Journal of Hazardous Materials 264 (2014) 403410

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Journal of Hazardous Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhazmat

Environmental performance and mechanical analysis of concrete

containing recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) and waste precast
concrete as aggregate
Savas Erdem a , Marva Angela Blankson b,
a
b

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Istanbul, Avcilar Campus, IstanbulTurkey

Corresponding author, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Nottingham, NottinghamUK

h i g h l i g h t s

Use of recycled aggregates (RA) from either waste precast concrete or recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) in concrete.
Effects of RA on the fresh, mechanical and environmental properties of concrete.
From the perspective of the mechanical properties, RAP can be used in non-structural applications.
The environmental behaviour of the recycled aggregate concrete is similar to that of the natural aggregate concrete.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 23 August 2013
Received in revised form 16 October 2013
Accepted 16 November 2013
Available online 22 November 2013
Keywords:
Sustainable concrete
Waste aggregate
Mechanical analysis
Leaching behaviour

a b s t r a c t
The overall objective of this research project was to investigate the feasibility of incorporating 100%
recycled aggregates, either waste precast concrete or waste asphalt planning, as replacements for virgin
aggregates in structural concrete and to determine the mechanical and environmental performance of
concrete containing these aggregates. Four different types of concrete mixtures were designed with the
same total water cement ratio (w/c = 0.74) either by using natural aggregate as reference or by totally
replacing the natural aggregate with recycled material. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) was
used as a mineral addition (35%) in all mixtures. The test results showed that it is possible to obtain
satisfactory performance for strength characteristics of concrete containing recycled aggregates, if these
aggregates are sourced from old precast concrete. However, from the perspective of the mechanical
properties, the test results indicated that concrete with RAP aggregate cannot be used for structural applications. In terms of leaching, the results also showed that the environmental behaviour of the recycled
aggregate concrete is similar to that of the natural aggregate concrete.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
It is not an exaggeration to say that concrete produced with
Portland cement is so far the most popular construction material
in todays world due to its relatively inexpensive cost and versatility. Concrete is adaptable to a wide variety of civil engineering
projects: from high-rise buildings to road pavements, from bridges
to water supply schemes, from retaining walls to railway sleepers.
Therefore, the role of concrete in promoting societys development
will, without doubt, continue to play a crucial role in the foreseeable
future. However, it should be pointed out that the concrete industry consumes huge amounts of natural aggregates which cause

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 115 823 2424.

E-mail address: evxse1@yahoo.com (M.A. Blankson).
0304-3894/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.11.040

destruction of the environment. Therefore, there is an urgent need

to nd and supply suitable substitutes for natural aggregates [1].
According to Sani et al. [2], a well-known example of alternative supply of aggregate is the use of construction and demolition
(C&D) waste to manufacture recycled aggregates. Waste coming
from construction and demolition (C&D) represents one of European Unions (EUs) largest waste streams. The gures obtained
from Waste Stream Programme, European Commission [3] reveal
that waste materials arising from C&D activities amounts to
180 million tonnes/year in the EU, which is equivalent to 480 kg per
person/year and 72% (130 million tonnes/year) that is land-lled. If
this volume of waste can be used constructively, it would remove
an enormous pressure on the environment.
Recycled aggregates have been used in non-structural concrete
applications or used as sub-base for roads [46]. Their uses in
structural concrete, on the other hand, are limited and only a few
cases have been reported on the use of recycled aggregates in

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S. Erdem, M.A. Blankson / Journal of Hazardous Materials 264 (2014) 403410

