructuree.g.
(i)
Lossofequilibrium(overturning)ofpartorthewholeofthestructurewhen
consideredasarigidbody.

(ii)

Ruptureofcriticalsectionsofthestructure.

(iii)

Transformationofstructureintoamechanism.

(iv)

Failurethroughexcessivedeformation.

(v)

Deteriorationarisingoutoffatigueeffects.

(b) Serviceability limit states, which are related to the criteria governing normal use or
7

durabilitye.g.
(i) Excessivedeformationswithrespecttonormaluseofstructure.
(ii) Prematureorexcessivecracking.
(iii) Undesirabledamage(corrosion).
(iv) Excessivedisplacementwithoutlossofequilibrium.
(v) Excessivevibrations.
(vi) Thecomfortofpeople.
(vii)Theappearanceofthestructure.

(2)Characteristicloads(GK,QK,WK,En,E,T)meansthoseloadsdefinedinClause5.4.1.
(3)Partialsafetyfactorstothevalueofloads(f),usedindesigninsection5.5.2thattakesaccount
ofthepossibilityofunfavourabledeviationsoftheactionvalues,uncertaintiesinmodelingthe
effectsofactions,andthesignificanceoftheparticularlimitstate.
(4)Partialsafetyfactorstothevaluesofmaterialproperties(m)usedindesign.Thismakes
allowances for substandard materials or for the deterioration of materials during the life of
thestructure.
(5) Actioncombinationfactor,,whichforimposed(variable)loads,areusedinmultiplying
characteristic values to obtain representative values. The use of factors reduce the design
valuesofmorethanonevariableloadwhentheyacttogether(seeTable5.3).
(6) Forimposed(variable)loads,underEurocode(see5.3):
representativevalues=characteristicvaluex
(7) Inmostcases,thedesignvalueofanaction(loadcombination)canbeexpressedas:
designvalue=representativevaluexf

5.5.2MethodsofLimitStateDesign
5.5.2.1Ghana,BritishSystemGS(BS8110:Part1)

5.5.2.1.1RequiredStrengthforUltimateLimitState
(1)TherequiredstrengthRprovidedtoresistdeadloadGKandimposed loadQKshall beatleast
equalto:
R=1.4GK+1.6QK(51)

(2)Inthedesignofastructureormember,ifresistancetothestructuraleffectsofaspecifiedwind
loadWK,mustbeincludedinthedesignthefollowingcombinationsofGK,QKandWKshallbe
investigatedindeterminingthegreatestrequiredstrengthR.
8

R=1.2GK+1.2QK+1.2WK(52)
wherethecasesofQKhavingitsfullvalueorbeingcompletelyabsentshallbothbecheckedto
determinethemostsevereconditionusing
R=0.9GK+1.4WK(53)
Inanycase,thestrengthofthememberorstructureshallnotbelessthanrequiredbyEq.(51).

(3) If resistance to specified earthquake loads or forces E must be included in the design, refer to
Section5.10ofthisPartonEffectsofEarthquake.

(4) If lateral earth pressure H must be included in design the strength R shall be at least equal to
1.4GK + 1.6QK + 1.6H but where GK or QK reduce the effect of H (i.e. favourable), the
corresponding coefficients shall be taken as 0.90 for GK and zero for QK i.e. the governing
equationsare:
R=1.4GK+1.6QK+1.6H
R=0.9GK+1.6H
R=1.4GK+1.6QK

(6) ForlateralloadsFduetoliquids,theprovisionsforClause5.5.2.1.1(4)shallapply,except
that 1.4F shall be substituted for 1.6H. The vertical pressure of liquids shall be considered as
deadload,withdueregardtovariationinliquiddepth.

(6)Wherethestructuraleffectsofdifferentialsettlement,creep,shrinkageortemperatureTmaybe
significantthegoverningequationshallbe
R=1.2GK+1.2QK+1.2T
TheaboveactionsaresummarizedinTable5.1

Table5.1LoadcombinationsforUltimateLimitState
Load

LoadType

Combination

DeadLoad

ImposedLoad

Earthand

Adverse Beneficial Adverse Beneficial

Wind

Water
pressure

1.DeadandImposed
(andearthandwater

1.4

1.0

1.6

1.4

1.4

1.0

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

pressure)
2.DeadandWind
(andearthandwater
pressure)
3. Dead, Wind and
Imposed (and earth
andwaterpressure)

5.5.2.1.2ValuesforaServiceabilityLimitState
A building and its structural components shall be checked for serviceability limit
statesasdefinedinClause5.5.1(b).Wheremorethanoneloadcontributestothe
stressinthememberthecombinationofloadsshallbeassumedtobe:

GK+((QK+(EorWK)+T))

Whereshallbeequalto:
(a)1.0whenonlyoneoftheloadsQK,(EorWK)andTact;
(b)0.70whentwooftheloadsQK,(EorWK)andTact;
(c)0.60whenalloftheloadsQK,(EorWK)andTact.

5.5.2.2EurocodeSystemGS(BSEN1990,1991,1992)
OneofthemaindifferencesbetweentheEurocodesandtheBritish/Ghanaiansystemistheuseof
differentpartialsafetyfactorsandtheoptiontorefine/reduceloadfactorswhendifferentloadcases
arecombined.
5.5.2.2.1RequiredstrengthforUltimateLimitState
The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the appropriate partial
10

safetyfactor,f,fromTable5.2.
Whenmorethanoneimposedload(variableaction)ispresent,thesecondaryimposedloadmaybe
reducedbytheapplicationofacombinationfactor,0(seeTable5.4).
Thebasicloadcombinationfortherequiredstrengthatultimatelimitstateforatypicalbuildingis:

R=GGK+QQK1+Q0QKi
where:
QK1, QK2, QK3 etc.aretheactionsduetoverticalimposedloads,windload,snowetc.,QK1beingthe
leadingactionforthesituationconsidered.
The unfavourable and favourable factors should be used so as to produce the most onerous
condition.Generally,permanentactionsfromasingleloadsourcemaybemultipliedbyeitherthe
unfavourableorthefavourablefactor.

Table5.2ActionCombinationsforUltimateLimitStates(BSEN1990:TableNA.A1.2(B))
Option

PermanentActions

VariableActions

Earthand

(DeadLoads)

(Imposed,WindLoads)

Water*

Unfavourable

Favourable

Leading

Others(i>1)

1.35GK

1.0GK

1.5QK,1

1.50,iQK,i

1.35QK

2a

1.35GK

1.0GK

1.50,1QK,1

1.50,iQK,i

1.35QK

2b

1.25GK

1.0GK

1.5QK,1

1.50,iQK,i

1.35QK,i

*Note:Ifthewaterpressurecalculatedisthemostunfavourablevaluethatcouldoccurduringthelifeofthestructure,a
partialfactorof1.0maybeused.

BasedonTable5.2,asummaryofEurocodePartialLoadFactorsisgiveninTable5.3for
theultimatelimitstate.

11

Table5.3Partialsafetyfactorsforloadsattheultimatelimitstate

VariableActions
PermanentActions

Leadingvariableaction

Accompanyingvariable

(GK)

(QK,1)

actions

LimitState

(a)Static
equilibrium
(b)Structural
strength

(QK,I)
Unfavourable

Favourable

Unfavourable

Favourable

Unfavourable

Favourable

1.10

0.90

1.50

0.00

1.50

0.00

1.35

1.00

1.50

0.00

1.50

0.00

1.35

1.15

1.50

0.00

1.50

0.00

1.35

0.00

1.35

0.00

1.35

0.00

(c)Asan

alternative
to(a)and(b)
aboveto
designfor
both
situations
withoneset
of
calculations
(d)Geotechni
calstrength

5.5.2.2.2ValuesforServiceabilityLimitState
The action (load) combination for checking the requirement at the serviceability limit
stateisgenerallyoftheform:
GK+QK,1+0,iQK,i

Where, GK, QK,1 and QK,i are permanent action (dead load), leading variable action
(imposed load) and other secondary variable actions ( where more than one imposed
load contributes to the stresses) respectively. In the case of the secondary variable
load(s),theireffect(s)maybereducedbytheapplicationofthecombinationfactorsas
given in Table 5.4. The corresponding load cases for the serviceability limit states are
giveninTable5.5.
12

Table5.4Combinationreductionfactors,,forbuildings
Action

Domestic,residentialarea

0.7

0.5

0.3

Officearea

0.7

0.5

0.3

Congregationareas

0.7

0.7

0.6

Shoppingareas

0.7

0.7

0.6

Storageareas

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.7

0.5

0.3

Roofs

0.7

0.0

0.0

Windloads

0.5

0.2

0.0

Temperature(nonfire)

0.6

0.5

0.0

Trafficarea
Vehicle30kN
Trafficarea
30kNVehicle160kN

Table5.5ServiceabilityLoadcases
Designrequirement

Action

Permanent(Dead

Variable(Imposedload)

Combinations

load)Actions

Actions

GK
Functionand

LeadingQK,1

OthersQK,i

Characteristic

1.0

1.0

Frequent

1.0

Appearanceofthe

Quasi

1.0

structureorelement

permanent

damagetoelements,
includingpartitions
andfinishes
Usercomfort,useof
machinery,avoiding
pondingofwater

13

5.6DEADLOADS
5.6.1(1)DeadloadsshallbecalculatedfromunitweightgiveninAppendixAtothispartorfrom
materialsnotprovidedforinthatAppendixasspecifiedoragreeduponwiththe
Authorityhavingjurisdiction.

(2)Whenpartitionsareshowninplans,theiractualweightsshallbeincludedinthedead
load.Forallfloorsinwhichpartitionwallsareormaybeintendedbutarenotlocated
on the plans, the beams and the floor slabs where these are capable of effective
lateraldistributionoftheload,shallbedesignedtocarryinadditiontootherloads,a
uniformlydistributedloadpersquaremetreofnotlessthanonethirdoftheweight
permetrerunofthefinishedpartitions,butnotlessthan1kN/m2ifthefloorisused
forofficepurposes.

5.7LIVE(IMPOSED)LOADSDUETOUSEANDOCCUPANCY
5.7.1TheminimumliveloadtobeprovidedforshallbeassetoutintheClausesofthisPart,or,
where not covered by these Clauses, as specified or agreed upon with the
AdministeringAuthority.Inallcasestheliveloadorloadsshallbesoplaced
that in combination with dead load the maximum stresses are produced in
thememberormembersbeingdesigned.

5.7.2FloorLiveLoads
(1) The minimum floor live loads to be provided for shall be taken as being
equaltoanequivalentuniformstaticLoadorconcentratedloadwhichever
produces greater stresses and shall be based on the intended use and
occupancy as set out in Table 5.6 of this Clause. The concentrated loads
applied over a specified area of a square with a 300mm side shall be
locatedsoastocausemaximumeffects.
Table 5.6 provides for normal effects of ordinary impact and acceleration
butdoesnotincludeanyallowanceforspecialconcentratedloads.Special
provision shall be made for moving loads other than those in garages for
machineryandotherconcentratedloadsassetoutinSection5.8.

(2) The concentrated imposed load need not be considered where the floor
slabiscapableofeffectivelateraldistributionofthisload.
14

(3) Allbeamsshallbedesignedtocarrythedistributionloadappropriatetothe
usestowhichtheyaretobeputasgiveninTable5.6.
(4) Beams, ribs and joists spaced at not more than 1 metre centres may be
designedasfloorslabs.
(5) Where in Table 5.6 no values are given for concentrated load, it may be
assumed that the tabulated distributed load is adequate for design
purposes.
(6) Whereanareaoffloorisintendedfor2ormoreoccupanciesatdifferent
times,thevaluetobeusedfromTable5.6shallbethegreatestvaluefor
anyoftheoccupanciesconcerned.
(7)Whentheoccupancyofabuildingischangedthebuildingshallconformto
therequirementsofthispartoftheCodeforthenewoccupancy.

5.7.3 ReductioninTotalImposedFloorLoads
(1)Exceptasprovidedforin5.7.3(2)and5.7.3(3),thereductioninassumedtotal
imposed floor loads defined below may be taken in designing columns, piers,
walls,theirsupportandfoundations.Forpurposesof5.7.2(1)to5.7.3(3),aroof
mayberegardedasafloor.
Let, Le be the imposed load upon the roof and let L1, L2, L3 Ln be the
respective imposed loads upon the floors numbered 1, 2, 3 n starting from
thetopofthebuilding.
Forthedesignofthepointsofsupportthefollowingimposedloadsmaybe
adopted:
Supportsunderroof

LO

Supportsundertopfloor(floor1)

LO+L1

Supportsunderfloor2LO+0.95(L1+L2)
Supportsunderfloor3LO+0.9(L1+L2+L3)
Supportsunderfloor4LO+0.85(L1+L2+L3+L4)
Supportsunderfloorn LO+

(L1+L2+L3Ln)

Thecoefficient(3+n)/2nisvalidforn>5
Forfactoriesandworkshopsdesignedfor5kN/m2ormore,thereductions
shownabovemaybetakenprovidedtheloadingassumedisnotlessthanit
wouldhavebeenifallfloorshadbeendesignedfor5kN/m2withnoreductions.
15

(2)Whereasinglespanofabeamorgirdersupportsnotlessthan46m2offloorat
onegenerallevel,theimposedloadmay,inthedesignofbeamorgirder,be
reducedby5%foreach46m2supported,subjecttoamaximumreductionof
25%.Thisreductionorthatgivenin5.7.3(1),whicheverisgreater,maybe
takenintoaccountinthedesignofcolumnsorothertypemembersupporting
suchabeam.

(3)Noreductionshallbemadeforanyplantormachinerywhichisspecifically
allowedfororforbuildingsforstoragepurposes,warehouses,garagesand
thoseofficeareaswhichareusedforstorageandfilingpurposes.

5.7.4RoofLiveLoadsotherthanWindLoadsorRainLoads.

(1) FlatRoofs
Flat roofs to which there is no direct access (except only such cases as is
necessaryforcleaningandrepairs)shallwithstandanimposedloadof
0.25kN/m2measuredonplanoraloadof0.9kNconcentratedonasquare
with300mmsidewhicheverproducesthegreaterstress.

(2) On flat floors where access (in addition to that necessary for cleaning and
repair)isprovidedtotheroof,allowanceshallbemadeforanimposedload
of1.5kN/m2measuredonplanoraloadof1.8kNconcentratedonasquare
witha300mmside.

16

Table5.6UsesandLoads

OccupancyorUse

1.

IntensityofDistributedLoads
(kN/m2)

Residential
Multifamilyhouse
Privateapartments
Publicrooms
Corridors

2. Dwellings
Notexceeding2storeys
Exceeding2storeys
3. Hotels

Guestrooms

Publicrooms

Corridorsservingpublicrooms
Corridorsabovefirstfloor

4.0
2.0
5.0
4.0

4.

5.0
5.0
2.5
3.5
2.0

Officebuildings
Areas(notincludingcomputerrooms)locatedinbasementand
firstfloor
File,roomsinoffices
Floorsabovefirstfloor
Areawithcomputingdataprocessingandsimilarequipment
Toiletrooms

5. Assemblyareaswithfixedseats
including:
Auditoria
Churches
Courtrooms
Lecturehalls
Theatresandotherareas
withsimilaruses

6. Assemblyareaswithoutfixedseatsincluding:
Arenas
Balconies
Dancefloors
Diningareas
Foyersandentrancehall
Grandstands
Reviewingstands
Gymnasia
Museums
Stadia
Stagesandotherareaswith
similaruses

1.5
2.0

2.0
5.0
5.0
4.0

ConcentratedLoadtobeapplied
unlessotherwisestatedoverany
squarewitha300mmside
2
(kN/m )

4.5
1.8

4.5

1.4
1.8

1.8
4.5
4.5
4.5

4.5
4.5
2.7
4.5

4.0

5.0

3.6

17


7.
8.

9.

DrillroomsandDrillhalls
5.0

Garageforpassengercarsunloadedbusesandlighttrucksnot

exceeding2500kgincludingdrivewaysandramps
2.5
All repair workshops for all types of vehicle and parking for To be determined but not less
vehicles exceeding 2500kg gross weight including driveways than5.0
andramps

Libraries
Readingandstudyroomswithoutbookstorage
Roomswithbookstorage(eg.Publiclendinglibraries)
StackRooms

9.0

9.0
To be determined but not less than
9.0

2.5
4.0
2.4Foreachmetrestack
heightwithaminimumof6.5

4.5
4.5
7.0

10. SchoolsandColleges
Classrooms
Dormitories
Gymnasia

Kitchens

Laboratiesincludingequipment

11. Hospitals
BedroomsandWards
Laundries
Toiletrooms
Utilityrooms
XrayroomandOperating
theatres
12. Factories
Light
Medium
Heavy

3.0
1.5
5.0

To be determined but not less

than3.0
To be determined but not less
than3.0

2.0
3.0
2.0
2.0

2.0
5.0
7.5
10.0

13. Warehouses

Generalstoragespaceinindustrialandcommercialbuildings
10.0

(Note:ForconcentratedloadsPigeaudsorWestergaardstheorymaybeused)

2.7
1.8
3.6
4.5

4.5

1.8
4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5
6.7
9.0

9.0

(3) SlopingRoofsuptoangleof65otothehorizontalshallwithstandanimposed
loadof0.25kN/m2measuredonplanoraverticalloadof0.9kNconcentrated
onasquarewith300mmsidewhicheverproducesthegreaterstress.

