Self-Instruction - The Practice and Theory of Navigation Vol 02

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DUNRAYEN'S NAVIGATION
VOL.
II
PHISTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND
CO.,
NBW-STllEET SQUARE
LONDON
SELF-INSTEUCTION
IN
THE
PEACTICE AND THEORY

OF
NAVIGATION
BY THE
EAEL OF DUNEAVEN
EXTEA MASTEE
IN
TWO VOLUMES
VOL.
II.
HonUon
MACMILLAN AND
CO.,
Limited
NEW YOBK THE MAOMILLAN OOMPANY

:
1900
CONTENTS
OF
THE SECOND VOLUME

PAET
II {continued)
CHAPTEE XVI
SUMNER LINES
PAUKS
Explanation of Peinoiples
1-4
How
4-7
TO
WOKK
THE PROBLEM
Skeleton Poem
Use of Johnson's Tables
9-13
Peinciple of Johnson's Tables
14-15
Example of Sumnee Peoblem

Example of Double Cheonometee Peoblem
15-18
.
18-19
CHAPTEE XVII
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
What
is
meant by Sides and Angles of a Spheeical
Triangle
20-21
Bight-angled Triangles, Napibe's Bules of Circular

Paets
when Angles are
Cases
tween 90 and 180

The Ambiguous Case
21-29
be-
29-31
32-33
Quadeantal Triangles
34-35
Spherical Triangles other than Eight-angled or Quadeantal
35-41
CONTENTS OF
VI
CHAPTEE
XVIII
STELLAR NAVIGATION
PAGES
COMPARATIVB VaLUE OF SuN AND StAES FOR NAVIGATIONAL

42-43
Purposes
Apparent and Mean Time

Sidereal and Solae Time
Acceleration and Retardation
44-45
Eight Ascension
To find Mean Time at Ship from the Hour Angle of
49-52
A Star
Acceleration of Eight Ascension of Mean Sun for the
52-55
Time elapsed since Noon at Greenwich

Latitude by a Meridian Altitude above the Pole
55-56
45-48
48-49
BELOW
57
58-60
Latitude by Meridian Altitudes above and below Pole

Ex-Meridian of the Pole Star
60-61
Longitude by Star and Chronometer

Latitude by an Ex- Meridian of a Star
65-69
....
70-71
72-74
Planet
The Moon
62-65
to Correct the E. A. and Dec.
Horizontal Par.\llax and Semi-Diameter

Parallax in Altitude
Example showing Corrections necessary
.
IN FINDING
75-76
77-79
79-80
Time by an Altitude of the
Moon
81
Latitude by a Meridian Altitude of the Moon

Ex-Meridians below Pole
82-87
87-88
Double Chronometer Problem from Two Simultaneous

88-92
Observations
CHAPTEE XIX
SECOND DIFFERENCES
Why
Second Differences are used

Examples foe Equation of Time and Sun's Declination
AS applied to Moon's E. A. and Declination
93-97
97-99
99-103
THE SECOKD VOLUME
VU
CHAPTEE XX
LATITUDE BY DOUBLE ALTITUDES
I'AflKS
Nature of the Problem explained and Skeleton Poem

Different Positions with respect to JIbridian and
Zenith which may Occur
104-107
Correction for Run of the Ship
....
109-110
Example of Double Altitude of Sun

Example of Simultaneous Altitude of Two Staks
The Verification of Double Altitudes by Sumner Lines
113-115
Simultaneous Altitude of Two Stars
108-lOii
111-11'i
116 IIB
119-12'2
CHAPTEE XXI
LUNAR
Principle of the
How
the Problem
Method
is Worked
123-125
125-129
Skeleton Eorm
129-130
Examples
131-141
Clearing the Distance expl.uned
142-143
CHAPTEE XXII
THE EQUATION OF EQUAL ALTITUDES
Method
OF
.AN
of finding
Error of Chronometer by the Aid
Artificial Horizon
144-150
CHAPTEE :^XUI
POSITIONS OF HEAVENLY BODIES
.....,
Approximate Times of Meridian Passage of Stars