structural concrete. Desmyster and Vyncke [7] provided several

practical examples on the use of recycled aggregates in structural
concrete applications. Examples that were reported are related to
engineering works on a viaduct and a marine in the Netherlands
in 1988, and to an ofce building in the UK in 1999- all of which
used recycled aggregates.
Several researchers assessed the effect of recycled aggregate
on the plastic and hardened properties of recycled aggregate concretes. In one assessment, Tabsh et al. [8] studied the effect of the
strength of recycled concrete aggregate on the strength of concrete.
It was found that the compressive and tensile strengths of concretes
made with recycled concrete aggregates were lower than those
of concretes made with natural aggregates. The ndings showed
that the reduction in strength was higher in low strength concrete than in medium strength concrete. It was concluded that the
strength of the concrete made with recycled concrete aggregates
depended on the strength of the aggregate as well as the aggregate/cement ratio. When Kwan et al. [9] studied the properties of
concrete with various replacement levels (0, 15, 30, 60 and 80%)
of natural aggregate for recycled concrete aggregate, it was also
found that the strength of the concrete reduced as the replacement
level increased but the reduction was appreciably greater when the
replacement level exceeded 30%. The reduction in strength was
attributed to the cracks that were developed in the aged mortar
of the concrete aggregate during the comminution process. However, with the exception of two points of deviation, the trajectory of
the development of strength in each type of concrete was approximately parallel to each other up to 56 days. It should be stated
however, that although considerable amount of research work is
conducted on concrete with recycled concrete aggregates, there is
no consensus on which type of work this concrete is most suitable
for.
Corinaldesi [10], however, reported that concrete can be made
with 30% RCA for structural concrete that is in the low strength
class. This conclusion was arrived at after the latter researcher
studied the mechanical properties of ordinary concrete that was
produced with two types of gravelone coarse and the other ne.
Each type of natural aggregate was alternately replaced with 30%
coarsely and 30% nely crushed RCA aggregate respectively, in
concrete with water/cement ratio increasing in a small increment from 0.40 to 0.60. The ndings concurred with some reports
that the strength of concrete decreased when natural aggregate is
replaced with recycled concrete aggregate, but equally important
was the nding that the reduction in strength was greater when the
ner natural aggregate was replaced with ne recycled concrete
aggregate. In parallel, Kou and Poon [11] completed an experimental investigation on the long-term mechanical performance of
concrete with recycled aggregates obtained from three different
sources and the outcome supported this view. Huang et al. [12],
on the other hand, reported that both the compressive strength
and modulus of elasticity of concrete with recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) decreased systematically, regardless of whether coarse
or ne RAP used.
With regard to chemical attack, one of the reasons for the
deterioration of concrete with is leaching. Sani et al. [2] surveyed
leaching behaviour of concrete manufactured by totally replacing natural aggregate with recycled aggregate. The test results
demonstrate that the leachability of unreactive ions such as Na, K,
Cl goes up due to the presence of recycled aggregates, but the use
of recycled aggregates resulted in a lower net leaching of calcium
ions. Researchers [13] also conducted test on concrete that had
natural aggregate replaced with up to 100% RCA. It was found that
at up to 30% RCA replacement, there was no noticeable change
in the oxides of Si, Ca and Al in the recipient concrete. However,
at higher RCA replacements, the SiO2 decreased slightly and the
Al2 O3 and the CaO increased marginally as the RCA content in the

concrete increased. The changes in the percentages of the oxides

were ascribed to the increase in the cement content of the concrete
samples that were designed to attain 20 MPa in compressive
strength. In comparing the proportions of some of the elements in
the solid concrete with that of similar elements in the eluate that
was produced from each type of concrete, it was concluded that
the propensity for leaching was related to the chemical content of
the concrete in the solid form.
The overall objective of this research project was to investigate
the feasibility of incorporating 100% recycled aggregates, either old
concrete or old asphalt planing, as replacements for virgin aggregates in structural concrete and, to determine the mechanical and
environmental performance of concrete containing these aggregates.
2. Materials and methodology
2.1. Properties of materials used in concrete production
Portland Cement Cem IIA-LL 42.5 conforming to BS EN 197-1
[14] was used to produce all concrete mixes in this experimental study. Natural sand complying with the requirements of BS
EN 13139 [15] constituted the ne aggregate for concrete mixtures made with recycled aggregate as well as concrete made with
conventional aggregate. The two types of natural coarse aggregates used herein were crushed limestone from Longcliffe Quarries,
Derbyshire; and gravel from Trent Valley, Nottinghamshire. The
nominal size of both types of natural aggregates was 10 mm and
each aggregate was blended to closely t the grading curve shown
in Fig. 1. The shape of limestone particles was primarily angular and the texture was rough, while the Trent Valley aggregate
consisted of smooth and rounded particles. Similarly, two sources
of recycled aggregates were used to totally replace the natural
coarse aggregates; one coming from the precast concrete waste
of Trent Concrete Company and the other coming from recycled
asphalt from Yorkshire Water Company that was carrying out the
trench excavations. The nominal size of the recycled aggregates
was also 10 mm. The shape of the aggregate particles from recycled
asphalt was irregular, whereas that of precast concrete was angular. Ground granulated blast furnace slag, which is a by-product
from the making of iron, was used in concrete mixes as a partial replacement of Portland cement. It was obtained from Appleby
Group.
2.2. Production of concrete mixtures
In order to compare the environmental and mechanical properties of conventional and recycled aggregate concrete mixtures,
a total of four batches of concrete mixtures were prepared. The
rst two mix batches were produced with 100% natural aggregates
(Trent Valley and crushed limestone). The other two mix batches,
on other hand, were each designed with 100% recycled aggregates
(precast concrete waste in one and recycled asphalt in the other) so
as to investigate the effects of recycled aggregates on concrete properties and the utilization of C&D wastes in concrete. The RAP and
the waste precast concrete aggregates were used in the saturated
surface dry condition and extra water was used to compensate for
water absorption in the natural aggregates. Therefore, the quantity
of mixing water used ensured that the water/cement ratio (0.74)
was the same in all batches and other components in the concrete
mixes were determined in the proportions as shown in Table 1. The
only difference among the concrete batches was the type of aggregate, which gives an opportunity to observe the inuence of the
aggregates characteristics on the performance of the concrete. All
batches were composed of the same proportion of GGBS (35%) as a