18

(4) CurvedRoofs

The imposed load on a curved roof shall be calculated by dividing the roof
into not less than five equal segments and then by calculating the load on
each,appropriatetoitsmeanslopeinaccordancewith5.7.4(1)to5.7.4(3).

(5) Roof coverings and purlins at a slope of less than 450 shall be capable of
carryingaloadof0.9kNconcentratedonanysquarewith125mmside.

5.8DYNAMICLOADING
5.8.1

Where loads arising from machinery, runways, cranes and other plant
producing dynamic effects are supported by or communicated to the
framework, allowance shall be made for these dynamic effects, including
impact, by increasing the deadweight values by an adequate amount. In
order to ensure economy in design, the appropriate dynamic increase for
allmembersaffectedshallbeascertainedasaccuratelyaspossible.

5.8.2 The minimum design load due to equipment, machinery on other objects or
persons that may produce impact, is the total weight of equipment or
machinery plus its maximum lifting capacity, or appropriate live load,
multiplied by an appropriate factor listed in Table 5.7; except in cases
wheretheactualmultiplyingfactorhasbeensuppliedbythemanufacturer
orsupplieroftheequipmentinwhichcasethisfactorshallbeusedinlieu
ofthoselistedinTable5.7.Wheredynamiceffectssuchasresonanceand
fatigue are likely to be important as a result of vibration of equipment or
machinery,adynamicanalysisshallbecarriedout.

Table5.7ImpactLoads
Impactdueto

Factor

Operationofmotordrivencranes

1.25

Operationofhanddrivencranes

1.10

Liveloadsonhangersupportedfloorsandstairs

1.33

Supportsforlightmachinery,shaftormotordriven

1.20

Supportsforreciprocatingmachineryorpowerdrivenunits

1.50

19


5.8.3Theminimumhorizontaldesignloadsoncranesrunwayrailsare:
(a) Lateralforcewhichshallbe:
(i)

forpoweroperatedcranetrolleys,20%andforhandoperatedtrolleys,10%ofthe
sumoftheweightsoftheliftedloadsandofthecranetrolleyexcludingotherparts
ofthecrane;

(ii)

appliedatthetopoftherail,onehalfineachsideoftherunway,and

(iii)

consideredactingineitherdirectionnormaltotherunwayrail.

(b) Longitudinalforcewhichshallbe:
(i) 10percentofthemaximumwheelloadsofthecrane,and
(ii) appliedatthetopoftherail.
5.8.4(1)LoadsonRailings
Theminimumdesignloadappliedhorizontallyatthetopofarailingwhichguardsadropofmore
than460mmshallbe:
(a)5.8kN/mforexteriorbalconiesofindividualresidentialunitsandaconcentratedloadof
0.9kNappliedconcurrently;
(b)1.5kN/mforexitsandstairs;
(c)2.2kN/mforassemblyoccupancies,exceptforgrandstandsandstadia;
(d)3.6kN/mforgrandstandsandstadiaincludingramps;
(e)4.4kN/mforvehicleguardrailsforparkinggaragesapplied530mmabove

the roadway and minimum total load of (11kN) uniformly

distributedover

each vehicle space applied 530mm above the

roadway,and
(f) O.6kNconcentratedloadappliedatanypointforindustrialcatwalksand
otherareaswherecrowdingbymanypeopleisveryimprobable.
(2)Theminimumdesignloadappliedhorizontallytopanelsunderrailingswhich
guardadropofmorethan460mmshallbe1.0kN/m2.

(3)Theminimumdesignloadappliedverticallyatthetopofarailing whichguardsa
drop of more than 460mm shall be 1.5kN/m acting separately from the
horizontalloadprovidedinClause5.8.4(1).

(4)Grandstandsandanybuildingusedforassemblypurposestoaccommodatelarge
numbersofpeopleatonetimeshallbedesignedtoresistallinertiaswayforces
20

produced by use and occupancy of the building or structure. The inertia force
shall be not less than 0.30kN/m of seat parallel to each row of seats or
0.2kN/mofseatperpendiculartoeachrowofseats.

5.9EFFECTSOFWIND
5.9.1Scope
ThisSubsectiondealswithmethodsforcalculatingwindloadsthatshouldbetaken
into account when designing buildings, structures and components of buildings
andstructures.
It does not apply to building or structures whose light weight, low frequency and
1owdampingpropertiesmakethemsusceptibletovibration.

5.9.2Definitions
Unless otherwise specified, the following definitions shall apply for the purposes
ofthisSubsection.
1. Breadth:Thedimensionofthebuildingnormaltothedirectionofthewind.
2. Depth:Thedimensionofthebuildingmeasuredinthedirectionofwind.
3. Height:Theheightofabuildingabovethegroundadjoiningthatbuilding.
4. Length: The greater horizontal dimension of a building above, the ground
adjoining that building; or the length, between supports, of an individual
structuralmember.
5. Width: The lesser horizontal dimension, of a building above the ground
adjacent to that building, or the width of a structural member across the
directionofthewind.
6. Heightaboveground:Thedimensionabovegenerallevelofthegroundto
windward.
7. Element of Surface Area: The area of surface over which the pressure
coefficientistakentobeconstant.
8. Effective Frontal Area: The area normal to the direction of the wind or
shadowarea.
9. DynamicPressureofWind:Thefreedynamicpressureresultantfrom
thedesignwindspeed.

10. Pressure Coefficient: The ratio of the pressure acting at a point on a

21

surfacetothedynamicpressureoftheincidentwind.
11. ForceCoefficient:Anondimensionalcoefficientsuchthat
thetotalwindforceonabodyistheproductoftheforce
coefficientmultipliedbythedynamicpressureofthe
Incidentwindandtheappropriateareaasdefinedin
text.
12.

Topography:Thenatureoftheearthssurfaceas

influencedbythehillandvalleyconfigurations.
13. Ground Roughness: The nature of the earths surface as influenced by
smallscale obstruction such as trees and buildings (as distinct from
topography)

Note:BreadthandDepthofabuildingaretothedirectionof
wind.LengthandWidtharedimensionsrelatedtotheplanform.

5.9.3Nomenclature
A

elementofsurface

Ae

effectivefrontalarea

breadth

Cf

forcecoefficient

Cfn

normalforcecoefficient

Cft

transverseforcecoefficient

Cf

frictionaldragcoefficient

Cp

pressurecoefficient

Cpe

externalpressurecoefficient

Cpi

internalpressurecoefficient

depth

diameter

force

Fn

normalforce

Ft

transverseforce

F1

frictionalforce

height

heightaboveground
22

widthofmemberasindicatedindiagram

ja

widthofmemberacrossdirectionofwind

aconstant

reductionfactor

length

pressureonsurface

Pe

externalpressure

Pi

internalpressure

totalloadintensity

dynamicpressureofwind(stagnationpressure)

Re

Reynoldsnumber

S1

topographyfactor

=
groundroughness,buildingsizeandheightaboveground
S2
factor
S3

astatisticalfactor

basicwindspeed

Vs

designwindspeed

widthofbuilding

baywidthinmultibaybuildings

windangle(fromagivenaxis)

aerodynamicsolidityratio

shieldingfactor

kinematicviscosity

geometricsolidityratio

5.9.4ProcedureforcalculatingWindLoadsonStructures
(1)Thewindloadonastructureshouldbecalculatedfor:
a) thestructureasawhole;
b)individualstructuralelementssuchasroofsandwalls;
c) individualcladdingunitsandtheirfixings.
(2)Inthecaseofpartiallycompletedstructures,thewindloadwilldependonthe
methodandsequenceofconstructionandmaybecritical.Incalculatingthe
temporary higher wind loads, the maximum design wind speed Vs may be
assumed not to occur during the short construction period and a reduced
23

factor S3 used. It is recommended that the graphs of Fig.5.6 should not be

extrapolatedforperiodslessthantwoyears.
(3)Theassessmentofwindloadshouldbemadeasfollows:
a)

ThebasicwindspeedVappropriatetotheareawherethestructure
istobeerectedisdeterminedasspecifiedin5.9.5(2)

b)

ThebasicwindspeedismultipliedbyfactorsS1,S2andS3togivethe
designwindspeedVs(see5.9.5(3)).

Vs=VS1S2S3

c)

Thedesignwindspeedisconvertedtodynamicpressureq=kVS.2

Table5.11givescorrespondingvaluesofqandVs
d)

The design external pressure or suction at any point on the surface

ofthebuildingisgivenby:
p=Cpq
A negative value of Cp indicates suction. The resultant load on an
element or cladding depends on the algebraic difference of the
external pressure or suction and the internal pressure or suction
maybecalculatedfrom:
F=(CpeCpi)qA
AnegativevalueofFindicatesthattheresultantforceisoutwards.
The total wind load on a structure may be obtained by a vectorial
summationoftheloadsonallthesurfaces.

e)

Where a value of force coefficient, Cf, is available, the total wind

loadonthebuildingasawholeismoreconvenientlyobtainedfrom:

F=CfqAe

PressurecoefficientsaregiveninTables5.14and5.20forarangeof
building shapes. Force coefficients are given in Tables 5.21 to 5.25
foruncladstructures.

24

5.9.5 DesignWindSpeed,VS

(1)General:ThedesignwindspeedVsshouldbecalculatedfrom
Vs=VS1S2S3
Thebasicwindspeedtableisspecifiedin5.9.5(2)andthefactorsS1,S2,S3
in5.9.5(3).

(2)BasicWindSpeed:
a) The basic wind velocity is the maximum 3second gust speed at a
height of 10m above ground likely to be exceeded on the average
notmore

than once in 50years, in open country. The values are

shownby

isophleths(lineofequalwindspeed)onthemapinFig.

5.1.Table5.8 gives basic wind speeds to be used in some major

townsinGhana.
b) Itshouldbeassumedthewindmayblowfromanydirection.

Table5.8BasicWindSpeed(inmetrespersecond)
forsomemajortowns

m/s

1. Accra

29

2. Takoradi

29

3. Kumasi

36

4. Tamale

34

5. Ada

34

6. Saltpond

29

7. Axim

29

8. Ho

9. Akuse

34

10. KeteKrachi

38

11. Wenchi

38

12. Yendi

45

13. Wa

44

14. Navrongo

35

15. Bole

36

29

25

Fig.5.1:WindSpeeds(m/sec)

26


(3)WindSpeedFactors

(a)Topography Factor, S1: The basic wind speed, V, takes account of the

general

level of site above sea level. This does not allow for local

topographic(orographic)featuressuchashills,valleys,cliffescarpmentsor

ridges,whichcansignificantlyaffectthewindspeedintheirvicinity.

ThefactorS1 isameasureoftheenhancementthatoccursinwindspeeds

overhills,cliffsandescarpments.

The effect of topography is to accelerate wind near the summit of hills or

crestsofcliffs,escarpmentsorridgesanddeceleratethewindinvalleysor

nearthefootofcliffs,steepescarpmentsorridges.

Table5.9givesrecommendedvaluesofS1

Table5.9TopographyFactorS1
Topography

Description

ValueofS1

category
1
2

Allcasesexceptin2and3below

1.0

Very exposed hillslopes and

crests where acceleration of

windisknowntooccur.

1.1

Valleysshapedsothatfunneling
ofwindmayoccur.

Sites that are known to be

abnormally windy due to some
localinfluence.

Steepsidedenclosedvalleys,sheltered

0.9

fromallwinds.

27

(i)EffectofaClifforEscarpmentontheEquivalentHeightaboveground.

ThevalueofS1inTable5.9canbeexplicitlycalculatedfortheeffectofacliffor
escarpmentatasite.
Theeffectoftopographywillbesignificantatasitewhentheupwardslope()

isgreaterthan3(or0.05slope),andbelowthat,thevalueofS1maybetaken

to be equal to 1.0. The value of S1 varies between 1.0 and 1.36 for slopes

greaterthan3.

The influence of the topographic feature is considered to extend 1.5Le upwind

and2.5Ledownwindofthesummitorcrestofthefeature,whereLeisthe
effectivehorizontallengthofthehilldependingontheslopeasindicatedin
Fig.5.2.ThevaluesofLeforthevariousslopesaregiveninTable5.10.
Ifthezonedownwindfromthecrestofthefeatureisrelativelyflat(<3)fora
distanceexceedingLe,thenthefeatureshouldbetreatedasanescarpment.
Otherwise,thefeaturemustbetreatedasahillorridge.
Thetopographyfactorisgivenby:
S1=1+C.s
whereChasvaluesappropriatetotheheightHabovemeangroundleveland
thedistancexfromthesummitorcrestrelativetotheeffectivelengthLeas
giveninTable5.11.
Thefactor,s,isdeterminedfromFig.5.3forcliffsandescarpmentsandFig.5.4
forridgesandhills.

Table5.11VariationofeffectivehorizontallengthofhillLeandfactorC,
withslope,
Slope,

Effectivehorizontallength,

Factor,C

Le
3<17
>17

1.2(Z/L)

Z/0.3

0.36

Note:Listheactuallengthoftheupwindslopeinthewinddirection,andZistheeffective
heightofthefeature.

28

Fig. 5.2a: Topographical dimensions General notations

29

Fig.5.2:Topographicaldimensions(a)HillandRidge,(b)Cliffand
Escarpment

30

31

Category1Category2Category3

Fig. 5.5: Categories of Ground Roughness

32

(b)GroundRoughness,BuildingSizeandHeightaboveground,FactorS2
The effect of wind on a building, structure or part thereof depends on

ground roughness variation of wind with height above ground and size of

buildingorcomponentunderconsideration.ThefactorS2takesaccountofthe

influencesonwindeffectlistedabove.

(i)GroundRoughness

Thegroundroughnesshasbeendividedintothreecategoriesandbuildings
andtheirelementsintothreeclassesasfollows:
GroundRoughness1:Open,levelornearlylevelcountrywithnoobstructions.
Examplesaremostofthecoastalregionoutsidemajorurbanandsuburban
areas,airfieldsandareassurroundingtheVoltaLake.
GroundRoughness2:Opencountrywithfewtreesandhouses.Examplesarefarmlandand
mostoftheareasoftheNorthandUpperRegionsoutsidemajorurbancentres.
GroundRoughness3:Areascoveredbylargeobstructions.Examplesareforestareas,
townsandtheirsuburbs.Fig.5.5showsareasofthecountryoutsidemajortownsandsuburbs
wherethedifferentcategoriesshouldbegenerallyapplicable.

(ii)CladdingandBuildingsize
Naturalwindsareturbulentandcontinuallyfluctuating.Thereisevidenceavailablethatfor
buildingsandcomponentsofbuildingsmoresusceptibletotheactionofwind,the3second
gustspeedshouldbeusedindesignwhileforotherbuildingsalongeraveragingtimecouldbe
used.Asaconsequenceofthis,3classeshavebeenselected.
ClassA:Allunitsofcladding,glazingandroofingandtheirimmediatefixingsandindividual

membersofuncladstructures.

ClassB:Allbuildingsandstructureswhereneitherthegreatesthorizontaldimensionnorthe

greatestverticaldimensionexceeds50m.

ClassC:Allbuildingsandstructureswhosegreatesthorizontaldimensionorgreatestvertical

dimensionexceeds50m.

ThevalueofS2forvariationforwindspeedwithheightabovegroundforvariousgroundroughness
categories and building size classes are given in Table 5.12. The height to be used for the
33

determinationofS2shouldbetakenastheheightfromthemeangroundleveladjoiningthebuilding
tothetopofthebuilding.Alternatively,thestructuremaybedividedintoconvenientpartsandwind
loadoneachpartcalculated,usingS2factorthatcorrespondstotheheightabovegroundofthetop
of the part. The dynamic pressure should be assumed to act uniformly over the structure or part
respectively.
(c) Factorforbuildinglife,S3
The factor S3 takes into account the intended lifespan of the building or structure and the
acceptablecalculatedrisk.Thereisalwaysanelementofriskthatagivendesignwindspeedmaybe
exceededinastormofexceptionalviolence.Thegreaterthelifespanofthestructure,thegreater
therisk.Fig.5.6showsvaluesofS3equivalenttoaperiodofexposureof50yearsplottedagainst
intendedlifespanordesignlifeinyears.
Normally, wind loads on completed structures and buildings should be calculated at S3 = 1 except
for:
(i)

temporarystructures;

(ii)

structureswherealongerperiodofexposuretowindmayberequired;

(iii)

structureswheregreaterthannormalsafetyisrequired.