Planets
..vnd
To PUT the Approximate Meridian Altitude upon a

Sextant
To FIND THE Times at which a Body is on the Prime
Vertical at which it Rises and Sets its Altitude
AT any Time
;
VOL.
II.
151 152
153-155
156- 159
vm
CONTEXTS OF
To Calculate the True Luxar Distance at any aivKs

Geeexwich Date
To Calculate the Azimuth from the Latitude. Declination, AND Hour Angle
To FIND THE Latitude from the Altitude, Declination,
AND Hour Angle
Longitude by an Altitude near the Meridian
Latitude by Change of Altitude
.
160
161-163
163-165
165-166
160
CHAPTEE XXIV
ADDITIONAL CHART PROBLEMS
Two useful Problems
in
167-172
Coasting
CHAPTEK XXV
GREAT CIRCLE SAILING
Explanation of the Problem
Circle Course bet^-een the
173-176
Ex-ample of the Great
...........
Fastnet and Sandy Hook
Distance First Course

Vertex
Example of Great Circle Course between Cape
GUARDAFUI AND SWAN KlVER, AuSTRALLA
Composite Great Circle Sailing
Use of a Terrestri.al Globe Gr.aphic Methods Tables
;
176-182
1S2 lb7
1S7- 193
193-l'.i4
CHAPTEE XXVI
MAGNETISM AND THE CAUSES OF AND COM
PENSATION for DEVIATION
How
to Magnetise a Steel Bar
195-197
Dip
197
19'.
SUB-PERM-iNENT MAGNETISM OF A ShIP DETERMINED BY ITS

Position when building and Place where built
199--210
Induced Magnetism
210
Heeling Error
220 223
22(1
THE
SECOjS'D ^'ULU-ME
IX
I'ALiK.S
HeAD
WHEN Building and the Sub-permanent Magnetism
PiiOBLKMS RELATING TO THE POSITION OF A ShIP's
Coefficients
223-227
Problems on the Change on Heeling Ekhok on
dif-
ferent Courses
Given all the Coefficients, to find the Deviations
231-23H
FOR every Point of the Compass
To find the
227-231
from the Deviation on

CERTAIN POINTS BY SWINGING THE ShIP THE DeVIABCOPE
Compensation for Sub-peemanent Magnetism by Permanent Magnets and for Induced Magnetism by Soft
Coefficients
238-24.")
245-249
Iron
Compensation for Heeling Error
249-252
CHAPTEE XXVII
THE LAW OF STORMS
The Mercurial Barometer the Aneroid Barometer
the Thermometer; the Hygrometek
253-257
Cyclones
257-259
.........
Eight-hand and Left-hand Semicircles

and Southern Hemispheres
in
the Northern
260-263
Some Questions which may be asked about Cyclones
263-267
CHAPTEE XXVIIl
DEDUCTION OF THE FORMULAS USED IN
NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY
Formulas for solving Spherical Triangles
Longitude by Son and Chronometer
Amplitude
....
.
268-270
270-273
273-276
Altitude Azimuth
276-277
Reduction to the Meridian

Ex- Meridian of Pole Star
Latitude by Double Altitudes
27K-2H1
The Lunar Problem
281
281-282
283
CONTEXTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME

PAGES
Exercises
Extracts from the Nautical Almanac for 1898
287-357
.
Extracts from the Admiralty Tide Tables foe 1898
359-381
383-386
Tables for Determination of Latitude by the Pole
Star
387-389
PAET
continued
II
CHAPTEE
XVI
SUMNER LINES
SuMNEE
lines are so called after
United States Navy,
Captain Sumner of the
who revived and
first
brought promi-
method of finding
a ship's position at sea a service for which seamen ought
to feel much indebted to him, for the method is both
simple and sound. It is based on two facts 1st, that the
Altitude of a Heavenly Body being observed at any ordinary
elevation, that body will have the same Altitude all along
nently to the notice of the public this
the circumference of a circle of considerable size on the
Globe, upon some portion of which the observer must be