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405

Fig. 1. A graphical presentation of the grading curve of the aggregates used.

cement replacement material. No chemical admixtures were used

in the mixtures.
After the mixing procedure, the fresh concrete was placed into
100 mm cubes and into 100 100 500 mm prisms in two layers
and then consolidated by using a vibration table to release possible
entrapped air. Thereafter, the specimens were left in their moulds
for 24 h and nally cured at 20 2 C in a water tank that was situated in a room with 65% relative humidity. Four concrete cubes
and three concrete prisms were prepared for every batch.
2.3. Tests and analysis performed
Concrete cubes with 100 mm nominal size were used to
evaluate the compressive strength of concrete according to the
procedures described in BS EN 12390-3 [16]. The compressive
strength was performed on the concrete specimens at 1, 5, 7
and 28 days with reference to the abovementioned test method.
The exural test with two-point loading was conducted on the
100 100 500 mm beam specimens at 28 days according to
the relevant standard, BS EN 12390-5 [17]. The measurement for
ultrasonic pulse velocity and dynamic elastic modulus was carried
out using 100 100 500 mm beams and performed almost every
day according to BS EN 12504-4 [18]. In this project, the leaching
behaviour of concrete specimens was observed using the procedures described in BS EN 12457-2 [19]. Cube specimens which had
already been used for 28 days compressive strength testing, was
fully crushed and tested using one of the new European leaching

teststhe Shake Test (Fig. 2). Subsequently, the ELIT pH/Ion Analyser Software was used to determine the concentration of certain
elements of each sample (Fig. 3).
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Fresh properties
A graphical representation of slump height is shown in Fig. 4.
Each result is the average of two slump measurements on the concrete. In general, the test results indicated a decreasing trend of
workability when the recycled aggregates replaced natural aggregates. As can be seen from the gure, the highest slump measured
was 150 mm in concrete with limestone aggregates, while the lowest slump measured was 50 mm in concrete containing precast
concrete waste. The slump values for Trent Valley and recycled
asphalt aggregate samples were 130 and 90 mm, respectively. Usually, aggregates with smooth and rounded particles have lower
specic surface than those with rough and angular particles of equal
size and therefore more water used in the wetting of the surface.

Table 1
Concrete mix properties.
Materials

kg/m3

Cement
Coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
Water
GGBS
Water/cement ratio

175.5
980
900
200
94.5
0.74

Fig. 2. Agitation device for shake (leaching) test.