Theperiodofexposureshouldneverbetakenaslessthan2years.
Example: Calculate the design speed for a tower 20m high, situated in a well wooded area (
roughnesscategory3)andfor100yearprobablelifenearanabruptescarpmentofheight35m.The
towerislocatedaroundHo.Thecrestoftheescarpment is 10m effectivedistancefromtheplains.
Thetowerislocatedonthedownwindside,5mfromthecrest.
Tan=10/35=0.2857,=15.74
X=+5Le=10mH=20mX/Le=+5/10=+0.5H/Le=20/10=2
BasicwindspeedforHo,V=29m/s(Fig.5.1,Table5.8)
S3factorfor100yrprobablelifewithprobabilitylevelof0.63=1.05(Fig.5.6)
S2 factor for 20m for a well wooded area (ground roughness category 3)(Class B) = 0.90 (Fig.
5.5,Table5.12)
S1factorfortopography:
ForX/Le=+0.5andH/Le=2(Fig.5.2);sfactorfromFig.5.3is=0.05
34

FromTable5.11,factorC=1.2Z/Le=1.2x20/10=2.4
S1=1+Cxs=1+0.05x2.4=1.12
Designwindspeed=Vs=VxS1xS2xS3
=29(1.12)(0.9)(1.05)=30.7m/s

NoteonFig.5.6
Forexample,usingthegraphforprobabilitylevel0.63foraperiodofexposureequalto100yearssay,S3=1.05i.e.there
istheprobabilitylevelof0.63thataspeedwhichis1.05timestheoncein50yearswindspeedobtainedfromFig.5.1
willbeexceededatleastoncein100years.

5.9.6DynamicPressureoftheWind
Using the value of the design speed Vs obtained from section 5.9.5, the dynamic pressure of the
windqaboveatmosphericpressuremaybecalculatedfrom

where:k=0.613inSIunits(N/mandm/s)

Table5.13givescorrespondingvaluesofVsandq.
35

Table5.12GroundRoughness,BuildingsizeandHeightaboveground,FactorS2
1.OpenCountrywithno
obstructions
Class
A
B
C

2.OpenCountrywithfew
treesandhouses
Class
A
B
C

3.Towns,Suburbs,Forest
areas
Class
A
B
C

H
(m)
3orless

0.83

0.78

0.73

0.72

0.67

0.63

0.64

0.60

0.55

0.88

0.83

0.78

0.79

0.74

0.70

0.70

0.65

0.60

10

1.00

0.95

0.90

0.93

0.88

0.83

0.78

0.74

0.69

15

1.03

0.99

0.94

1.00

0.95

0.91

0.88

0.83

0.78

20

1.06

1.01

0.96

1.03

0.98

0.94

0.95

0.90

0.85

30

1.09

1.05

1.00

1.07

1.03

0.98

1.01

0.97

0.92

40

1.12

1.08

1.03

1.10

1.06

1.01

1.05

1.01

0.96

50

1.14

1.10

1.06

1.12

1.08

1.04

1.08

1.04

1.00

60

1.15

1.12

1.08

1.14

1.10

1.06

1.10

1.06

1.02

80

1.18

1.15

1.11

1.17

1.13

1.09

1.13

1.10

1.06

100

1.20

1.17

1.13

1.19

1.16

1.12

1.16

1.12

1.09

120

1.22

1.19

1.15

1.21

1.18

1.14

1.18

1.15

1.11

140

1.24

1.20

1.17

1.22

1.19

1.16

1.20

1.17

1.13

160

1.25

1.22

1.19

1.24

1.21

1.18

1.21

1.18

1.15

180

1.26

1.23

1.20

1.25

1.22

1.19

1.23

1.20

1.17

200

1.27

1.24

1.21

1.26

1.24

1.21

1.24

1.21

1.18

Table5.13ValuesofqinSIUnits(N/m2)
V s

(m/s)

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10

61

74

88

104

120

138

157

177

199

221

20

245

270

297

324

353

383

414

447

481

516

30

552

589

628

668

709

751

794

839

885

932

40

981

1030

1080

1130

1190

1240

1300

1350

1410

1470

50

1530

1590

1660

1720

1790

1850

1920

1990

2060

2130

60

2210

2280

2360

2430

2510

2590

2670

2750

2830

2920

70

3000

(Note:Todetermineqforaspeedofsay33m/slookunder3 alongtherowcorrespondingto30whichgivesq=668
N/m2).

36

5.9.7PressureCoefficientsandForceCoefficients
(1)General:Theforceonabuildingorstructureorpartthereofisobtainedbymultiplyingthe
dynamicpressurebyacoefficientthatisdependentontheshapeofthebuildingorstructure
andbytheareaofthebuildingorstructureorpartthereof.
Thetwotypesofcoefficientsare:
(a) pressurecoefficientCpwhichreferstoaparticularsurfaceorpartofbuilding;
(b) force coefficient Cf which refers to the building as a whole. The values of these
coefficients are given in Tables 5.14 to 5.23. These tables may be used for other
buildingsofgenerallysimilarshape.

(2)PressureCoefficients:Theaveragevaluesgiveninthetablesareforcriticalwinddirectionsin
oneormorequadrants.Inordertodeterminethemaximumwindloadonabuildingthetotal
loadshouldbecalculatedfromeachofthesurfacesorpartsofthesurfacesofthebuilding.
Coefficientsoflocaleffectsarealsogiven.Thesearetobeusedincalculatingloadsforlocalareas
butnotforcalculatingtheloadonentirestructuralelementssuchasroofandwalls.Insuch
locations,theconstructionmustbeadequatetoresistthelocalforces(additionalnailing,

anchoringetc.).
Furthermore,itshouldbenotedthattheselocalforcescanactinashakingmannerand
resultinfatiguefailures.
Thenetdesignloadduetowindonindividualcladdingandtheirfixings,roofsandwallsshouldbe
thealgebraicdifferenceoftheexternalpressureorsuctionandthedesigninternalpressureor
suctionfrom:

F=(CpeCpi)qA

ValuesofCpearegiveninTables5.14,5.15,5.16andvaluesofCpiinsection5.9.7(3).

(3)InternalPressureCoefficient:Itisnormallydifficulttoestimatetheinternalpressurecoefficient
forabuildingasthecoefficientdependsonpermeabilitythroughwindows,ventilationlouvres,
leakagegapsarounddoorsandwindowsandcladding.Itisrecommendedthatforwallandroof
loadingtheinternalpressurecoefficientshouldbedeterminedasfollows:

37

(a) Where there is only negligible probability of dominant opening occurring during a severe
should be taken as +0.2 or 0.3 whichever produces the greater effect on the

storm,

buildingormemberconcerned.
shouldbetakenas7.5%ofthevalueof

(b)Whereadominantopeningislikelytooccur,

outsidetheopening.

(4)ForceCoefficients:Forcecoefficientsvaryforthewindactingondifferentfacesofabuildingor
structure.Indeterminingthecriticalload,thetotalwindloadshouldbecalculatedforeachwind
direction.Thetotalwindloadonaparticularbuildingorstructureisgivenby:

F=CfqAe
Thedirectionoftheforceisspecificinthetable.
Wherethewindloadiscalculatedbydividingtheareaintoparts,thevalueofCfappliedtoeachpart
shouldbethatforthebuildingasawhole.

(6) FrictionalDrag:Forcertaintypesofbuildingsitisnecessarytotakeintoaccountafrictional
drag in addition to the wind load calculated from 5.9.7(2) and 5.9.7(4). The frictional drag
maybeneglectedforrectangularcladbuildingswheretheratiod/hord/bisgreaterthan4.
Thefrictionaldraginthedirectionofthewindisgivenbythefollowing:

ifhb,F=Cfqb(d4h)+Cfq2h(d4h)
or
ifhb,F=Cfqb(d4b)+Cfq2h(d4h)

Thefirsttermineachformularepresentsthedragontheroofandthesecondthedragon
thewalls.

=0.01forsmoothsurfaceswithoutcorrugationsorribsacrossthewinddirection.

=0.02forsurfaceswithribsacrossthewinddirection.

0.

=0.04surfaceswithribsacrossthewinddirection.

For other buildings the frictional drag will be indicated, where necessary, in tables of
pressurecoefficientsandforcecoefficients.
38

Table5.14:PressurecoefficientCpeforwallsofRectangularcladbuildings
BUILDING

BUILDING ELEVATION

HEIGHT

PLAN

RATIO

RATIO

PLAN

WIND
ANGLE

Cpe forsurface
A

LocalCpe

1<l/w3/2
h/w

+0.7

0.2

0.5

0.5

90

0.5

0.5

+0.7

0.2

0.8

+0.7

.25

0.6

0.6

90

0.5

0.5

+0.7

0.1

+0.7

.25

0.6

0.6

90

0.6

0.6

+0.7

0.25

+0.7

0.3

0.7

0.7

90

0.5

0.5

+0.7

+0.1

+0.8

.25

0.8

0.8

90

0.8

0.8

+0.8

+0.25

+0.7

0.4

0.7

0.7

90

0.5

0.5

+0.8

0.1

+0.95

1.85

0.9

0.9

90

0.8

0.8

+0.85

0.85

+0.95

1.25

0.7

0.7

90

0.8

0.7

+0.95

1.25

+0.85

0.75

0.75

0.75

90

0.75

0.75

0.85

0.75

1.0

3/2<l/w4

1<l/w3/2

1.1

1/2<h/w3/2

3/2<l/w4

1<l/w3/2

3/2<h/w6

3/2<l/w4

1.1

1.2

1.2

1.25

l/w=3/2

h/w>6

1.25

l/w=1

1.25

l/w=2

Note:histheheighttoeavesorparapet,listhegreaterhorizontaldimensionofabuildingandwisthelesserhorizontaldimensionofabuilding

39

Fig. 5.15: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for Pitched roofs of rectangular clad
buildings

40

41

Table5.16:PressurecoefficientCfeformonopitchRoofsofrectangularcladbuildings
withh/w<2

42

Table5.17:Forcecoefficients(Cf)forRectangularclad(actinginthedirectionofthewind)

43

Table5.18:Pressurecoefficients(Cpe)forPitchedRoofsofMultispanbuildings
(allspansequal)withhw

44

Table5.19:Pressurecoefficients(Cpe)forSawtoothRoofsofmultispanbuildings
(allspansequal)withhw

45

Table5.20:Pressurecoefficients(Cp)forCanopyRoofswith1/2h/w<1

46

Table5.21:Forcecoefficient(Cf)forcladbuildingsofuniformsection
(actingindirectionofwind)

47

Table5.21(cont.)

48

Table5.21(cont.)

49

Table5.22:PressuredistributionaroundCylindricalstructures

Forthepurposeofcalculatingthewindforcesthatactinawayastodeformacylindricalstructure
the valuesof Cpein Table 5.22 may be used. They applyonly in supercritical flow (i.e. they should
onlybeusedwhereD>0.3m).Theymaybeusedforwindblowingnormaltotheaxisofcylinders
havingtheiraxisnormaltothegroundplane(i.e.chimneys,silos)andtocylindershavingtheiraxis
50

parallelwiththegroundplane(i.e.horizontaltanks)providedtheclearancebetweenthetankand
thegroundisnotlessthanD.
histheheightofaverticalcylinderorlengthofahorizontalcylinder.Wherethereisafreeflowof
airaroundbothends,histobetakenashalfthelengthwhencalculatingh/D.Interpolationmaybe
usedforintermediatevaluesofh/D.
In the calculation of the load on the periphery of the cylinder, the value Cpi shall be taken into
account.
Foropenendedcylinderswhereh/D 0.3;Cpimaybetakenas0.8.
Foropenendedcylinderswhereh/D 0.3;Cpimaybetakenas0.5

5.9.8
(1)

ForceCoefficientsforUncladStructures
General:Thissectionappliestopermanentlyuncladstructuresandstructuralframeworks
whiletemporarilyunclad.
Structuresthatbecauseoftheirsizeandthedesignwindvelocity,areinthesupercritical
flowregimemayneedfurthercalculationtoensurethatthegreatestloadsdonotoccurat
somewindspeedbelowthemaximumwhentheflowwillbesubcritical.

(2)

Force coefficients of individual members: The coefficients refer to members of infinite

length. For members of finite length, the coefficients should be multiplied by a factor K
that depends on the ratio l/ja, where l is the length of the member and ja is the width
acrossthedirectionofthewind.ValuesofKaregiveninTable5.23.
Whereanymemberabutsontoaplateorwallinsuchawaythatfreeflowofairaround
thatendofthememberisprevented,theratiol/jashouldbedoubledforthepurposeof
determiningK.Whenbothendsofamemberaresoobstructed,theratioshouldbetaken
asinfinity.

51

Table5.23ValuesofReductionFactorKformembersoffinitelength
andslenderness

l/jaorl/D
Circularcylinder,subcriticalflow

10

20

40

50

100

0.58

0.62

0.68

0.74

0.82

0.87

0.98

1.0

0.80

0.80

0.82

0.90

0.98

0.99

1.0

1.0

0.62

0.68

0.69

0.81

0.87

0.90

0.95

1.0

Circularcylinder,supercriticalflow

Flatplateperpendiculartowind

5.9.8(3)(a) Flatsided members: The force coefficient in Table 5.24 are given for two mutually
perpendiculardirectionsrelativetoareferenceaxisonthestructuralmember.Theyaredesignated
Cfn andCft andgivetheforcesnormalandtransverse,respectively,tothereferenceplaneaswillbe
apparentfromthediagrams.
Forcecoefficientsareforwindnormaltothelongitudinalaxisofthemember.
Normalforce:F=Cfnqklj
Transverseforce:F=Cftqklj

(b)Circularsections:Forcircularsections,theforcecoefficientsCf,whicharedependentuponvalues
of DVs, are given in Table 5.25. The values of Cf given in this table are suitable for all surfaces of
evenlydistributedroughnessofheightlessthan1/100diameteri.e.forallnormalsurfacefinishes
andformembersofinfinitelength.
Force,F=Cfqkld

52

Table5.24:ForcecoefficientsCfnandCftforindividualstructuralmembers(flatsides)of
infinitelength

53

Table5.25ForceCoefficientsCfforindividualstructuralmembersof
CircularSectionandInfinteLength

Flowregime
ForcecoefficientCf

DVs 6m2/s

Subcriticalflow

1.2

Re 4.1x105
DVs 12m2/s

4.1x105 Re 8.2x105

0.6

Supercriticalflow

12

DVs 33m2/s

8.2x105 Re 22.6x105

0.7

DVs 33m2/s

0.8

Re 22.6x105

Reynoldsnumber,Re>=

where:Disthediameterofthemember
Vsisthedesignwindspeed,and
vistheKinematicviscosityoftheair,whichis1.6x105m2/sat15oCandstandard

atmosphericpressure.

(c)Wiresandcables:TheforcecoefficientsforwiresandcablesgiveninTable5.26aredependent
uponvaluesofDVs.

Table5.26ForceCoefficientsCfforWiresandCables(1/D>100)
FlowRegime

Smooth

Moderately wire Fine

surfacewire

(galvanized

stranded Thick

or cables

stranded

cables

painted)
DVs 0.6m2/s

1.2

1.3

DVs 0.6m2/

0.9

1.1

DVs 6m2/s

1.2

1.2

DVs 6m2/s

0.5

0.7

54

(4)Singleframes:Ingeneral,themostunfavourablewindloadonasingleframeoccurswhen
the

windisatrightanglestotheframe.

Thewindloadactingonasingleframeshouldbetakenas
F=CfqAe
where;Aeistheeffectiveareaofframenormaltothewinddirection.
Theforcecoefficientsforasingleframeconsistingof(a)flatsidedmembersor(b)circular
sectionmembersinwhichallthemembersoftheframehaveDVsvaluelessorgreaterthan
6m2/saregiveninTable5.27.

Table5.27EffectiveForceCoefficientsCfforSingleFrames

Solidityratio

Flatsidedmembers

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.75
1.0

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
2.0

ForcecoefficientCffor:
CircularSections
Subcriticalflow
Supercriticalflow
2
DVs 6m2/s
DVs 6m /s
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.5
2.0

0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.4
1.4
2.0

Thesolidityratioisequaltotheeffectiveareaofaframenormaltothewinddirectiondividedby
theareaenclosedbytheboundaryoftheframenormaltothewinddirection.
(5) Multipleframestructures:Thissectionappliestostructureshavingtwoormoreparallelframes
wherethewindwardframemayhaveashieldingeffectupontheframestoleeward.Thewind
loadonthewindwardframeandanyunshelteredpartsofotherframesshouldbecalculatedas
in 5.9.8(3), but wind load on the parts of frames that are sheltered should be multiplied by a
shieldingfactorn,whichisdependentuponthesolidityratioofthewindwardframe,thetypeof
membercomprisingtheframeandthespacingratiooftheframes.Thevaluesoftheshielding
factoraregiveninTable5.28.
Wheretherearemorethantwoframesofsimilargeometryandspacing,thewindloadonthe
thirdandsubsequentframesshouldbetakenasequaltothatonthesecondframe.