2nd, that the line of position of the ship
situated.
right angles to
the Azimuth
of
the
is at
Heavenly Body
observed.
If a
Heavenly Body, say the Sun,
Altitude of course
is
90,
is
at the Zenith, its
and accurately speaking
it
has
that Altitude only at the position of the observer, and con-
sequently
it
has no
circle of equal Altitude.
were on the Horizon, and

that Altitude,
if
its
Altitude zero,
the expression
If the
it
may be used,
would have
all
along the
circumference of a circle encircling the Globe.

cases represent the
there
is
VOL.
no
II.
two extremes.
circle of equal Altitudes,
In the
Sun
first
These
instance,
and in the second, the

B
SUMNER LINES
circle of equal Altitudes is as large as the circumference of
Between these two extremes
the Globe.
Altitudes
lie all
observed for practical purposes of navigation, and every

observed body has therefore a
size of
circle of equal Altitude.
The
the circle of equal Altitudes depends upon the
elevation of the body.
Accurately speaking, the Bearing of a Heavenly Body,

say the Sun, differs at every point of a circle of equal
Altitudes but if the Altitude of the Sun is not very near
;
90, the size of the circle is so great that the Sun's Bearing
does not alter appreciably over a segment of the circle of

say 40 or 50 miles, and this segment of the circle may,
for practical purposes, be considered a straight line.
Azimuth
of the
is
therefore at right angles to that
and the straight
straight line,
line of position
'
Sun
'
The
line,
of the ship,
is
which
is of
course the
at right angles to the
Azimuth.
Having taken the Altitude of a Heavenly Body, you

must be somewhere on the circle of equal Altitude belonging to
it.
If
you take the Altitude
of another
Heavenly
Body you must be
also on the circle of equal Altitude

and the only possible position in which
you can be situated is on one or other of the two points
appertaining to
where the
it,
circles intersect
each other.
As the
points of
some hundreds or thousands of miles

apart, there cannot be any difficulty in determining at
which point of intersection you are situated. There you
are, and all you have to do is to ascertain where on the
intersection
are
surface of the Globe that point of intersection
To
lies.
you have your Latitude by Dead

Keckoning, the Altitude of a body or bodies wherev^-ith to
find an Hour Angle or Hour Angles, and the Greenwich
find
this out
date by Chronometer.
lines.
This
is
the theory of
Sumner
SUMNER LINES
The
serve
way
following slightly different
to
of putting
show the connection between the

and the practical method
principles involved,
which
is
explained
it
may
theoretical
of
working
later.
The Greenwich date is ascertained from the ChroKnowing the Greenwich time, the Nautical
Almanac gives you the means of saying, at this moment
(i.e. the moment at which the Altitude was taken), the
Sun is exactly overhead at a place in Latitude and Longi(i)
nometer.
'
tude so and
so.'
Your sextant observation shows that the Sun's

moment was (say) 30 the Zenith Distance therefore was 60, and you must be exactly 60
away from the point found in (i)
(ii)
Altitude at that
(iii)
60 draw
You might then with

a circle
a pair of dividers opened to
on a globe with the point in
your ship would be on that
circle.
But
(i)
as centre
this graphic
method
would be very clumsy, and would necessitate doing a lot

unnecessary work, because all you want is the small arc
the circle near what you
To
Beckoning.
20'
on one
know
utilise this
side of
to be your jDOsition
point on j'our chart and call
Sumner
line
of
by Dead
knowledge assume a Latitude
your Latitude by account.
your observed Altitude work the Longitude.
the
of
Then a
it A.
is
because the fact used to find
Then with
Mark the
a point on
it
is
that
the Sun's Altitude at the given Greenwich time was 30.
Next assume a Latitude 20' on the other side of your

Dead Beckoning Latitude, work up the corresponding
Longitude, and mark the point as b on your chart. This
is another point on the same Sumner line, and your ship
is
somewhere on the line joining A b.