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S. Erdem, M.A. Blankson / Journal of Hazardous Materials 264 (2014) 403410

Table 2
Compressive strength test results. .
Compressive strength (MPa)
Mix ID

1 day

5 days

7 days

28 days

Trent Valley concrete

Limestone concrete
Waste precast concrete
Recycled asphalt pavement

2.2
3.8
4.1
1.6

9.5
15.5
19.8
8.9

12
18.8
22.0
10.0

21.4
32.2
36.6
14

Table 3
Saturated surface-dry density of the concrete mixes.
Saturated surface-dry density (kg/m3 )

Fig. 3. Chemical analysis of sub-samples with ion-selective electrode technique.

As less mixing water will made available in concrete with rough

and angular coarse particles, the slump of this type of concrete
will be less than that of a similar proportioned concrete made with
smooth and rounded aggregate particles. However, the limestone
concrete had a higher slump that the gravel counterpart which may
be the result of a slightly higher percentage of limestone aggregate
that was retained on the 4.5 mm sievea feature that would work
advantageously to increase the slump.
It was observed that the recycled concrete aggregate samples
showed acceptable workability performance in terms of placement
and compaction. The slump of the concrete is indicative of the
workability. Although this correlation is more useful when the constituents are the same, it will be used here for the comparison of
workability of cementitious materials with different types of aggregates. From the experiment, the results show that the concrete
mixes that were manufactured with recycled aggregates were less
workable than those made with natural aggregates. In the case of
the waste precast concrete, the reduction in workability may be
attributed to a combination of the low specic density and high
water absorption of this type of recycled aggregate. Additionally,
visual examination showed that the pieces of precast aggregate
were angular and contained signicant amount of old mortar. These
features would have also helped to reduce the effective mixing
water and hence reduced the workability of the waste precast concrete. Explanation of the slump in the concrete made with RAP
aggregate is more difcult. The RAP used was composed of angular coarse particles and sand; both of which were fully or partially
embedded in bitumen. As mixing took place, more of the aggregate particles and sand may have become exposed as the bitumen
separated from the granular particles, resulting in an increase in

Fig. 4. A graphical representation of the slump results.

Mix ID

1 day

5 days

7 days

28 days

Trent Valley concrete

Limestone concrete
Waste precast concrete
Recycled asphalt pavement

2305
2305
2350
2260

2325
2340
2350
2265

2335
2345
2355
2280

2335
2350
2365
2310

the absorption capacity of the RAP aggregate. Although this explanation appears plausible, it is suggested that further testing of
RAP aggregates is done to determine if the volume of unblocked
aggregate pores in RAP can contribute to noticeable level of water
absorption.
3.2. Compressive strength and density
The test results of compressive strength and density of the concrete mixes are summarised in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.
The 28 days compressive strength and the saturated surface-dry
density of the concrete samples varied from 14 to 36.6 MPa and
2250 to 2350 kg/m3 , respectively. With the exception of a few cases
(the gravel concrete at 28 days and the waste precast concrete at
7 days), as hydration progressed, the density of each type of concrete increased and the corresponding strength also increased. This
development is attributed mainly to the production of the calcium
silicate hydrates.
Fig. 5 below gives a graphical representation of variation of compressive strength with age. The target strength for the recycled
concrete mixes was 35 MPa. From these results, it is shown that
the only batch that met the target strength is the batch containing
crushed precast waste concrete (36.6 MPa at 28 days). Fig. 5 shows
that waste precast concrete consistently had the highest compression strength both at early and later ages. This may be the result
of a stronger physical bond between the aggregate and the cement
mortar [20]. It also should be pointed out that limestone and precast aggregate mixes showed similarity in performance, probably

Fig. 5. A graphical representation of the compressive strength results with age.

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407

Fig. 8. The variation in the compressive strength gained with time.

Fig. 6. Scanning electron image of the concrete mix with RAP.

because the origin of the precast concretes aggregate is from the

limestone.
The batch with recycled asphalt aggregate, on the other
hand, had the lowest strength; probably reecting the fact that
there was weak bonding between the asphalt and the concrete
matrix/aggregate [12]. However, a stronger reason for this is probably because the bitumen lm between the old aggregate and the
new mortar provides a line of weakness for failure to take place
along as shown in scanning electron micro-graphs (Figs. 6 and 7).
The variation in compressive strength gained with time is presented in Fig. 8. This gure shows the proportion of nal strength
obtained during the early life of concrete, but if the nal strength is
low, then a material that quickly gains a high proportion of its nal
strength might still be weaker than a material that gains a smaller
proportion of a greater nal strength in the same time. Fig. 8 also
shows that the compressive strength of recycled asphalt concrete
has gained the majority of its long-term strength after only a few
days value as compared to the other concrete specimens. After a
few days, Trent Valley aggregate concrete has gained the lowest
proportion of its long-term strength among all the concrete specimens. Based on these results, the most signicant point is that
the concrete produced with recycled concrete aggregate has gained
strength both rapidly and substantially.