55

Table5.28ShieldingFactor,n

Spacing
Ratio

0.1

Upto1.0

1.0

0.96

0.90

0.80

0.68

0.54

0.44

0.37

2.0

1.0

0.97

0.91

0.82

0.71

0.58

0.49

0.43

3.0

1.0

0.97

0.92

0.84

0.74

0.63

0.54

0.48

4.0

1.0

0.98

0.93

0.86

0.77

0.67

0.59

0.54

5.0

1.0

0.98

0.94

0.88

0.80

0.71

0.64

0.60

6.0andover

1.0

0.99

0.95

0.90

0.83

0.75

0.69

0.66

Valueofnforanaerodynamicsolidityratioof:
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8&
over

Thespacingratioisequaltothedistance,centretocentre,oftheframes,beamsorgirdersdivided
bytheleastoveralldimensionoftheframe,beamorgirdermeasuredatrightanglestothedirection
ofthewind.
Aerodynamicsolidityratio, =solidityratio()xaconstant
wheretheconstantis:
1.6forflatsidedmembers;
1.2 for circular sections in the subcritical range and for flatsided members in conjunctions

withsuchcircularsections;

0.5 forcircularsections inthe supercriticalrange andforflatsidedmembers inconjunction

withcircularsections.
(6)LatticeTowers:
(a) Lattice towers of square and equilateral triangular sections constitute special cases for
whichitisconvenienttouseoverallforcecoefficientinthecalculationofwindload.Thewind
loadshouldbecalculatedfortheconditionwhenthewindblowsagainstanyface.
Thewindloadactinginthedirectionofthewindshouldbetakenas:
F=CfqAe
TheoverallforcecoefficientCfisgiveninTables5.29,5.30and5.31.
56

Table5.29OverallForceCoefficientCfforTowerscomposedof
Flatsidedmembers
Solidityratio

Forcecoefficientoffor:

0.1

Squaretowers
3.8

Equilateraltriangulartowers
3.1

0.2

3.3

2.7

0.3

2.8

2.3

0.4

2.3

1.9

0.5

2.1

1.5

Forsquarelatticetowersthemaximumloadoccurswhenthewindblowsontoacorner.
Itmaybetakenas1.2timestheloadforthefaceonwind.
For triangular lattice towers the wind load may be assumed to be constant for any

inclinationofthewindtoface.
(b) Since it is only in very few cases with lattice towers composed of members of circular
sectionthat all the members of a lattice tower are entirely in either subcritical or
supercritical flow, wind force calculations should be carried out as described in 5.9.8(4) for
singleframes,dueaccountbeingtakenoftheshieldingfactorsin5.9.8(5).

When it can be shown that all the members of the tower are wholly in the same flow

regimetheoverallforcecoefficientsCfgiveninTables5.29and5.30maybeused.

Solidityratioofaframe=.Forlatticesteeltowers,typicallyvariesbetweenabout0.1and

0.3

57

Table5.30OverallForceCoefficientCfforSquareTowerscomposedof
RoundedMembers

Solidityratiooffront
face,

0.05

ForcecoefficientCffor:
Supercriticalflow
Subcriticalflow
2
DVs62/s(45ftmile/h)
DVs<6m /s(45ftmile/h)
ontoface
ontocorner
ontoface
ontocorner
2.4
2.5
1.1
1.2

0.1

2.2

2.3

1.2

1.3

0.2

1.9

2.1

1.3

1.6

0.3

1.7

1.9

1.4

1.6

0.4

1.6

1.9

1.4

1.6

0.5

0.4

1.9

1.4

1.6

Table5.31OverallForceCoefficientCfforEquilateralTriangularTowers
composedofRoundedmembers

Solidityratiooffront
face,

0.05

Forcecoefficientoffor:
Supercriticalflow
Subcriticalflow
2
DV62/s(45ftmile/h)
DV<6m /s(45ftmile/h)
allwinddirections
allwinddirections
1.8
0.8

0.1

1.7

0.8

0.2

1.6

1.1

0.3

1.5

1.1

0.4

1.5

1.1

0.5

1.4

1.2

58

5.10EFFECTSOFEARTHQUAKES
5.10.1SCOPEANDFIELDOFAPPLICATION
5.10.1.1 This Code sets down minimum design requirements to be met when dealing with
seismic situations i.e. situations in which the earthquake action is considered as a critical
actioninconjunctionwithotherdeadloadsorliveloads.Itappliesto:
(1)

Reinforced and Prestressed concrete buildings for ordinary uses, having structural
resistingsystemsbelongingtooneofthreetypesdefinedbelow:
(a) Frame System: A system in which both vertical loads and lateral forces are
resistedbyspaceframes.
(b)WallSystem:Asysteminwhichbothverticalloadsandlateralforcesareresisted
bystructuralwallseithersingleorcoupled.
(c)DualSystem:Asysteminwhichsupportforverticalloadisessentiallyprovided
byaspaceframe.Resistancetolateralactioniscontributedto,inpart,bytheframe
systemandalsoinpartbystructuralwalls,isolatedorcoupled.

5.10.2DEFINITIONSANDNOTATIONS
Definitions
Crosstie:

A continuous bar with a minimum diameter of 6mm, having a 1350 hookwith a

tendiameterextensionatoneend,anda900hookwithasixdiameterextensionattheotherend.
Thehooksshallengagehoopbarsandbesecuredtolongitudinalbars.
Hoop: Aclosedtieorcontinuouslywouldtiewithaminimumdiameterof6mmtheendsofwhich
have1350hookswithtendiameterextensionsthatenclosesthelongitudinalreinforcement.
Boundaryelements:

Portions along the edges of walls and diaphragms strengthened by

longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. Boundary elements do not necessarily require an

increase of thickness of the wall or diaphragms. Edge openings within walls and diaphragms may
alsohavetobeprovidedwithboundaryelements.

59

Notations
A= peakgroundacceleration
Ac= confinedareameasuredtooutsideperipheraltransversereinforcement.
Ag= grosssectionalareaofconcrete
Cd=designseismiccoefficient
Cg

=centreofmass

Ck

=centreofstiffness

=designseismicaction(symbolic)

=importancefactor

Mu,d=

ultimatemomentofaconcretesection,evaluatedwithfactoredvaluesofconcreteand
steelstrengths

M+u,d=

ultimatemomentofaconcretesection,evaluatedwithcharacteristicvaluesofconcrete
andsteelstrengths.

Nd=

designaxialforceunderthemostunfavourableloadcombinationincludingtheseismic
action.

=behaviourfactor

=sitecoefficient

Si

=soiltypeindex

Vcd

=shearforcecarriedbyconcreteinbeamorcolumnsections

a=plandimensionofthebuildinginthedirectionorthogonaltothatofseismicaction
bw

=webwidthofaconcretesection

h,b

=heightandwidthofbeams,majorandminorsidesincolumns

h,b=distancebetweenreinforcementbarslocatedattheendsofsidesinandb,respectively,
measuredtooutsidetheperipheralbars
60

d=distancefromcentreofstiffnessandcentreofgravityofthegenericfloor
Sh=spacingoftransversereinforcementinbeams,columnsandwalls.
fcd=designconcretestrength
h=heightofafloor
lw=horizontalwalllength
hw

totalheightofawall

hn

verticaldistancebetweenfloorsinwalls

spectralamplificationfactor

parameteroftheelasticresponsespectrum

distributionfactor

overcapacityfactor

el

elasticinterstoreydriftundertheseismicactions

ratiobetweenmaximumandminimumshearforceatabeamend

deformabilityindex

amplificationfactorfortorsionaleffects

dynamicmagnificationfactor

Rd

sheardesignstressofconcrete

61

5.10.3 DESIGNCRITERIA
5.10.3.1ReliabilityDifferentiation
Structuresshallbeclassifiedunderthefollowingreliabilitylevels:
(1)

Class I: Buildings that are required to remain functional and to suffer reduced
damage after a strong seismic attack (e.g. essential rescue facilities such as
hospitals,fireandpolicestations,electricitystationsetc.buildingswithlikelylarge
numberofoccupantssuchasschools,audienceorspectaclehalls,etc).

(2)

ClassII:Buildingsnotincludedin5.10.3.1(1)

(3)

The different reliability levels proper to each Class shall be obtained by amplifying
thedesignactionwithafactorI,calledimportancefactor.

5.10.3.2DuctilityLevels
Structural systems covered by the Code may be designed to possess different ductility
levelsaccordingtothefollowingclassification:
(1)

DuctilityLevelI(DLI)isthatpropertostructuresproportionedinaccordancetoBS
8110(1985)withadditionalrequirementsondetailingcontainedin5.10.8.
Thisductilitylevel,Iissuitableforlowrisebuildings.

(2)

DuctilityLevelII(DLII)forthislevelseismicprovisionsaretobeadopted,enabling
the structure to enter the inelastic range of response under repeated reversed
loading,whileavoidingprematurebrittletypefailures.

(3)

DuctilityLevelIII(DLIII)specialproceduresfortheevaluationofdesignactionand
fortheproportioninganddetailingoftheelementsaretobeadoptedtoensurethe
developmentofselectedstablemechanismsassociatedwithlargeenergydissipation
capacities.DLIIIstructuresshouldbepreferredwheneverlargeuncertaintiesexist
(e.g.Localamplificationeffectsofdifficultevaluationetc).

62

5.10.4 METHODSOFASSESSMENT
5.10.4.1Basicdata
5.10.4.1.1MaterialCharacteristics
5.10.4.1.1(1)Concrete

Normalconcretegradesshallsatisfythefollowingrequirements(Table5.10.4.1)
Table5.10.4.1
DuctilityLevel

MinimumGrades

DLI

C20

DLII

C20

DLIII

C25

5.10.4.1.1(2)Steel
(a)

DLIandDLIIStructures
Thereinforcingsteelisdefinedbyitscharacteristicstrength.

(b)

DLIIIStructures
Thefollowingadditionalrequirementsshallbesatisfied.
(i)

It must be proven the steel used possesses adequate ductility under

repeatedreverseddeformations.

(ii)

Steel grades with characteristic strengths higher than S400 (400N/mm2)

shallnotbeused,unlessitisdemonstratedthattheuseofhighergradesin
specialsectionarrangementsdoesnotaffectunfavourablytheductility.

(iii)

Theactualyieldstressshallnotexceeditsnormalvaluesbymorethan15%.

63

(iv)The ratioofthe meanvalueoftheultimatestrengthtoactualyieldstress

shallnotbelessthan1.25forS220and1.15forS400
(v)

Only high bond steel shall be used for flexural reinforcement, unless
adequateprovisionsaretakentoensurebondandanchorage.

5.10.4.1.2MaterialSafetyFactor,

Design values of strength for concrete and steel shall be obtained from their respective
characteristicvaluesbyusingthefactors:
Concrete c =1.5
Steel s =1.15
5.10.4.1.3StructureBehaviourFactors
(1)

The values of the behaviour factor K, defining the intensity of the design action
(section 5.10.5.3) as a function of the structural type and of the selected ductility
level,aregiveninTable5.10.4.2
Table5.10.4.2DESIGNBEHAVIOURFACTORS
Ductility

Ductility

Ductility

LevelI

LevelII

LevelIII

Frame

3.5

WallandDual

StructuralSystem

(2)

ThevaluesofKinTable5.10.4.2forwallanddualstructuresapplyif,atleast50%of
thelateralforceinbothdirectionsisresistedbycoupledwalls.

(3)

If condition 5.10.4.1.3(2) is not satisfied, the K values for wall and dual structures
shallbereducedbyafactorof0.7.

(4)

Ductility Level I is permitted only for Class II structures in areas of moderate

seismicity.

64

(5)

ClassIstructurestobebuiltinhighseismicityareasshallbepreferablydesignedfor
ductilitylevelIII.Ifappropriate,KvaluesrelativetoDLIIcouldbeusedinthiscase.

5.10.4.1.4DesignLoadCombination
Thefundamentalcombinationofloadeffectstobeusedforlimitstatesverification(Section
5.10.7.4)is
Sd=S(G+P+E+iQik)...5.10.4.1.1
whereG=

allpermanentloadsattheirnormalvalue

P=

thelongtermprestressingforce

E=

thedesignseismicactionasdefinedinSect.5.10.5.3.4

Qik=

fractile values of extreme distributions of all live loads whose duration of

applicationislongenoughfortheprobabilityoftheirjointoccurrenceswith
earthquakeactiontobeconsidered.

I=

factorsrequiredtochangethefractilevaluesQiktotheaveragevaluesofQik
intheirinstantaneousdistribution(SeeTable5.10.4.3)

S=SiteCoefficient

Table5.10.4.3:COMBINATIONFACTORIFORLIVELOADS
Liveloadsfrompersonsandequipment
Liveloadsfrompersonsatplaceswithlikelihoodof
largenumberofoccupants(halls)

0.3

0.5

Longtermstorage(warehouse,libraries)

0.9

Liveloadsonstaircasesandcorridors

1.0

65

5.10.4.2Structuralanalysis

5.10.4.2.1BuildingConfiguration
Abuildingshallbeclassifiedasregularwhenthefollowingconditionsaresatisfied,regarding
bothplanandverticalconfiguration.
(a)PlanConfiguration
(i)

The building has an approximately symmetrical plan configuration with

respect to, at least two orthogonal directions along which the earthquake
resistingelementsareoriented.Whenreentrantcornersarepresent,they
donotexceed25percentofthebuildingexternaldimension.

(ii)

Atanystoreythedistance(measuredinthedirectionorthogonaltothatof
the seismic action) between the centre of mass and that of the stiffness
doesnotexceedl5%oftheresistanceradiusdefinedasthesquarerootof
theratioofstoreytorsionalandtranslationstiffnesses.

(b)VerticalConfiguration
(i)

The stiffness and mass properties are approximately uniform along the
buildingheight.

(ii)

In frame structures, theratio betweenactual shearcapacity (sum ofshear

forces contributed by all vertical elements at their design strengths) and
design shear does not differ more than 20 percent, for any two storeys of
thebuilding.

(iii)

Inthecaseofagradualsetbackalongitsheight,thesetbackatanyflooris
notgreaterthanl0%oftheplandimensioninthedirectionofthesetback.
Thisclauseneednotbecompliedwithifthesetbackoccurswithinthelower
l5%ofthetotalheightofthebuilding.

5.10.4.2.2ApplicationofSeismicAction
(1)

HorizontalAction
(i)

The seismic actions shall be applied to the building in the directions

producingineachelementthemostunfavourableeffect.
66

(ii)

Inbuildingshavingoneaxisofsymmetry,theseismicactioncanbeassumed
asactingseparatelyalongthisaxisanditsorthogonaldirection

(2)

VerticalAction
(i)

The vertical component of the seismic action shall be considered in the

designofnonverticalcantileversandofprestressedbeams.

5.10.4.2.3AnalyticalModel
(1)

The determination of the seismic effects on the structure shall be based on an

idealized mathematical model which is adequate for representing the actual
behaviours; the model shall also account for all nonstructural elements that can
influencetheresponseofthemainresistingsystem.

(2)

Forthe purpose ofthe present code,the determination ofthe loadeffects dueto

designforcesmaybebasedonalinearelasticmodelofthestructuralsystem.

(3)

Regular buildings can be designed according to the simplified method of analysis

(indicatedasequivalentstaticanalysis)describedin5.10.4.2.4providedtheirheight
doesnotexceed80m,andthefundamentalperiodisshorterthan2secs.

(4)

Ifconditionsin5.10.4.2.3.(3)arenotsatisfiedorifthebuildingisofirregulartype,
thedynamicmethodin5.10.4.2.5shallbeapplied.

5.10.4.2.4EquivalentStaticAnalysis
(1)

HorizontalDesignForces
(a)

The design lateral force to be applied at each floor level in the direction
beinganalysed,shallbegivenby:
F=Cd.

i .W ....5.10.4.2.1
i

whereCd=designseismiccoefficient,equalinvaluetothedesignresponse
spectrum,asgiveninSection5.10.5.3.4

=
i distribution factor, depending on the height of the floor,
measuredfromthebuildingbase
67

Wi=totalgravityloadatfloori
(b)

IncaseswheretheperiodTisnotcalculatedfrommethodsofmechanicsCd
shallbetakenas:

1
...5.10.4.2.2
C = I . A . S . .
d

(c)

i
Thedistributionfactoriisgivenbythefollowingexpression

...5.10.4.2.3
W i

i = hi

W i hi

wherehiistheheightoffloorifromthefoundationlevel.
(2)

TorsionalEffects
(a)

Ateachfloorofthebuilding,thelateraldesignforceshallbeassumedtobe
displaced fromitsnominallocationat thedistancese1and e2illustratedin
Figure 5.10.4.1, which ever is most unfavourable for every member to be
checked.

Fig.5.10.4.1TorsionalEffects

(b)

Theexpressionsfore1ande2are:

e1=0.5d+0.05a

...5.10.4.2.4

e2=0.05a

...5.10.4.2.5

68

(c)

The total shear force and torsional moment at the generic floor shall be
distributed to the various resisting elements below that floor with due
consideration of their relative stiffness as well as of the stiffness of the
diaphragm.