Hitherto I have spoken of two circles
arising
from the observation
Heavenly Bodies.
If
of
one only
of equal Altitudes,
the Altitudes of two

is
observed, a sufficient
11
SUMNER LINES
must be
interval
suffered to elapse between the observa-
tions to allow of a change of bearing sufficiently large

to ensure that the
two
a considerable angle
lines of position cut each other at
the nearer 90 the better
of a large angle is that

shall
be clean and
the object
the intersection of the lines
The
distinct.
course
made good and
the distance run by the ship between the sights must be
noted down, and the
first
Altitude
must be brought up
to
the second, or the second Altitude must be brought back

to the first.
AYhat you
do, in allowing for the
run
of the
move the whole first circle of equal Altitudes forto move the whole second circle of equal Altitudes
ship, is to
ward, or
backward, so that the
circles,
though
circles of
one body
taken after an interval, are in the same positions as
were
circles of
Sumner problem, the

on the
chart.
interval
Problem.
lines
of
You have
two a.m. or two
sight, or
they
two bodies taken simultaneously.
ordinary Sumner
The
if
In
position are plotted oat
either
an a.m. and a
p.m. sights, vdth a
between them, and
ordinary
the
3'ou
p.m.
sufficient
have your Latitude by
Use two Latitudes, one say 20' less, and the

20'
other
greater than your Dead Beckoning Latitude.
Let us assume that you have taken an a.m. and a p.m.
sight. Then with your a.m. Altitude, and the lesser LatiAccount.
tude, find the Hour Angle
tion thus found a.
and your Longitude
With
call
the posi-
the a.m. sight and the greater
Latitude find another position, which
With the
call B.
and the lesser Latitude find a third position,

which call c, and with the p.m. sight and the greater
Latitude find a fom-th position, which call d.
P.M. sight
Draw
the parallels of the lesser
Latitudes on the chart.
On
Latitude mark the Longitudes due to
and on the
parallel of
and
the greater
the parallel of the lesser

it,
namely, a and
the greater Latitude
c,
mark the
SUMNER LINES
Longitudes due to
line
it,
Draw
namely, B and D.
a straight
through a and
and
D.
b, and another straight line through

Put the distance run between sights on
your dividers.
Lay your parallel rulers on the
course
made
good on the nearest compass on the chart, and work the

rulers
on
up
to the line joining
this line set off the
parallel to
A and b
from any point
run of the ship, and draw a
A B through the extremity
of this line.
line
The
FiQ. 65
point of intersection between this last line and the line
and D
is
that remains to be done
is
drawn through
the position of the ship.

to find the Latitude
All
and Longi-
tude of that position by measuring with your dividers
from the position
of
the ship to the nearest parallel of
Latitude and nearest Meridian.

It
Eoom
may be that you
will
to give the Sun's
be required in the Examination
Azimuth and the
line of position
SUMXER LINES
at the A.M. or p.m. sight.
All
A B
the direction of the line
up
to the nearest
line
bearing of the
of
line.
compass
The angle
you have to do is
\\"ith
Sun
or
c D,
is
at
bringing
hj'
your parallel
to ascertain
it
The
rulers.
angles to the
right
the hne of position, taken from
of
90 will, with suitable change of name, give you the angle

of the
Sun's Bearing
or
you can
find
mechanically by
it
putting the end of the parallel ruler on to the line of