3.3. Flexural tensile strength

The test results of exural tensile strength of the concrete mixes
studied are presented in Fig. 9 below. The exural strengths of the
concrete specimens at 28 days were 3.02, 4.16, 4.74 and 4.80 MPa
for the concrete with RAP aggregate, the gravel concrete, the limestone and the waste precast concrete, respectively.
From Fig. 9 below, it can be seen that while the highest exural
tensile strength is in concrete made with precast waste concrete aggregate and its strength is similar to the concretes made
using conventional aggregate, the other recycled aggregate concrete specimen that included recycled asphalt, showed the lowest
tensile strength performance. The concrete with limestone natural
aggregate exhibited a slightly higher performance than did concrete with Trent Valley natural aggregate.
A possible explanation for this behaviour is the inuence of
the shape and the surface texture of the aggregate on the exural strength of concrete. Angular or crushed aggregate particles
such as those in the limestone or precast waste concrete aggregate can be dovetailed in the mortar. This means that this type of
aggregate will have a greater adhesion or bond leading to a higher
material strength. Likewise, the larger surface area of a more angular or rougher aggregate particle offers larger contact area for the
binder and, thus a higher exural strength can be expected from
concrete with these aggregates.
Fig. 10 (a) and (b) shows the broken faces of the concrete with
RAP and Trent Valley concrete after exural tensile test. The gures showed that the concrete produced with RAP tended to fail
predominantly through the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) that
is between the surfaces of the RAP and the mortar. In contrast,
the Trent Valley concrete showed signs of failure emanating from
cracking and fragmentation of the aggregates, indicating that the
aggregate itself is the most vulnerable feature of the Trent Valley
concrete.

3.4. Ultrasonic pulse measurements

Fig. 7. Scanning electron image of the crack path in the concrete mix with RAP.

The test results of the modulus of elasticity and transit time, as

measured using the non-destructive ultrasonic test method (PUNDIT), for the concrete specimens are presented in Fig. 11 below.
From the experimental results, the 28days elastic modulus and
transit time of the specimens vary from 39.1 to 47.6 GPa and from
112 to 123.5 s, respectively. In addition, the result indicates that
the elastic modulus of the concrete produced with natural aggregate is clearly higher than that of the concrete containing recycled
aggregate. From the Fig. 11 above, the transit time of the all concrete mixtures at early ages decreased dramatically but maintained

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S. Erdem, M.A. Blankson / Journal of Hazardous Materials 264 (2014) 403410

Fig. 9. A graphical representation of the exural tensile results.

Fig. 11. Ultrasonic dynamic modulus and transit time vs. concrete age.

high strength cement (or stiffer aggregate) content than the other
mixtures.
3.5. Leaching measurements

Fig. 10. Failed samples after the exural test (a) concrete with RAP and (b) concrete
with gravel aggregate.

The test results of pH, electrical conductivity and leaching measurements, as determined using the shake test, are given in Table 4
and Table 5, respectively. The analysis included conductivity, pH

a relatively stable position with small uctuations from 7 until 28

days.
Fig. 12 shows that the variation of elastic modulus compared with compressive strength. It appears the static modulus
of elasticity does not increase proportionally with the increase in
compressive strength. From this it may be deduced that stiffness
is probably more inuenced by aggregateaggregate connection
than by mortaraggregate bond, so continued development of
strength (mostly a result of increasing bond strength) does not
result in considerable increase in stiffness. Fig. 12 seems to show
a single relationship between stiffness and strength for all the
materials except for the precast concrete aggregate mixture which
consistently had a lower modulus for any compressive strength
value. This can be explained as the precast concrete aggregate was
originally sourced from very high strength concrete, such as 70
or 75 MPa strength and thus, it includes a greater proportion of

Fig. 12. Ultrasonic modulus of elasticity and compressive strength relationship.