(d)

Symmetrical Cases:Whencompletesymmetryofstiffness and mass about

one axis parallel to the direction of the seismic excitation exists, torsion
effectscanbeaccountedforbymeansofthefollowingsimplifiedprocedure:
(i)

thelateraldesignforceshallbeappliedatthefloorcentreofgravity,
tobedistributedtothevariouselementsasabove;

(ii)

theactionsineachoftheelementsshallbefurthermultipliedbya
factordefinedas:

= 1 + 0.6

...5.10.4.2.6
x

where x is the distance of the element from the floor centre of gravity,
measuredperpendicularlytothedirectionofseismicaction.
(3)

SecondOrderEffects
(a)

Secondordereffectsonstoreyshearsandmomentsneednotbeconsidered
whenthefollowingconditionissatisfiedateveryfloor:

W . e l . K
0.10
V .h

where =deformabilityindex
V=seismicdesignshearforceactingacrossthestoreyconsidered
el=elasticinterstoreydriftduetodesignaction
K=behaviourfactor
h=floorheight
W=totalgravityloadabovetheconsideredstorey

69

(b)

Thedeformabilityindex,shallnotinanycaseexceedthevalue0.20;

(c)

For0.10<<0.20secondordereffectsshallbeaccountedforbymeansof
oneofthestatisticalmethodsindicatedinBS8110(1985).

5.10.4.2.5ModalAnalysisProcedure
(1)

Modelling
(a)

If the building can vibrate in two orthogonal directions without significant

coupling, itcanbeanalysedbymeansof twoseparate planar models, one
foreachorthogonaldirection

(b)

The condition stated in 5.10.4.2.5(1) (a) shall be assumed to occur when

5.10.4.2.1(a)(ii)issatisfied.

(c)

When 5.10.4.2.1(a)(ii) is not satisfied the model shall account for the non
planarmotionofthestructure

(2)

Modes
(a)

Inthecaseofplanarmodels,theanalysisshallincludeforeachofthetwo
orthogonalaxesatleastthelowestthreemodesofvibration,orallmodesof
vibrationwithperiodsgreaterthan0.4secs.,whicheverisgreater.

(b)

Fornonplanarmodelstheanalysisshallincludeforeachdirectionofseismic
action, at least four modes, two of them predominantly translational and
twopredominantlyrotational,orallmodesofvibrationwithperiodsgreater
than0.4secs.,whicheverisgreater.

(c)

The mode considered shall be those with the greatest participation

coefficientsforthedirectionunderconsideration

(3)

CombinationofModalResponses

The response quantities (force, displacements etc) separately obtained for each
modeundertheeffectofthedesignresponsespectrumgiveninSection5.105.3.4
shallbecombinedtoobtaintheircorrespondingdesignvaluesbytakingthesquare
rootofthesumofthesquaresofmodalvalues.
70

(4)

TorsionalEffects
(a)

At each floor of the building the mass contributing to inertia forces shall be
assumed to be displaced from its nominal location by the amount "0.05a
whicheverismoreunfavourablefortheelementtobechecked,abeingthe
dimension of the building in the direction orthogonal to that of the
consideredseismicaction.

(b)

When the building is analysed by means of planar models (Clause 5.10.4.2.5

(1)),torsionaleffectscanbeaccountedforbyincreasingtheactioneffectsdue
tothetranslationaloscillationsofthebuildingbythefactordefinedas:

=1+0.6x/a
wherexisthedistanceoftheplanarelementconsideredfromthefloorcentre
ofgravity,measuredperpendiculartothedirectionoftheseismicaction.
(5)

Secondordereffects
Clause5.10.4.2.4(3)applies.

71

5.10.5 SEISMICACTION
5.10.5.1SeismicZones
FortheapplicationofthisCode,aseismicriskmap(Fig5.10.5.1)hasbeenusedtodiscretize
the area of Ghana into a number of zones. Within each zone the normalized ground
accelerationisassignedaconstantvalueasshowninTable5.10.5.1.

Fig.5.10.5.1SeismicRiskMapOfGhana

72

Table5.10.5.1:DEFINITIONOFSEISMICZONES
AssignedHorizontalDesign
GroundAcceleration:A

Seismic
Zone

(gunitsofgravity)
0

0.15

0.25

0.35

5.10.5.2CharacteristicsofSeismicActions
(1)

For the purpose of the code, the ground motion shall be adequately described by
meansof:
(a)

thepeak ground acceleration Amax,treatedas arandomvariableof known

distribution;

(b)

one or more response spectra for horizontal motion, having a form

appropriatefortheareaandfirmsoilconditions,normalizedtoAmax=1and
probabilisticallycharacterized;

(c)

one or more response spectra for vertical motion, scaled to 2/3 of the
correspondencehorizontalmotionresponsespectra.

(2)

Forparticularzones,forinstance,wheregeologicalevidenceindicatesthepossibility
of near field type of shocks (for which the response spectrum concept is
inadequate)orwherethereisextensiveanddeepsoillayering(forwhichselective
amplification can occur) the expected characteristics of ground motion shall be
determinedbyspecialstudies.

73

5.10.5.3

DesignSeismicAction

5.10.5.3.1

NormalizedElasticResponseSpectrum

For the purpose of this Code, the shape of the standard (rocky or firm soil condition)
elasticresponsespectrumnormalizedtoaunitpeakgroundaccelerationshallbeidealized
asshowninFig.1.4.2.

Fig.5.10.5.2NormalisedElasticResponseSpectrum
5.10.5.3.2SiteEffects
When more detailed knowledge of the effects of local soil conditions and on the
characteristicsofground motionsarrivingatthesitefrompossiblydifferentsourcesisnot
availabletheprocedureinClause5.10.5.3.2(1)and(2),and5.10.4.4.3shallbeapplied.
(1)

SoilProfileTypes
Theeffectsofsiteconditionsonbuildingresponseshallbeestablishedbasedonthe
soilprofiletypesdefinedasfollows:
i

SOILPROFILES1:
Rockofanycharacteristiceithershalelikeorcrystalline(suchmaterialmaybe
characterizedbyashearwavevelocitygreaterthan800mm/sec);orstiffsoil
conditions where the soil depth is less than 60m and the soil type overlying
rockarestabledepositsofsandsgravelorstifferclays.
74

ii

SOILPROFILES2:
Deep cohesionless or stiff clay soil conditions, including sites where the soil
depth exceeds 60m and the soil types overlying rock are stable deposits of
sands,gravelsorstiffclay.

iii

SOILPROFILES3:

Softtomedium stiff clays and sands, characterized by l0m or more of soft

medium stiff clay with or without intervening layers of sand and other
cohesionlesssoils.
Inlocationswheresoilpropertiesarenotknowninsufficientdetailtodeterminethesoilprofiletype
orwheretheprofiledoesnotfitanyofthethreetypes,soilprofileS2shallbeused.
(2)SiteCoefficient
ThesitecoefficientSisusedtomodifythestandardelasticresponsespectrumtoaccountforthe
sitecondition.ItsvaluesaregiveninTable5.10.5.2
Table5.10.5.2:SITECOEFFICIENT
SoilCoefficient

SoilProfileType

S1

S2

S3

1.0

1.2

1.5

5.10.5.3.3SiteDependantNormalizedElasticResponseSpectrum
The sitedependant normalized elastic spectra for the three soil profiles are shown in Fig
5.10.5.3,theirordinatesbeingdefinedasthesmallestfromthefollowingexpressions:
Ras=1+(1).T/T1
Ras=forsoiltypesS1,S2,S3
=0.8forsoilS3ifA,asdefinedinClause5.10.5.3.4,isgreaterthan0.3g
Ras=S..(T/T1)
75

Incaseoflackofspecificsiterelatedinformationthefollowingcanbeassumed
T1=0.12secsT2=0.4secs

=2.5=2/3

However,forsoiltypeS3thevalueT1=0.25secs.canbeadopted.
Spectraforverticalmotionsmaybedeterminedwithsufficientaccuracybymultiplyingthe
ordinatesofthespectraforhorizontalmotionsbyafactorof2/3.

Fig5.10.5.3SiteDependentNormalizedElasticSpectra
5.10.5.3.4DesignResponseSpectrum

The ordinates of design response spectrum are given by the smallest of the following
expressions:

R a (T)

1
= I . A . . (
)

R a (T) = 0. 8 . I . A . . (

R a (T) = I . A . . S . (

1
)
K

forsoiltypeS1,S2andS3,or

forsoiltypeS3ifA>0.3g

T2 1
) .( )
T
K
76

Where:
I

istheimportancefactordefinedinSection5.10.3.1(3)(seeTable5.10.5.3)

A isthepeakgroundaccelerationtobeadoptedfortheseismiczoneofinterest(%ofg
Table5.10.5.1)
S isthesitecoefficientasgiveninTable5.10.5.2
K isthebehaviourfactorgiveninTable5.10.4.1.3
Inthecaseoflackofspecificsiterelatedinformation,andT2areassignedthefollowing
values:
=2.5,=2/3,T2=0.4secs.
Table5.10.5.3:IMPORTANCEFACTOR
Class

Factor

1.4

II

1.0

5.10.6 DESIGNACTIONS
5.10.6.1General
Structuralelementsshallbedimensionedandverified(seesection5.10.7)fordesignactions
asdefinedinthissection.
5.10.6.2DuctilityLevelI:DLI
DLIstructuresshallbedimensioneddirectlyonthebasisoftheresultsofstructuralanalysis,
withapossibleredistributionofactioneffectsinaccordancewithBS.8110(1985)
5.10.6.3DuctilityLevelII:DLII
(1)Elementssubjecttobending( N d 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )
(a)Bendingmoments:
77

The design bending moments shall be those obtained from linear analysis of the
structure for the load combination given by equation 5.10.4.1.1. Redistribution
accordingtoBS.8110(1985)ispermitted.
(b)ShearForces:
(i)

The design shear forces shall be determined from the condition of static
equilibriumoftheelementsubjectedtotherelevanttransverseload,ifany,
andarationalcombinationoftheendmoments.

(ii)

The end moments shall correspond to the design flexural strengths of the
endactionsbasedonactualreinforcementprovided.

(iii)

Thealgebraicratiobetweenthemaximumandminimumvaluesofshearat
eachendsectionshallbedenotedby.Thevalueofshouldnotbetaken
lessthanminusone(Fig.5.10.6.1).

VA,d

(I)

AVA,d

(II)B

VA,d=VA,d+MA+M1B

VA,d=VA,dM1A+MB

Fig 5.10.6.1 - DESIGN SHEAR FORCES

78

(2)ElementsSubjecttobendingandaxialforce( N d > 0 . 1
(a)

Ag . f cd )

Axialforcesandbendingmoments
(i)

Forregularstructures,threestoreysandhigher,towhichequivalentstaticanalysis
hasbeenapplied,thecolumnmomentduetolateralforcesaloneshallbemultiplied
bythedynamicamplificationfactorwasgivenbythefollowingexpressions:
PlanarFrames
w=0.6T1+0.85(1.3<w<1.8)

....5.10.6.1

....5.10.6.2

SpatialFrames
w=0.5T1+1.10(1.5<w<1.9)

whereT1isthefundamentalperiodofthestructure.
(ii)

Thevaluesofthedynamicfactorwgivenin5.10.6.3(2)(a)(i)areapplicabletostoreys
withintheuppertwothirdsofthebuildingheight.Belowthislevelalinearvariation
ofwshouldbeassumed:thevalueatfirstfloorlevelshouldbetakenas1.3and1.5
forplanarandspatialframerespectively(Fig5.10.6.2).

Fig.5.10.6.2 ValuesofDynamicFactoratVariousFloors

79

(iii)

Column moments in addition shall satisfy the condition on the relative strength between

columnsandbeamsframingintoajointasspecifiedinClause5.10.7.1(3).
(b)

ShearForces
(i)

In evaluating the design shear forces from the condition of static equilibrium the
designendmomentsshallbethoseproducingmaximumshearforceobtainedfrom
analysis,modifiedifappropriatebythedynamicmagnificationfactor.

(3)

StructuralWalls
(a)

The design actions shall be those obtained from a linear analysis of the building
modifiedasappropriateinaccordancewithClauses5.10.6.3(1)(b)to5.10.6.3(3)(c).

(b)

Redistribution

(i) Thedistributionofthetotalforcetothevariouswalls,asobtainedfromtheelastic
analysis may be modified provided the global equilibrium is maintained and the
maximumvalueoftheactioninanywallisnotreducedbymorethan30%
(ii)

Inacoupledwall,theelasticshearforceinthecouplingbeamscanalsobemodified
with a maximum reduction of 20% provided that corresponding increases in the
shearcapacitiesofbeamsatotherfloorsaremade.

(c)

BendingMomentDesignEnvelope
The design moments along the height of the wall shall be those given by a linear
envelopeofthecalculatedmomentdiagram,verticallydisplacedbyadistanceequal
tothehorizontallengthofthewall.(Fig.5.10.6.3)

80


Fig5.10.6.3BENDINGMOMENTDESIGNENVELOPE

(d)

EarthquakeInducedAxialLoadinCoupledWalls

(i)

Thedesignaxialloadinthewallsduetothelateralactionshallbecomputedusing
theshearstrengthsofthecouplingbeamsabovethesectionconsidered,calculated
byusingcharacteristicvaluesofconcreteandsteelstrength.

(ii)

The shear strength of the beams calculated in 5.10.6.3(3)(d)(i) shall be further

amplifiedbyafactorof1.25

(e)

DynamicMagnificationFactors

(i)

Wheretheequivalentstaticanalysisisadopted,theshearforcesinthewallsshallbe
magnifiedbythedynamicamplificationfactorw as givenbythe expressionbelow
forbuildingsupto5storeyshigh
w=0.1N+0.9.........1.5.3

whereNisthenumberofstoreys

(ii)

For walls taller than five storeys, w, shall be linearly increased up to the value of

w=1.8forN=15

81


5.10.6.4DuctilityLevelIII:DLIII
(1)

Elementssubjecttobending( N d 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )

(a)

Bendingmoments:Thedesignbendingmomentsshallbethoseobtainedfromlinear
analysisofthestructure.RedistributionaccordingtoBS8110(1985)ispermitted.

(b)

ShearForces:

(i)Thedesignshearforcesshallbedeterminedfromtheconditionsofequilibriumofthe
elementsubjectedtotherelevanttransverseloads,ifany,andtoarationaladverse
combinationofendmoments,asspecifiedin5.10.6.4(1)(b)(iii)
(ii) Theendmomentsshallcorrespondtothedesignflexuralstrengthsoftheendsections
basedonactualreinforcementprovided,multipliedbythefactor n = 1.25
(iii) Thealgebraicratiobetweenthemaximumandminimumvaluesofshearforceata
sectionshallbedenotedby.Forthepurposestofollow,thevalueofshould
notbetakensmallerthanminusone.(Fig5.10.6.4)

AVA,d(1) B
VA,d=VA,d+MA+M1B

AVA,d(11)

VA,d=VA,dM1A+MB

Fig 5.10.6.4 DESIGN SHEAR FORCES

82


(2)

Elementssubjecttobendingandaxialforce( Nd > 0 .1. Ag . f cd )

(a)

Axialforcesandbendingmoments

(i) The axial forces and bending moments to be used for column design shall be determined
fromalinearanalysisofstructures,eventuallyredistributedaccordingtoBS8110(1985).
(ii)For regular structures, three storeys and higher, to which equivalent static analysis has been
applied, the column moment due to the lateral forces alone, shall be multiplied by the dynamic
magnificationfactor,w,asgivenbythefollowingexpressions:
Planarframes:

w = 0.6 T + 0.85

(1.3 w 1.8

5.10.6.4

5.10.6.5

Spatialframes:

(1.5 w 1.9 )

w = 0.5 T 1 + 1.10

whereT1,isthefundamentalperiodofthestructures.

(iii)

The values of the dynamic factor, w as given in 5.10.6.4(2)(a)(ii) are applicable to storeys
withintheuppertwothirdsofthebuildingheight.Belowthislevelalinearvariationof,w,
shouldbe assumed;the value atfirstfloor level shouldbe takenas 1.3 and 1.5 for planar
andspatialframesrespectively.(Fig5.10.6.5)

83


Fig.5.10.6.5ValuesofDynamicFactor

(iv)

Columnmomentsshallsatisfytheconditionontherelativestrengthbetweencolumnsand
beamsframingintoajoint(see5.10.7.1(3))

(b)

Shearforces

(i)Inevaluatingthedesignshearforcesfromtheconditionsofstaticequilibriumthedesignend
momentsshallbethemostadverseonesasobtainedfromtheanalysisofthestructure.
(ii)Theendmomentsascalculatedaboveshallbefurtheramplified,ifappropriatebythedynamic
magnificationfactors,andbythe n factor: n = 1.10
(3)

BeamColumnJoints

(a)

Thedesignactionsshallbethoseinducedinthejointwhenthedesignultimate
momentsofthebeamorbeamsmultipliedbyafactorn,equalto1.25aredeveloped,
exceptincaseswhenhingesarepermittedtoforminthecolumns(seeClause5.10.7.1(3))
Theaxialforceinthecolumnshallbetheminimumcorrespondingtothedesign
seismicactions.

84

(b)

HorizontalShearForce(Vjh)

(i)

InteriorJoint(seeFig.5.10.6.6)
The shear force Vjh across a typical interior joint without prestressing may be calculated
from:

V jh = n ( As1 + As2 ) f yd - V col

........

5.10.6.6

where

Vcol=2l1.M1+l2M2/(lc+lc).........5.10.6.7
l1nl2n
with

l1,l2=centretocentrespanofadjacentbeams
l1n,l2n=clearspansofadjacentbeams
lc,l'c=centretocentreupperandlowercolumnheights
M1,M2=designendmomentsofbeamsmultipliedby n = 1.25 forspansl1 andl2

respectively.