Fig. 65
position
angles to
the edge of the ruler will then be at right

it
work the
ruler to the nearest
and you will see the trend
The
evident.
of the
principle of this giaphic
The
lines joining
compass
method
a and b and
is
simple and
and
d,
though
straight lines on the chart, are really segments of

circles of equal Altitudes,
the straight lines
is
card,
True Azimuth.
and the point
two
of intersection of
the point of intersection of the circles
SUMNER LINES
and
of equal Altitudes,
this
as explained before, the
is,
position of the ship.
In the Board
of
Trade Examination the problem
is
presented thus, the probability being that you will be

given an a.m. and a p.m. sight.
'
Being
and uncertain
at sea
ing observations were taken,
meter
1'
again p.m. at
my position, the followTime by Chrono-
Observed Altitude Sun's L. L.

ship. Time by Chronometer ^ m
served Altitude Sun's L. L.
made good
of
a.m. at ship,
in the interval
'
"
qj^.
Course and Distance
".
'
miles (true).
Find the
position of the ship at the last observation, using Latitudes
"
'
the
and
first
'
Also the True Bearing of the
".
Sun
at
observation, and the direction of the line of posi-
tion at the second.
On
the next page
Declinations
is
the problem in skeleton form.
and Equation
Time
of
assumed
are
The
to be
corrected for the Greenwich date.
This process
four
is sure,
Hour Angles
but somewhat slow, as you have
Equally good results can
to calculate.
be obtained with
the
help
using one Latitude and two
of
Johnson's Tables, by
Hour
Angles, obtamed by
simultaneous observation of two Heavenly Bodies

is
the easiest plan
or
by two observations
which
of the
same
body, allowing a sufficient interval to elapse between the

sights to secure a sufficiently broad angle.
this latter case the first position
Of course in
must be moved bodily
in
the direction and to the extent of the run of the ship, or
the second position must be

If the
moved back.
Latitude you used is correct,
Longitudes will be the same.

not the same, the difference
certain error in Latitude,
it is
plain that both
two Longitudes are

between them indicates a
If the
and this error in Latitude involves
the application of a certain correction to each Longitude.
SUMNER LINES
U
(D
<J
CO
72
SUMNER LINES
Johnson's Tables will give you
the error of Latitude
first
indicated by the difference between the Longitudes, and
then the correction to be applied to each Longitude due to

the error of Latitude.
Sumner Problem, using Johnson's

follows
You have your D.
Tables.
Proceed as
E. Latitude, and say, for the
sake of example, an a.m. and a p.m. sight of the Sun, as

in the preceding case,
and the run
of the ship
between
sights.
Find the Longitude by your a.m. sight and D. E. LatiFind your Longitude by the p.m. sight and the D. E.
tude.
Latitude corrected for the Diff. Lat. due to the run of the
ship.
Correct the
first
Longitude found
to the run of the ship.
for Diff.
Long, due
two Longitudes are the

correct, and you have the
If the
same, the Latitude used
is
precise position of the ship.
If the
Longitudes are not
must be made so.

Find the Sun's Azimuth at each observation from Burdwood's or Davis' Tables.
Find the difference between
the two Longitudes.
Enter Johnson's Tables with the
identical they
Latitude used at the second sight (that
is
the D.
E.
Latitude corrected for the run of the ship), at the top
and the Azimuth
at
each observation at the side
Diff.
Long, due
an error
to
numbers together
if
of 1' in Latitude.
combined error in
Add
the
the Altitudes are in adjacent quad-
rants, but take their difference
opposite quadrants.
take
These numbers are the
out the corresponding numbers.
This
Diff.
sum
if
they are in the same or
or difference represents the
Long, due to
error in Latitude,
and now we have a simple sum in proportion.
As the combined
is
to
1'
error in Diff.
Long,
of Latitude, so is the difference
for
1'
between the two
Longitudes to the correction for Latitude.