S. Erdem, M.A. Blankson / Journal of Hazardous Materials 264 (2014) 403410

Table 4
Electrical conductivity and pH results.
Mix ID

Conductivity (s)

pH

Temperature ( C)

Trent Valley concrete

Limestone concrete
Waste precast concrete
Recycled asphalt pavement

5.19
6.01
5.90
4.87

12.36
12.43
12.42
12.37

21.6
21.6
21.6
21.6

Table 5
Leaching analysis results.
Solution

Trent Valley

Concentrations (mg/L)
0.0255
Chloride
0.00045
Cadmium
3.4845
Nitrate
Ammonium 2.0220
82.4195
Sodium

Limestone

Waste precast
concrete

Recycled asphalt
pavement

0.0265
0.00102
3.8336
2.1488
81.3634

0.0159
0.00051
3.8642
3.2844
91.1912

0.0634
0.00061
4.1677
1.8840
80.7211

and the concentrations of sodium, lead, cadmium, chloride, nitrate

and ammonium in clean water.
As is clear from the tables, all the concrete specimens in this
experimental work leached the same components (Pb, Cd, Cl, NO3 ,
NH4 and Na). The leached components seems to be in slightly
higher proportions from the precast waste aggregate and Trent
Valley gravel compared to those leached from the limestone and
RAP concrete samples. However, each assessment gives very similar results for all specimens. This may be attributable to the fact
that the contribution of the migration of these ions from aggregate
to the total leaching process is usually minimal. Similar ndings are
shown in the results of the electrical conductivity. The concrete mix
with Trent Valley aggregate has the highest electrical conductivity
and pH, although the pH value is very similar for all the concrete
specimens.
As can be seen from the tables, the acidic compounds, i.e. nitrate
and ammonium, leached in large quantities from the concrete produced with recycled aggregates, mainly precast waste aggregate.
This is likely due to the fact that the concrete manufactured with
recycled aggregate had extra cement, which was inherited from
the old mortar. Thus, acid-neutralizing capacity of the recycled
aggregate concrete is greater. Certain metals (chloride, nitrate) tend
to leach out in high concentrations from concrete with recycled
asphalt aggregates. This may be attributed to the high pH in the concrete which led to the increased solubility of these organics from
the recycled asphalt concrete.
Based on the results, one of the interesting points is that the
leaching quantity of sodium is high in all the concrete mixtures,
although sodium is a minor component of Portland cement and
therefore this may be a constituent of the GGBS or it may be more
soluble than the other ions. It is clear from the results; the leaching performance of concrete with primary aggregates is generally
similar to that of recycled aggregate concrete.
4. Concluding remarks
In the light of the ndings obtained from this experimental
study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
It was found that recycled aggregate concrete mixes did not pose
any difculties in terms of casting or placement. However, totally
replacing the natural aggregate with a recycled one signicantly
reduces the workability of concrete. Consequently, concrete with

409

recycled aggregates requires more water or superplasticizer [21]

to achieve the same workability as conventional concrete.
Concrete produced with 100% recycled coarse precast concrete aggregates may have a higher cube compressive strength
than conventional concrete, with the same total w/c ratio
(w/c = 0.74) and cement quantity (175.5 kg/m3 ). Furthermore, a
normal strength concrete can be produced with potential uses
in structural applications. However, it must be stressed that the
aggregate should be sourced from high-strength concrete, i.e.
precast or prestressed concrete, to achieve this aim.
The results also indicated that concrete made with recycled
asphalt aggregates exhibited a systematic reduction in both compressive strength and modulus of elasticity. However, it provided
an unexpected increase in exural strength of concrete. Based
on these results, the use of RAP aggregate is not recommended
for structural elements. However, from the perspective of the
mechanical properties, it is shown that RAP can be used in nonstructural applications.
The results also showed that the presence of recycled concrete
aggregate in concrete may lead to an enhancement of concrete
exural strength which might be benecial in some civil engineering applications. It was observed that totally replacing the
primary aggregate with the recycled one causes a clear reduction
in concrete elastic modulus.
In terms of leaching, the results also showed the environmental behaviour of the recycled aggregate concrete is similar to the
natural aggregate concrete.

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