As1,As2=topandbottomsteelinbeam

85


Fig.5.10.6.6DesignShearActionsatBeamColumnJoints

(ii)

Externaljoints
Forexternaljointsequation1.5.6stillapplieswhileequation5.10.6.7becomes

V col

l
= 2 1 . M
l 1n

( l c + l c )

5.10.6.8

(c)VerticalShearForce(Vjv)
Theverticalshearforcemaybeapproximatelyasfollows:

jv

= V

jh

bb
hc

5.10.6.9

where
bb=depthofbeam
hc=widthofcolumn

86

(d)

Whentwononcoplanarframeshavecommonjoints,verificationofthesejoints
maybeconsideredineachdirectionseparately.

(4)

StructuralWalls
(a)

Thedesignactionsshallbethoseobtainedfromalinearanalysisofthebuilding
modifiedasappropriateinaccordancewithclause5.10.6.4(b)(f)

(b)

Redistribution

(i)

Thedistributionofthetotalforcetothevariouswalls,asobtainedfromthe

elasticanalysis,maybesubsequentlymodified,providedtheglobalequilibriumis
maintainedandthemaximumvalueoftheactioninanywallisnotreducedby
morethan30%
(ii)

Inacoupledwall,theelasticshearforcesinthecouplingbeamscanalso
bemodifiedwithamaximumreductionof20%providedcorresponding
increasesintheshearcapacitiesofbeamsatotherfloorsaremade

(c)

BendingMomentDesignEnvelope
The design moments along the height of the wall shall be those given by a linear
envelopeofthecalculatedmomentdiagram,verticallydisplacedbyadistanceequal
tothehorizontallengthofthewall.(Fig5.10.6.7)

87


Fig5.10.6.7BENDINGMOMENTDESIGNENVELOPE

(d)EarthquakeinducedAxialLoadinCoupledWalls
Thedesignaxialloadinthewallsduetothelateralactionshallbecomputedusing
the shear strengths of the coupling beams above the section considered which
should be calculated from the characteristic values of concrete and steel strength.
The shear strength of the beams thus calculated shall be further amplified by a
factorof1.25

(e)

DynamicMagnificationFactor
Wheretheequivalentstaticanalysishasbeenadopted,theshearforcesinthewalls
shallbeincreasedbythedynamicamplificationfactorswasgivenbytheexpression
below,forbuildingsupto5storeyshigh:

w = 0.1 N + 0.9

5.10.6.10

whereNisthenumberofstoreys.

88

Forwallstallerthan5storeyswshallbelinearlyincreaseduptothevalueof
w=1.8forN=15

(f)

ShearForces

(i)

Thedesignshearforcesinwallsshallbecompatiblewiththeactualflexuralstrength
thatcanpossiblybedevelopedatthebaseofthewalls

(ii)

Thedesignshearforcesshallbeobtainedbymultiplyingtheshearforcesduetothe
Codeloadingbythefollowing n factor,

u, d
= M
M d

5.10.6.11

where
Mdisthedesignmomentobtainedfromtheanalysis,and
M+u,d is the flexural strength of the section on the basis of actual
reinforcement provided calculated by using the characteristic values of
concreteandsteelstrengths.

Inevaluatingtheflexuralstrengthofthebasesectiontheappropriateaxialloadshall
alsobeconsidered.

(iii)

Thefactor n neednotbetakengreaterthan4

89

5.10.7 DIMENSIONINGANDVERIFICATION
5.10.7.1
(1)

LinearElements(General)
DesignStrengths
Thedesignstrengthsofthestructuralelementsinbending,bendingwithaxialforce,
shearandtorsionshallbeevaluatedinaccordancewithBS8110exceptasmodified
bythisSection5.10.7

(2)LimitingAxialLoad
The design axial compression load under the most severe load combination
includingseismicactionshallnotexceedthefollowinglimit

0.5 A g . f

ck

(3)BeamColumnStrengthRatio
(a)Exceptforcaseswherehingeformationincolumnispermitted(see5.10.7.1(3)
(b) (iii) at any beam column joint the sum of the absolute values of the design
ultimatemomentsofthecolumns(underthemostunfavourablevalueoftheaxial
force)shallnotbelessthanthe sumoftheabsolutevaluesofthedesignultimate
momentsofthebeamsframingintothejoint(Fig.5.10.7.1)

Fig.5.10.7.1BeamColumnStrengthRatio

90

(b)

DLIIIStructure
(i)

ForcolumnsofDLIIIStructures,thedesignbendingmomentsshallaccountfor
possibleincreaseinstrengthofthebeamsframingintothejoint.

(ii)

Unlessotherwisejustified,theglobalstrengthincreasecanbeassumedas:
n=1.15

5.10.7.1

andisapplicabletoallstoreys,includingcolumnbasesinthefirststorey.
(iii)

Developmentofplastichingesincolumnsandofcolumnshingemechanism
(i.e.exemptionfromtheprescriptiononbeamcolumnratio)ispermitted
inthefollowingcases:

for frames having four or more columns, hinging is permitted to

occurinonecolumnforeverythreeothersremainingelastic.

column hinge mechanismsarepermittedin single and twostorey

buildingsandinthetopstoreyofmultistoreybuilding.

(4)

ResistancetoShear
(a)

ContributionofConcrete
ThemagnitudeofthetermVcd,expressingdesignresistancecontributed
byconcreteshallbetakenasfollows:
(i)

WhenNd0.1Agfcd,Vcdshallbeassumedtobezeroinallregions
wherestirruptiesarerequiredinaccordancewithClause5.10.8.2.3
(withtheexceptionofCase(c))

(ii)

WhenNd>0.1Agfcd,Vcdshallbecomputedbytheexpression
Vcd=2Rdbwd1

5.10.7.2

where the values of Rd are given in Table 1.6.1 as functions of

concretegradesand 1 isgivenby5.10.7.4
91

M
1 = 1+ o 2

Md

5.10.7.3

whereMoandMdaredecompressionmomentanddesignmoment
respectively.Moshallbecomputedbytheexpression

Mo=Ndh/2

5.10.7.4

Table 5.10.7.1: DESIGN CONCRETE SHEAR STRESS

Concrete grade

Rd(Mpa)

25

30

35

0.30

0.34

0.38

(b)

TransverseReinforcement

(I)

Nd0.1Agfcd
(i).

>0.

Theresistancetoshearprovidedbythereinforcement:Vwdshallbegivenby

Vwd=0.87hAsw.fyk

5.10.7.5

s.s

where,
histheeffectivedepth,
Asw the individual crosssectional area of a mat of transverse
reinforcement,and

92

thespacingofthematsoftransversereinforcementmeasured
paralleltotheaxisofthebeam.

(ii)

<0.ForVsdnotexceedingthelimitvalue,VRd1where

VRd1=3(2+)Rd.bw.d

5.10.7.6

samerequirementasin(i)aboveapplies.

ForVsdexceedingthelimitvalueVRd2where

VRd2=6(2+)Rd.bw.d

5.10.7.7

theentireshearshallberesistedbydiagonalreinforcementacrosstheweb,
that is, steel bars inclined in two directions shall equilibrate with their
compressionandtensioncomponentstheshearforcesofoppositesignVsd
and.Vsdoccurringatthesection.

ForVRd1<Vsd<VRd2
one half of the maximum shear force shall be carried by doubly diagonal
bars,theotherhalfbytransversereinforcement.

(II)

Nd>0.1Agfcd
TheresistancetoshearshallbecheckedasforCase(I)(i)

5.10.7.2BeamColumnJoints(DLIIIonly)
(1)

HorizontalJointShear

(a)

NominalHorizontalShearStress

(i) Thenominalhorizontalshearstressinthejointasgivenbythefollowingexpression

jh

jh

5.10.7.8

b j hc

shallnotexceedthevalue20Rd

93

(ii) Theeffectivejointwidthbjshallbetakenas:
when( bc > bw )

or

eitherbj=bc

bj=bw+0.5hc

whicheverissmaller

(Fig.5.10.7.2)

when bc < bw

eitherbj=bw

bj=bc+0.5hc

or

5.10.7.9

5.10.7.10

whicheverissmaller

Fig.5.10.7.2EffectiveJointWidthandEffectiveJointAreas
(b)

ShearForcecarriedbyConcrete
ThevalueofshearforcecarriedbytheconcretestrutVchshallbeassumedzeroexceptfor
thefollowing:
(i)

When minimum average compression stress cm on gross concrete area of the

columnabovethejointincludingprestresswhereapplicable,exceeds0.1fck

94

V ch = (2 Rd

( cm - 0.1 f ck ) ) b j h c

(ii)

Whenbeamsareprestressedthroughthejoint:
Vch=0.7Pcs

5.10.7.11

5.10.7.12

wherePcsisthepermanentforceintheprestressingsteelthatislocatedwithinthe
centralthirdofthebeamdepth.
(iii)

Whenthedesignprecludestheformationofanybeamplastichingeatthejoint,or
when all beams at the joint are detailed so that the critical section of the plastic
hingeislocatedatadistancefromthecolumnfacenotlessthanhb,orforexternal
jointswhereflexuralsteelisanchoredoutsidethecolumncoreinabeamstub.

Vch=As.Vjh1+Nd

5.10.7.13

As2 0.4Agfck

where the ratio A's/As of the compression to the tension longitudinal beam
reinforcement shall not be taken larger than 1.0. When the axial column load
resultsintensilestressesoverthegrossconcreteareaexceeding0.2 f ck theentire
jointshearshallberesistedbyreinforcement.
Foraxialtensionsmallerthanthislimit,thevalueofVchmaybelinearlyinterpolated
betweenzeroandthevaluegivenbyequation5.10.7.13withNdtakenaszero.
(iv)WhenpartsAa1andAa2ofthecolumntensilereinforcementandAs1andAs2ofthe
adjacentbeamsarebentverticallyandanchoredinthetensilefaceofthecolumn

V ch = Aa

f yk

5.10.7.14

whereAaisthesmallerofAa1andAa2.

95

ThevaluesofVchobtainedfromequations(5.10.7.11,5.10.7.12,5.10.7.14)maybe
addedwhereapplicable.(SeeFig5.10.7.3)

Fig.5.10.7.3ShearForcecarriedbyConcrete
(c)

HorizontalShearReinforcement

(i)

The horizontal shear reinforcement shall be capable of carrying the design joint
shearforce:
Vsh=VjhVch

5.10.7.15

across a cornertocorner potential failure plane. The effective total area of the
horizontal reinforcement that crosses the critical diagonal plane and is situated
withintheeffectivejointwidthbjshallnotbelessthan:

V sh
f
yk / s

A jh =

5.10.7.16

(ii)

Horizontal sets of stirrup ties shall be distributed as uniformly as practicable

betweenlayersofthetopandbottombeamreinforcement.

(2)

VerticalJointShear

(a)

Theverticalshearreinforcementshallbeabletoresistaverticalshearforce

96

Vsv=VjvVcv

5.10.7.18

5.10.7.18

wherethevalueVcvshallbedeterminedfrom
Vcv=Asc.Vj0.6+Nd

AscAgfck
where A'sc and Asc are the areas of longitudinal compression and tension
reinforcementincolumnsrespectively,withthefollowingexceptions:
(i)

Where axial load results in tensile stress over the column section, the value of Vcv
shallbelinearlyinterpolatedbetweenthevalueofVcvgivenbyequation(5.10.7.18)
withNdtakenaszerowhentheaxialtensionoverthegrossconcreteareais0.2fck;

(ii)

Where plastic hinges are expected to form in the column above or below a joint,
partof theprimary seismic energy dissipating mechanism,Vcv shall be assumedto
bezeroforanyvalueoftheaxialloadonthecolumn.

(b)

The required area of vertical joint shear reinforcement within the effective joint
widthbjshallbedeterminedfrom:

A jv =

f
(c)

V
yk

sv

5.10.7.19

The vertical joint shear reinforcement shall consist of intermediate column bars
placed in the plane of bending between corner bars, or of vertical stirrup ties or
specialverticalbars,placedinthecolumnandadequatelyanchoredtotransmitthe
requiredtensileforceswithinthejoint.

(d)

Thespacingofverticaljointreinforcementineachplaneofanybeamframingintoa
joint shall not exceed 200mm, and in no case, shall there be, less than one
intermediatebarineachsideofthecolumninthatplane.

97

(3)

EccentricBeamColumnJoints
All design provisions of this section apply except that in case of an eccentricity of a beam
relative to the column into which it frames, as measured by the distance between the
geometriccentrelinesofthetwomembers,theeffectivejointwidthbjshallnotbetakenas
largerthan:
0.5(bw+bc+0.5hc)e5.10.7.20

5.10.7.3StructuralWalls
(1)

General
Thedesignstrengthsofwallsandcouplingbeamsshallbeevaluatedasforlinearelements
(Section5.10.7.1)exceptasmodifiedbyprovisionsinsection1.6.3

(2)

ResistancetoShear

(a)

MaximumAllowableShearStress
The maximum nominal design shear stress in a wall section, evaluated by means of the
expression
d=Vd/Ag

5.10.7.21

whereVdisthedesignforcecomputedinaccordancewithClauses5.10.6.3(3)or5.10.6.4(4)
shallnotexceedthefollowinglimit
d10Rd

5.10.7.22

(b)

ContributionofConcretetoShearStrength

(i)

Inthepotentialplasticzone,asdefinedinClause5.10.8.5.3(2),thecontributionofconcrete
to shear resistance is assumed to be zero, unless the minimum axial load produces an
averagecompressionstressoverthegrossconcreteareaofthewallequalatleastto:

0.1fcd.5.10.7.23

98

Inwhichcasetheshearcontributedbyconcreteshallbecomputedby:

cd=2.5Rd.1

5.10.7.24

(ii)

Outsidethepotentialhingezone,andwhentheaveragecompressivestressislessthan0.1
fcd,theshearstresscontributedbyconcreteshallbetakenas:

cd=2Rd

5.10.7.25

whileincasetheaveragestressisgreaterthan0.1fcdthevalueistakenas:

cd=2.5Rd.1

(c)

WebReinforcement

5.10.7.26

Horizontalbarsfullyanchoredattheextremitiesofthewallsection,shallbeprovidedinthe
amount:

v=Ah=dcd

5.10.7.27

5.10.7.28

b.svfyd

whiletheverticalreinforcementratioshallbe:

v=Av=dcdNd/Ag

b.shfyd
Theverticalshearreinforcementcanbeassumedtofullycontributetotherequiredflexural
strength.
(3)

CouplingBeams

(a)

Symmetricalflexuralreinforcement,(='),shallbeadoptedincaseofusualarrangement.

(b)

Designforflexureandshearshallbecarriedoutasforordinarybeamsunlessthefollowing
limitsareexceededd6.Rd

=l(8fck)/(4.h.fyk),(fck,fykinMpa)

5.10.7.289

99

( = longitudinal reinforcement ratio, top or bottom) in which case all flexural and shear
actionsshallberesistedbydiagonalreinforcementinbothdirections.
5.10.7.4Verifications
(1)

CollapseVerification

(a)

For the purpose of the present code, a structure shall be deemed to satisfy the
safetyrequirementagainstcollapseifthefollowingconditionsaremet
(i)

thestrengthandstabilityverificationsaresatisfied;

(ii)

theelementsaredimensionedanddetailedinaccordancewithrulesgivenin
Sections 5.10.7 and 5.10.8 relative to the appropriate structural type and
intendedductilitylevel.

(2)

StrengthVerification
Thefollowingconditionmustbesatisfiedforeveryelement:
SdRd

5.10.7.30

whereSdisthedesignloadeffectontheelementconsidered,evaluatedaccording
toSection5.10.6.
Rdisthedesignstrengthofthesameelement,evaluatedaccordingtoSection5.10.7
(3)

StabilityVerification
Thestabilityverificationshallbeconsideredsatisfiedif:
(i)

thedeformabilityindexformula5.10.4.2.7islessthan0.1,

(ii)

for0.1<<0.2,thesecondordereffectsarecalculatedandaddedtothe
designforces.

(iii)

thestabilityverificationcannotbesatisfiedif

>0.20.

100

(4)

ServiceabilityVerification

(a)

Theelasticdrift,elresultingfromtheapplicationofthehorizontalforcesspecified
in5.10.4.2.4orfromthedynamicprocedurein5.10.4.2.5,shallatanystoreysatisfy
thecondition:

el

0.010
.h
K

5.10.7.31

wherehistheclearheightofthefloor.
(b)

For Class II buildings, the indicated limits may be increased by 50% if it can be
demonstratedthatthefinishesadoptedarenotbrittletypeandcanaccommodate
withoutsignificantdamagetothoselimits.

(c)

When the limits in (a) and (b) are exceeded, separation of the nonstructural
elements is required, of an amount adequate for permitting an inter storey drift
equalatleastto:

= 0.35 el . K

5.10.7.32

5.10.7.33

totakeplacewithoutrestraint.
(d)

Innocaseshallinterstoreydriftelexceedthelimit:

max =

(5)

0.025
.h
K

MaximumExpectedDisplacements
The maximum expected displacements of the building shall be obtained by
multiplyingthedisplacementsproducedbythesystemofhorizontalforcesspecified
in 5.10.4.2.4 or those obtained from dynamic analysis as in 5.10.4.2.5 by the
appropriatevaluesofthebehaviourfactorK.