necessary to multiply by one,
all
of Latitude
As
it is
you have to do
un-
is
to
10
SUMNER LIXES
divide the difference
between jour two Longitudes by the
sum
or difference of the
above
the
result
two numbers found,

the
is
error
as explained
Then
Latitude.
in
multiply the error of Latitude by the number taken out
Longitude
for
the result
applied to Longitude A.
the correction to be
is
Multiply the error of Latitude
by the number taken out for Longitude B, and you

have the correction to be apphed to Longitude B. You
have all the corrections, now to learn how to apply
them.
On any
bit of
paper draw a horizontal line to represent
Dead Beckoning Latitude you

upon it to represent your two
Longitudes in their proper positions East and West of
each other.
Through these dots draw lines roughly
indicating the Sun's Bearing, and at right angles to these
draw the lines of position. The point of intersection of
the parallel of the erroneous
Make two
have used.
the lines of position

a glance will
is
dots
the true position of the ship, and
show you whether the Latitude you used was
too
much
also
whether the correction
to the North, or too
much
for each
applied to the East or to the AVest.
to the South, and
Longitude
to be
is
The Dead Beckoning
Latitude, corrected for the error, will give you your correct
Latitude, and the result
will
of correcting
each Longitude
be to make them coincide and give you your correct
Longitude.
Let XY represent your erroneous parallel of Latitude.

Let A and b be the two Longitudes obtained by using the
erroneous Latitude. Assuming both to be in West Longitude, A will be West of b.
Let A be the position by the
A.M. sight,
EAF
is
the
and let the
line
A c be the Sun's Bearing then

Let b be the Longitude
;
first line of position.
obtained by your second sight,
Bearing at that time. Then the
and b d be the Sun's

e b g, passing through
line
SUMNER LINES
11
B at right angles to the Sun's Bearing, will be the second
They
line of position.
intersect at b,
the position of the ship.
Obviously e
and e
is
therefore
is
North
to the
of
the erroneous Latitude, and Latitude must be corrected
towards the North.
and
to the
West
Obviously also e
of B,
is
to the
and the correction
must be deducted from a and added
for
East
A
Longitude
of
to B.
Fig. 66
The
test of
accuracy in these Sumner lines
that the
is
two Longitudes are brought together by the corrections

due to the ascertained error in Latitude.
to
coincide, the
problem
is
worked
Tf
they are
have got your correct position if but a big

involved in the supposition
either in your
or in the run of
the
Sumner
lines
point of
wich date
wrong.
If
is
there
Greenwich date
ship.
is
'
if
made
and you
all right,
'
may
be
no appreciable error
or in your observations,
And
herein
and their danger.
lies
If
the
weak
your Green-
erroneous, of course your Longitudes are
by observational error your Hour Angles are
SUMNER LIXES
V2
erroneous,
your position
be wrong; and
will
your
if
Dead Reckoning between
sights is
erroneous,
it
will
cause corresponding error.
Yet in
these cases
it
may
be possible, and in fact generally
all
is possible, to
bring your
Longitudes together and make them coincide, by allowing

for an error in Latitude which does not really exist. You
may
thus get a position which you believe to be correct
because your Longitudes are

is
made
to coincide, but
entirely false because the coincidence is
In the event
a non-existent error in Latitude.
being a
your
little
of
your
doubtful about your Chronometer, or about
about jowc Dead Reckoning, do not force
sights, or
upon a position found by
yourself into complete reliance
Sumner
which
made by using
lines
merely because you managed to bring your
Longitudes together.
But, all the same, Sumner lines are very useful.
Assuming that your Greenwich date and run of the ship
are correct, and that your observations are taken under
favourable circumstances, your position can be determined

vsdth almost absolute accuracy
and
if
you can only get
somewhat unusual time you can at any rate

approximately, and find out in
what direction you are approaching the land.
For
instance, suppose you are entering the Channel from
the Westward, it may be thick in the morning, but about
10 A.M. you get a shot at the Sun and an Altitude with
that and your D.E. Latitude a line of position can be
laid down on the chart, which will show you what land
you are approaching if you steer along the line of position,
and you can set your course accordingly. If this process
a sight at a
discover your position
is
repeated, as
it
frequently
the run of the ship
is
spite of such usually
currents, to see
may be,
at short intervals,
accurately noted,
unknown
it is
quantities
where you are going
to.
and
very easy, in
as tides
and
Or it may happen
SUMNER LINES
to
you
hove to for a long
to be
Westward
Channel
the
of
a line of position
have made
3'ou
may
Longships,
a glimpse of the
spell,
which
sufficient
Sun
13
say
fifty
miles to the
bound up the English
you
any rate show whether
allowance for drift and tide, and
or of a Star will give
will at
prevent you from finding yourself in the Bristol
Channel instead
of the
English Channel when you make
sail.
Sumner lines may be usefully employed when in