101

5.10.8 DETAILING,EXECUTION,USE
5.10.8.1General
Whennoexplicitdistinctionismade,theprovisionsinthissectionapplytobothDLIIandDL
IIIstructures.ProvisionsapplicabletoDLIstructuresarealwaysexplicitlystated.
5.10.8.2ElementsSubjecttoBending( N d 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )
5.10.8.2.1GeometricalConstraints
DLIIandDLIIIStructures
Unlessspecialproofsforexemptionaregiven,thefollowingdimensionallimitationsshallbe
satisfied
(i)

Thewidthshallnotbelessthan200mmormorethanthewidthofthesupporting
column,pluslengths,oneachsideofthismembernotexceedingonefourthofthe
depthofthecolumncrosssection.

(ii)

Theratiob/hshallnotbelessthan0.25

(iii)

Theratio l/h shallnotbelessthan 4 (Thisrequirementdoesnotapplytocoupling

beamsinwallstructures,Clause5.10.7.3(3).(Fig5.10.8.1)

(iv)

The eccentricity of any beam relative to the columns into which if frames as
measured by the distance between geometrical centre lines of the two members
shallnotexceed1/4bc(Fig5.10.8.2)

102


Fig.5.10.8.1

Fig.5.10.8.2
(a)

Maximumeccentricityofbeams

(b)

Exampleofbad structurallayoutforthis and analogouscases,if they

cannot be avoided, special detailing shall be provided to ensure
continuitywithductilebehaviour.

103

5.10.8.2.2LongitudinalReinforcement
(1)

DLIIandDLIIIStructures

(a)

Atanysectionofthememberthetensilereinforcementratiofortoporthebottom
reinforcementshallnotbelessthan:

min =

1.4
f yk

( f

yk

i n Mpa )

5.10.8.1

5.10.8.2

norgreaterthan

max =

f yk

with min and max referredtothegrossconcretearea,Ag.

(b)

Atleasttwo12mmbarsshallbeprovidedbothtopandbottomthroughoutthelengthofthe
members.

(c)

Withinanypotentialplastichingeregion,thecompressionreinforcementratio'
shallnotbelessthanonehalfofthetensionreinforcementratioatthesamesection.

(d)

At least one quarter of the larger of the top reinforcement required at either end of the
membershallbecontinuedthroughoutitslength.

(e)

In T and L beams built integrally with slabs, the effective reinforcement to be considered
nearcolumnfacesinadditiontoalllongitudinalbarsplacedwithinthewebwidthofbeam,
shallbeasfollows:
(i)

Atinteriorcolumnswhenatransversebeamofsimilardimensionsframesintothe
column, all reinforcement within that part of the slab which extends a distance 4
timestheslabthicknessfromeachsideofthecolumn.(Fig5.10.8.3a)

104

(ii)

At interiorcolumnswhere no transversebeam existsall reinforcementwithinthat

partoftheslabwhichextendsadistanceof2.5timesthethicknessoftheslabfrom
eachsideofthecolumn.(Fig5.10.8.3b)

(iii)

At exterior columns where a transverse beam of similar dimensions frames into

column and where the beam reinforcement is to be anchored all reinforcement

withinthatpartoftheslabwhichextendsadistanceoftwicetheslabthicknessfrom
eachsideofthecolumn.(Fig5.10.8.3c)
(iv)

Atexteriorcolumnswherenotransversebeamexists,allreinforcementwithinthe
widthofthecolumn.(Fig.5.10.8.3d)

Fig.5.10.8.3AreasofEffectiveReinforcement
(v)

Inallcases,atleast75%ofthereinforcementineachfaceprovidingtherequired
flexuralcapacity,mustpassthroughorbeanchoredinthecolumncore.

105

(2)

DLIStructures
Clause5.10.8.2.2.(1)(a)onlyneedstobesatisfied.

5.10.8.2.3MinimumTransverseReinforcement
(1)

Transversereinforcementasspecifiedinthissectionshallbeprovidedunlessa
largeramountisrequiredtoresistshear(section5.10.7.1.(4)).Portionsofthebeams
tobeconsideredascriticalregionsare:
(a)

Twicethememberdepth,measuredfromthefaceofthesupportingcolumn,
orbeam,towardsmidspanatbothendsofthebeam.

(2)

(b)

Twicethememberdepthonbothsidesofasectionwhereyieldingmayoccur.

(c)

Wherevercompressionreinforcementisrequired.

DLIIStructures
Inthecriticalregionsasdefinedin5.10.8.2.3(1),stirruptiesofnotlessthan6mm
diametershallbeprovided,withmaximumspacingsnotexceedingthesmallerof:
(a)

h/4

(b)

eighttimestheminimumdiameterofthelongitudinalbars

(c)

24timesthediameterofthehoopbars

(d)

200mm

Thefirsthoopshallbelocatednotmoredistantthan50mmfromthefaceofthe
supportingmember.

106

(3)

DLIIIStructures
Inthecriticalregionsasdefinedin5.10.8.2.3(1)stirruptiesofnotlessthan6mm
diametershallbeprovided,withmaximumspacingnotexceedingthesmallerof:
(a)

h/4

(b)

sixtimesthediameterofthelongitudinalbars

(c)

150mm

Theminimumareaofonelegofthetransversereinforcementshallbe:

As, min =

Ab=

Ab . f yk
16 f ykt

S
100
.

5.10.8.3

Sum of the areas of longitudinal bars at the section considered to be

restrainedbythetransverseleg

fyk= yieldstrengthoflongitudinalbars
fykt= yieldstrengthofstirrups
S=

spacingofstirrupsinmm

The first hoop shall be located not more than 50mm from the face of the supporting
member.(Fig5.10.8.4)

Fig.5.10.8.4RegionsandSpacingofTransverseReinforcement
107

5.10.8.3ElementsSubjecttoBendingandAxialForce( N d > 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )
5.10.8.3.1General
CornercolumnsshouldbedetailedaccordingtoDLIIIrequirements.
5.10.8.3.2GeometricConstraints
(1)

DLIIStructures

(a)

Theminimumcrosssectionaldimensionshallnotbelessthan250mm

(b)

Theratiol/bshallnotexceed25

(2)

DLIIIStructures

(a)

Theminimumcrosssectionshallnotbelessthan300mm

(b)

Theratiol/bshallnotexceedthevalueof16forcolumnshavingmomentsof
oppositesignatthetwoextremities;10forcantilevercolumns.

5.10.8.3.3LongitudinalReinforcement
(1)

General
(a)

Thereinforcementratioshallnotbelessthan0.01orlargerthan0.06includingthe
regionoflapsplices.

(b)

ForS400steel,thereinforcementratiooutsidethesplicesshallnotbegreater
than0.045.

(c)
(2)

Thebarsshallnotbespacedfurtherapartbetweencentresthan200mm.

DLIStructures
Theprovisionsin5.10.8.3.3(1)applytoDLIStructures.

108

5.10.8.3.4TransverseReinforcement
(1)

General

(a)

Abasicamountofreinforcementshallbeprovidedallovertheheightofthecolumnwhile
special reinforcement shall be placed in the column critical regions defined in Clause
5.10.8.3.4(2)

(b)

The amount of reinforcement required by 5.10.8.3.4 shall be provided unless a larger

amountisrequiredtoresistshearaccordingtoClause5.10.7.1(4)

(2)

ColumnCriticalRegions

(a)

For usual cases, critical regions are considered to be the regions at each end of a column
aboveandbelowconnectionsoveralengthfromthefacesoftheconnectionofnotlessthan
thelargerof:
(i)

thelongercolumncrosssectiondimensioninthecaseofarectangular
crosssection,orthediameterofthesectionincaseofacircularcolumn.

(ii)

onesixthoftheclearheightofthecolumn

(iii)

450mm

(b)

Whenamasonryinfillwallisincontactwithoneorbothofthetwooppositesides
of the column, over the whole height or part of it, the entire column height shall be
consideredasacriticalregion.(Fig5.10.8.5a)

109


Fig.5.10.8.5Solutionstobeavoided
(c)

Incaseofcolumnswithpartoftheirheightrestrainedduetoaconnectionwithawallthe
freepartofthecolumnshallbeconsideredasacriticalregion.

(3)DLIIStructures
(A)

CriticalRegions
(a)

Specialtransversereinforcementhavingaminimumdiameterof8mmintheformof
spiralorhoopreinforcementshallbeprovided.

(b)

Cross ties to restrain longitudinal bars not directly held by hoops shall be used in
accordance with BS 8110

(c)

Themaximumspacingbetweenspiralsorhoopsshallnotexceedthesmallerof:
(i)

eighttimestheminimumdiameterofthelongitudinalbars

(ii)

onehalftheleastcrosssectionaldimensionofthesection

(iii)

200mm

110

(d)

The transverse reinforcement in the amount specified above shall be continued

throughoutthelengthofthebeamcolumnjoint.

(B)

Noncriticalregions
The minimum transverse reinforcement in noncritical regions shall be in accordance with
Table5.10.8.1

Table5.10.8.1:TRANSVERSEREINFORCEMENTDLII
CriticalRegionlc=max(h,l/6,450mm)
Spacing

CriticalRegionSh=min(8L,1/2b,200mm)

ElsewhereSh=mm(12L,b,300mm)

(SeeFig.5.10.8.6)
(4)

DLIIIStructures

(A)

Definition
(a)

Thevolumetricratioistheratioofvolumeofspiralorhoopreinforcementtototal
volumeofconcretecore(outtooutofbars)withinthespacing,Sh

(b)

Thevolumetricratiosforrectangularsectionsisdefinedas

s=Ash/Sh.h

5.10.8.4

whereAshisthetotalareaofhoopbarsandsupplementarycrosstiesineachofthe
principaldirectionsofcrosssection,Shisthespacingandh'isthedistancebetween
centresofouterbars.

111


Fig.5.10.8.6SpecialTransverseReinforcement.CriticalRegionandSpacing

(B)

CriticalRegions
(a)

Thevolumetricratiooftransversereinforcement(spiralorhoops)shallnotbeless
thanthegreaterof

s = 1 .

f ck
f yk

5.10.8.5

112

Ag
f
= 2
- 1
Ac
f

where,Ag=
Ac=

ck

yk

5.10.8.6

grosssectionalarea
confinedareaofconcreteandthevaluesof1and2aregivenin
Table5.10.8.2asfunctionsofthereducedaxialforceratioNd/Acfck

Table5.10.8.2:VALUESOF1AND2

Nd/Ac.fck

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.22

0.26

0.30

0.34

2
0.l8

(b)

Theminimumdiameterofspiralorhoopsshallbe8mm.

(c)

Themaximumspacingbetweenspiralsorhoopsshallnotexceedthesmallerof:

(d)

(i)

sixtimestheminimumdiameteroflongitudinalbars;

(ii)

onefourthofthesmallestlateraldimensionofthesection

(iii)

l50mm

Eachlongitudinalreinforcementbarorbundleofbarsshallbelaterallysupportedby
the corner of a hoop having an included angle of not more than 135o or by a
supplementary cross tie except that the following bars are exempted from this
requirement:

113

(i)

barsorbundlesofbarswhichliebetweentwobarssupportedbythesame
hoopwherethedistancebetweenthelaterallysupportedbarsorbundlesof
barsdoesnotexceed200mmbetweencentres.

(ii)

innerlayersofreinforcingbarswithintheconcretecorecentredmorethan
75mmfromtheinnerfaceofhoops.

(e) Theyieldforceofthehoopbarorsupplementarytieshallbeatleastonesixteenthof
theyieldforceofthebarorbarsitistorestrainincludingthecontributionfromthebar
orbarsexemptedunder5.10.8.3.4(4)(B)(d)(i)
(f) Each end of a supplementary tie shall engage either a longitudinal bar or the
peripheralhoopbesidesalongitudinalbarwithabentofatleast1350andanextension
beyondthebentofatleast10tiebardiameters.Supplementarytiesandlegsofhoops
shallnotbespacedtransverselymorethaneither200mmoronequarterofthecolumn
sectiondimensionperpendiculartothedirectionofthetransversesteel.(Fig.5.10.8.7).

114

hoop

supplementary

crossties

hoop

(a) Single hoop plus two

(b) Single hoop plus two

supplementary crossties bent

supplementarycrossties

roundlongitudinalbars

bentroundhoop

(c)Twooverlappinghoops

(d) Two overlapping hoops

notpreferreddetail

preferreddetail

(e)Threeoverlappinghoops

(f)Fouroverlappinghoops

Fig.5.10.8.7Typicaldetailsusingoverlappinghoops
115

(C)

Noncriticalregions
TherequirementsrelativetothecriticalregionsofDLIIcolumnsapply(seeTable1.7.3).

Table5.10.8.3TRANSVERSEREINFORCEMENT

DUCTILITYLEVELIII
CriticalRegionlc=max(h,l/6,450mm)(Fig.5.10.8.6)
Spacing

CriticalRegionSh=min(6L,1/4b,150mm)

ElsewhereSh=min(8L,1/2b,200mm)

5.10.8.4BeamColumnJoints
5.10.8.4.1Confinement
(1)

DLIandDLIIStructures
Thehorizontaltransverseconfinementreinforcementinbeamcolumnjointsshallnot
belessthanthatrequiredforthecolumns.

(2)

DLIIIStructures
(a)

Thehorizontaltransverseconfinementreinforcementinbeamcolumnjointsshall
not be less than that required for the columns with the exception of joints
connecting beams at all four column faces that are designed according to Clause
5.10.7.2(1)(b)(ii) or (iii) in which case the transverse joint reinforcement may be
reducedtoonehalfofthatrequiredforthecolumns,butinnocaseshallthestirrup
tie spacing in the joint core exceed ten times the diameter of the column bar, or
200mm,whicheverisless.

(b)

Whenthewidthofthecolumnislargerthantheeffectivejointwidthspecifiedinin
Clause 5.10.7.2(1)(a), all flexural reinforcement in the column that is required to
interactwiththenarrowbeamshallbeplacedwithintheeffectivejointarea,bj.hc.
116

Additional longitudinal column reinforcement shall be placed outsidethiseffective

area.

5.10.8.5StructuralWalls
5.10.8.5.1GeometricalConstraints
(1)

General
(i)

Wallthicknessshallnotbelessthan150mm.

(ii)

Openings in the walls not regularly arranged to form coupled walls shall be
preferably avoided, unless their influence on the behaviour, of the wall under
seismicactioniseitherinsignificantoraccountedforbyrationalanalysis

(2)

DLIIIStructures
In addition to the requirements in 5.10.8.5.1 (1) DL III structures shall also satisfy the
following.
(a)

theheight(hw)towidth(lw)ratioshallnotbelessthan2;

(b)

the local thickness of a wall shall not be less than hn/10 (hn is storey height)
whereverthemaximumcompressivestrainexceedsthevaluecu/3,unless
(i)

thedistanceofthecriticalfibre(iewherecu=cu /3)fromthewalledgeis
smallerthan2bor0.2lw,

(ii)

thedistanceofthecriticalfibrefromatransversewall,orfromaflangethe
width of which is at least hn/5 is smaller than 3b (see Figs. 5.10.8.8
5.10.8.9)

117


Fig.5.10.8.8MinimumWidthRequirements

Fig.5.10.8.9ExemptionsfromClause1.7.5.1onMinimumWallWidth

Fig.5.10.8.10DefinitionofVerticalReinforcementRatio
118

5.10.8.5.2
(a)

LongitudinalReinforcement

The vertical reinforcement ratio in any part of the section shall not be less than 0.25% or
greaterthan4%(seeFig.5.10.8.10).

(b)

Atleasttwoorthogonalgridsofreinforcementshallbeusedoneneareachsideofthewall

(c)

Thediameterofthebarsusedinanypartofawallshallnotexceedb/10

(d)

Themaximumspacingbetweenbarsshallbe300mmexceptwherethesectionisrequiredto
beconfined,inwhichcasethespacingshallnotexceed200mm.

(e)

Curtailing:Verticalflexuralreinforcementshallbecurtailedinaccordancewiththebending
momentenvelope,allowingforthedevelopmentlengthsofthecurtailedbars.

(f)

Splicing:Splicingoftheverticalreinforcementinpotentialareasofyielding
(See5.10.8.5.3(1))shallbeavoidedwheneverpossible.Innocaseshallmorethanonethird
ofsuchreinforcementbesplicedinthoseareas.Specialcareshallbetakenforsplicingofthe
main(flexural)verticalbars.Thesplicesshouldbestaggeredinthelongitudinaldirectionat
leasttwicethesplicedlength.

(g)

Constructionjoints:Theratioofverticalreinforcementcrossingaconstructionjointshallbe
suchastoprovideforthetransferoftheentireshearcapacityofconcreteandisgivenby
theexpression:
v=(1.3fctm0.7Nd/Ag)/fyk>0.0025

5.10.8.7

v=Ast/b.lw

where:

withAst= totalverticalwallreinforcement,includingthatinboundaryelementsprovided
toresistflexure.
Ag

isthegrossareaoftheeffectivewallsectionincludingboundaryelements.

Nd

is the minimum compression force in the wall. Tension shall be taken as

negative.

119

5.10.8.5.3TransverseReinforcement
(1)

General
The requirement for minimum reinforcement ratio, maximum diameter and maximum
spacing,shallbeasforlongitudinalreinforcement(Clause5.10.8.5.2)

(2)

Zoneswithspecialtransversereinforcement

(a) The zonesofwallsrequiringspecialreinforcementasspecified in(b)below are definedas

follows:
(i)

intheverticaldirection,theyshallextendfromthebaseovertheprobable
plastic hinge length, which for the purpose is assumed to be the greater of; the
length(lw)or1/6oftheheight(hw)ofthewall.

(ii)

in the plan section whenever the computed concrete strain exceeds the value:

cu/3. The strain profile over the section shall correspond to development of its
flexuralstrength,underthemaximumdesignaxialcompressionforceoccurringfora
loadcombinationincludingtheseismicaction(Fig.5.10.8.11)

Fig.5.10.8.11

120

(b)

The amount of special transverse reinforcement to be provided is a function of the

computed depth of the neutral axis: x in the base section of the wall, and of the selected
ductilitylevelasfollows:
(i)

DLIIStructures
The critical neutral axis depth, computed for the most adverse, design bending
moment,d,isgivenby:

= 0.2

( M +u ,d )
. lw
M d

when:

5.10.8.8

Transverse reinforcement shall satisfy the minimum

requirements set forth in Clause 5.10.8.5.3. Cross ties to
restrain longitudinal bars shall be used in accordance with
BS8110(1985)

>

Transverse reinforcement shall satisfy the requirements of

Clause 5.10.8.3.4(3) (Ductility Level II columns in critical
regions).

(ii)

DLIIIStructures
Thecriticalneutralaxisdepth,computedforthemostadversebendingmomentMd,
isgivenby:

= 0.1

( M +u ,d )
. lw
Md

5.10.8.9

when:

Transverse reinforcement shall satisfy requirements of Clause

5.10.8.3.4(4)(DLIIIcolumnsinnoncriticalregions).

> Transverse reinforcement volumetric ratio shall not be less

thanthegreaterof:

121

s = 1 .

f
ck

f yk

5.10.8.10

or

g
c

f
- 1
f

ck
yk

5.10.8.11

wherethevaluesof1and2aregiveninthefollowingTable5.10.8.4asfunctions
ofneutralaxisdepthratio.
TABLE5.10.8.4VALUESOF1AND2INEQUATIONS5.10.8.10AND5.10.8.11
x/lw

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.07

0.08

0.09

0.105

0.115

0.125

0.135

0.18

0.205

0.23

0.26

0.285

0.31

0.34

Thevolumetricratioisdefinedas

=Ash

whereh1=

5.10.8.12

Shh1
dimensionofwallconcretecoremeasuredperpendiculartothedirection
ofhoopbarstooutsideofperipheralhoops

Ash= totalsteelareaofhoopbarsandsupplementarycrosstiesindirectionunder
consideration,withspacingSh
5.10.8.5.4CouplingBeams
(a)

The diagonal reinforcement in each direction shall be enclosed by rectangular stirrups,

hoopsorspiralsinaccordancewithClause5.10.8.3.4(4),howevertheirspacingorpitchshall
notexceedl00mm.

122

(b)

Minimumthicknessfordiagonallyreinforcedbeamsshallbe200mm.Theanchoragelength
ofdiagonalreinforcementintheadjacentwallbeincreasedby50%ofthelengthsprescribed
inBS8110(1985)(Fig.5.10.8.12).

Fig.5.10.8.12
5.10.8.6

AnchorageandSplicingofReinforcement

5.10.8.6.1

General

InadditiontotherulesofBS8110thefollowingrequirementsshallbesatisfiedinorderto
ensurereliablebehaviourduringcyclicloadingreversalscausedbyseismicaction:
(a)

All reinforcement bars should be considered to be in insufficient bond conditions except

whenanchorageismadeinregionsconfinedbymeansofspecialtransversereinforcement
wheregoodbondconditioncanbeassumed.

(b)

All bars should be able to develop their maximum strength (n) fyk when a plastic hinge is
formed.

5.10.8.6.2FlexuralMembers:AnchorageofLongitudinalReinforcement
(a)

Flexural members framing into opposite sides of a column shall have top and bottom
reinforcementprovidedatendsofmemberscontinuousthroughthecolumnwherepossible.

(b)

When top or bottom reinforcement cannot be continuous through the column due to the
variations in flexural members cross section, and in exterior columns, the reinforcement
shallbeanchoredwithinthebeamcolumnconnectioninaccordancewiththefollowing:
(i)

Reinforcement shall be extended to the far face of the confined region and
anchoredtodevelopitsyieldstrength.

123

(ii)

Everybarshallterminatewithastandard90degreehookorequivalentanchorage
device,asnearaspracticablypossibletothefarfaceofthecolumncore.Topbars
shouldbebentdownandbottombarsbentup.

(iii)

Development length of beam reinforcement shall be computed beginning at a distance

of 10 from the near face column.

(c)

For DL III Structures when beams frame into opposite sides of a column, the maximum
diameterofthelongitudinalbeambarswhicharecontinuousthroughthecolumnshouldnot
exceedthefollowingfractionsofthecolumndepth(paralleltothebar)inTable5.10.8.5

Table 5.10.8.5
Steelgrade

Fractionofhc

S220smooth

1/35

S220deformed

1/20

S400deformed

1/30

5.10.8.6.3
(a)

Columns:AnchorageofLongitudinalReinforcement

The maximum diameter of longitudinal column bars which are continuous through a joint
shall not exceed the following fractions of maximum depth of the beams framing into the
column.(Table5.10.8.6)
Table5.10.8.6
SteelGrade

Fractionofhb

S220smooth

1/25

S220deformed

1/15

S220deformed

1/25

124

WhenhingesarepermittedtoformincolumnsthevaluesindicatedinClause5.10.8.6.2shall
beapplied.
(b)

Theanchorageofacolumnbarintoanintersectionbeamshallbemadebyahorizontal90
degreestandardhookorequivalentdevice,asnearthefarfaceofthebeamaspractically
possible.Thedirectionof the horizontal leg ofthestandardhook mustalways betowards
thecoreofthejoint.

(c)

When columns terminate at joints at the top of frames or at joints between columns and
foundation members, the anchorage of the longitudinal column bars into the joint region
shallbeassumedtobeginatadistanceequaltoonehalfofthedepthofthebeam,or10,
whicheverislessfromthefaceatwhichthecolumnbarentersthebeam.(Fig5.10.8.13)

Fig5.10.8.13

5.10.8.6.4 SplicesofLongitudinalReinforcement
(a)

Splices are not permitted within beamcolumn joints or within potential plastic hinge
regions.

(b)

If it can be shown that plastic hinge cannot develop, splices are permitted in the end
sections of columns, provided that transverse reinforcement spaced vertically no further
than6bardiameters,ispresent.

125

(c)

Stirruptiesshallbeprovidedoverthelengthofalllapsplicesofreinforcementinbeamsand
columns.Themaximumspacingofthestirruptiesshallnotexceed10timesthediameterof
thebarbeingspliced.
ForDLIIIstructuresthemaximumspacingshallalsonotexceed150mm.

(d)

Welded splices or approved mechanical connections conforming with BS 8110 (1985) may
be used, provided that not more than alternate bars in each layer of longitudinal
reinforcementaresplicedatasection,andthedistancebetweensplicesofadjacentbarsis
600mmormoremeasuredalongthelongitudinalaxisoftheframecomponent.

5.10.8.6.5AnchorageandSplicingofTransverseReinforcement
(a)

Transverse hoop reinforcement shall be anchored by at least a 135o bent around a

longitudinalbarwithaminimumextensionatthefaceendof10bardiameters.
Alternatively,theendsofthehoopscanbesplicedbyweldscapableofdevelopingthefull
strengthofthebar.

(b)

Transverse reinforcement shall not be lapspliced in cover concrete with beam column
jointsorwithinpotentialplastichingeregions.Deformedbarsshallbeusedforlapsplices.

(c)

Whentheanchorageforaspiralterminateswitha135obendaroundalongitudinalbar,the
extensionbeyondthebendshallbeatleast10spiralbardiameters.

126

APPENDIXA
SCHEDULEOFUNITWEIGHTOFBUILDINGMATERIALS
Weightsofconcrete

Table1A

Aggregateortype

Expandedclayorshale
dittostructural
Vermiculite(expandedmica)
Nofines(gravel)
Cellular(aeratedorgasconcrete)

Cellularstructural

con struction with concrete products

Reinforcedconcrete

Lightweights concrete

L i g h t w e ig h ts c o n c r e t e

Nonreinforcedplainormassconcrete

Concreteblockandbrickwalls

Otherproducts

Normal weightAggregate:
limestone
gravel
brokenbrick
othercrushed
stone
Nominalweight
Reinforcement:1%
2%
4%

SolidslabsThickness(floors,
walls,75mmetc.)
100mm
150mm
250mm
300mm
Ribbedslabs125mm
150mm
225mm
300mm
CompressivestrengthN/mm2
5.6to8.4
13.8to34.5
0.5to3.5

1.4
10.3to15.5

Sandcreteblock:solid
Lightweightaggregates:solid
Brickwork(nominal)
Pavingslabs(flags)

50mmthick
Roofingtiles:plain
interlocking

kN/m3
22.6
21.2to23.6
22.0to23.6
19.6(av)
22.8to24.4
23.6
22.6to24.2
23.1to24.7
24.0to25.6
KN/m2
1.80
2.40
3.60
6.00
7.20
2.00
2.15
2.75
3.35
kN/m3
9.4to11.8
13.4to18.1
3.9to11.0
15.7to18.9

3.9(min.)
14.1to15.7
kN/m3
17.3
13.2
21.7
kN/m2

1.15
0.6to0.9
0.6

ToconvertvaluesinkNtovaluesinkg.multiplyby102

127

Weightsofconstructionalmaterials
ConcreteBrickworketc.

Miscellaneous Materials

Table2A
N/m2

Clayfloortiles

575

See
Table1A

KN/m3

Dampproofcourse

48

Tarmacadam

22.6

N/m2mmper

Macadam(waterbound)

25.1

thickness

Vermiculite3(aggregate)

0.8

Felt(insulating)

1.9

Terracotta

20.8

Pavingslabs.(stone)

26.4

Glass

26.7

Granitesets

28.3

Cork:granular

1.2

Asphalt

22.6

:compressed

3.8

Rubberpaving

15.1

Polyvinylchloride

19(av)

Glassfibre(forms)

1.9

Chipboard
Plywood
Fibreboard
Woodwool
Plasterboard
Waterboarding

Gedunohor
Guarea(cedrata)
Guarea(thomsonii)
Idigbo
Ilomba
Iroko
Mahogany,African
Makore
Okwen
Opepe
Ptergygota
Sapele
Stervulia,Brown
Sterculia,yellow
Utile

N/m2permm
7.5
6.1
2.8
5.7
9.4
3.8

Densityat12%
moistureconstant
3
KN/m
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
6.3to7.7
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
6.3to7.7
6.3to7.7

Timber

Abura
Afaraorlimba
Africanwalnut
Afromosia
Afzelia
Agba
Albizzia(A.ferruginea)

Alstonia
Antiaris
Avodire
Ayan
Canarium,African
Celtis
Dahoma
Danta
Ekki
Esia
Mansonia
Mubura
Miangori
Obeche
Odoko
Ogea
Okan

densityat
12%moisture
content
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
7.9to10.2
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
3.1
3.1
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
3.1
3.1
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
6.3to7.7
6.3to7.7
10.2
7.9to10.2
4.7to6.1
6.3to7.7
4.7to6.1
3.1to4.6
4.7to6.1
4.7to6.1
7.9to10.2

128

Naturalstone(solid)

Granite

25.1to28.7

Stonerubble(packed)

22.0

Sandstone

22.0to23.6

Quarrywaste

14.1

slate

28.3

Hardcore(consolidated)

18.9

Allinaggregate

19.6

iron:cast

70.7

Structuralsteelwork

Netweightofmember +

wrought

75.4

Riveted

steel(seealsobelow)

77.0

copper:cast

85.6

:wrought

87.7

Brass

83.3

Welded

Bronze

87.7

Aluminum

27.2

Rolledsections:beams

Lead

111.0

:stanchions

Zinc(rolled)

70.0

g/mm2

Platewebgirders

permetre

Steelbars

7.85

Rooftrusses

10%forcleats,rivetsbolts
etc
+1

1
1
% to 2 %
4
2

forweldsetc+ 2

1
% for
2

capsandbases)
+10%forrivetsorwelds,
stiffenersetc.
SeeTable3A

Steelstairs:industrial

N/m

Typeinwide

820

Steeltube:

50mminbore

45to60

Gaspiping:20mm

18

129

Weightofroofs

Material

Table3A

Weightperm2ofslopeofroof
(N/m2)

claddnin g

Netincludingnormallapsandfastenings

Aluminumsheetcorrugated18.S.W.G
Aluminumsheet,corrugated20S.W.G
Aluminumsheetcorrugated22.S.W.G
Aluminumsheetcorrugated24.S.W.G
Aluminumsheet,flat18S.W.G
Aluminumsheet,flat20S.W.G
Aluminumsheet,flat22S.W.G
Aluminumsheet,flat24S.W.G
Asbestoscementsheets,corrugated6mmthick
Asbestoscementsheets,flat5mmthick
Asbestoscementsheets,flat6mmthick
Asbestoscementsheets,flat10mmthick
Asbestoscementsheets,flat12mmthick
Coppersheeting16S.W.G
Coppersheeting18S.W.G
Coppersheeting20S.W.G
Coppersheeting22S.W.G
Coppersheeting24S.W.G
Roofingfelt,3ply
Roofingfelt,2ply
Roofingfelt,1.ply
Shingles(excludingbattens)
Steelsheet,galvanized,corrugated18GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,corrugated20GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,corrugated22GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,corrugated24GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,corrugated26GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,corrugated28GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,flat18GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,flat20GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,flat22GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,flat24GB
Steelsheet,galvanized,flat26GB

37.8
28.7
22.0
17.2
33.5
24.9
19.6
15.3
135
80
110
170
220
145
110
80
65
50
25
20
15

110
90
70
55
45
35
100
80
60
50
40

47.9
38.3
28.7
23.9

160

120
135
105
90
70
55
45

130

Table3A(contd)

Steelsheet,galvanized,flat28BG

Cladding

Thatching,300mmnominalthickness:dry

30

:wet

410

Roofing,burntclayMarseillestype

530

(excludingbattens)

430

Tiles,roofing,burntclayEtruscnatype

(excludingbattens)

570

Tiles,roofing,burntclay,Broseleytype

(excludingbattens)

670

Tiles,roofing,burntclay,Italiantype

(excludingbattens)

720

Reinforcedconcreteslabs,concretetiles
etc.

SeeTable1A

Spacingoftrusses
2

ApproximateweightsofsteelrooftrussesinN/m of
Roof trusses

planareaofroof

Spanoftrusses

3.0m

4.5m

7.5m

95

72

9m

120

72

12m

132

84

15m

144

108

18m

203

144

25m

239

168

131

Solid and packed ma terials

Li quids and semi -liquids

Weightsofstoredmaterials

Tables4A

Acids:acetic

KN/m3

KN/m3

nitric

10.4

Mineraloils:naptha

7.4

sulphuric

15.1

Paraffin(kerosene)

7.9

alcohol(commercial)

18.1

Petrol(gasoline)

6.9

ammonia

7.9

Petroleumoil

8.6

beer:inbulk

8.8

Pulp(wood)

7.1

bottled(incases)

10.0

Slurry:cement

14.1

inbarrels

4.6

Clay

11.9

benzene,benzol

5.5

Sewage

9.7to11.8

bitumen(prepared)

8.6

Tar,pitch

11.8

methylatedspirit

13.7

Turpentine

8.5

linseedoilmilk

8.2

Water:fresh

9.81

8.8

Seawater

10.05

10.2

Wine:inbulk

9.7

Bottled(incases)

5.8

Lime(slated)dry
5.5
wet
17.3
9.4to10.2
Paper(packed)
2.4to5.5
Waste(pressed)
7.1
Salt:dry
6.3
Loose
1.7
Sawdust
9.0
Slag:basic
8.8
Crushed
10.7
Foamed
7.1
Sugar(loose)
9.4
Tea(inchests)

ToconvertvaluesinkNtovaluesinkg.multiplyby102
Brewerysgrains(wet)
Bricks(stacked)
Clinker
Cotton(inbales)
Flour:inbulk
Insacks
Hops(insacks)
Ice
Bottledgoods(incases)
Eggsinbulk
Meat
Tinnedgoods(incases)

5.5
14.9
9.4
5.5
9.4
14.1
2.4
17.3
9.4to14.1
6.3
7.9
4.4

132