sight of known land, in which case the position may be
ascertained by the intersection of the line of bearing of
the land and a

fact
Sumner
line projected
on the chart.
you get cross-bearing of the land and
of the
In
Heavenly
Body.
Of
circumstances under which a ship's position can
all
be defined by Sumner's method, the best
two Stars situated
Altitudes of
90 as possible.
that
is
If the
generally
ship
fix
if it is
by simultaneous
atmospheric conditions are good,
speaking
at
twihght, and your Chronometer

be able to
is
an angle of as nearly
at
evening and
is
reliable,
morning
you ought
to
your position to within the length of your

a long one.
Such a problem will probably be given in the Board

of Trade Examination for Extra Master. You can plot it
on the chart, or use Johnson's Tables, as you please.
There is no difficulty in the working, except, perhaps, in
If the Latitude and Declinafinding the star's Azimuth.
tion permit, it is best to use Burdwood's or Davis' Tables,
remembering, as has already been explained, that the
star's
Westerly Hour Angle corresponds to p.m. time.
If
Burdwood's or Davis' Tables are inapphcable on account

of the high Declination of the star, Towson's or Johnson's
must be used, or you must
way
hereafter explained.
calculate the
Azimuths
in the
SUMNER LINES
14
The
following diagram explains the construction
Johnson's Tables
of
OD
Let A B be a Parallel
of Latitude
and x
s a
Meridian.
Let o II be equal to 1 of Latitude. Draw x M w parallel to

Let o c and o d be
\"B and L T and q r parallel to x s.
the Sun's True Bearings at different times. Then E F and
'
HK
will
If
be the respective lines of position.
the observer
Latitude
L,
is 1'
too
is
on the
much
and the en-or of departure
the line of position
line of position
to the Southward, he
is
h k under
correct position will be at p,
o T or
ii
L.
f,
and the
must be
at
he
on
Also
if
is
similar circumstances, his
and his error
of departure is
SUMNER LINES
MP
OB.
or
15
Mr. Johnson, to save trouble, turns the
departure into Diff. Longs, due to the respective Latitudes,
and so constructs his
Here
is
table.
an example
of a
Sumner problem
on a chart as required in the Board

for First
of
to be plotted
Trade Examination
Mate.
1898, April 19th, a.m. at ship, being uncertain of

position
when M.
T. G.
19th 8 h. 48 m. 27
I.E.-l'
ship
when M.
Dip as
Eye 26
feet
T. G. by Chronometer
s.,
the Obs. Alt
at a.m. sight
70
by Chronometer was on the
the Obs. Alt.
20", Height of
13 h. 23 m. 49
was
s.,
(true)
my
was 47
was 34
57' 0",
and again
p.m. at
was on the 19th

13' 40",
I.
E. and
the run of the ship in the interval
35 miles.
Eequired the position of
the ship at the time of the 2nd
observation, and the
True Bearing of the Sun at the time of the 1st observation by Sumner's method, using Lats. 50 20' and
50 40' N.
You have
first
to find the correct P. D.
and E. T.
your A.M. and p.m. Sights.

Dec.
51-7'
E. oi T.
M. T. G. 19th
8''
48-" 27
for
t- CO
(N CD
t-
O
00 OD
O
o
Oi
i-{
GQO
rH
CQ "* W3
O O O
CO
W5 tC<|
t-O
-<:}<
-^
to
-^Q
m
ô
00
o
E^ rH
CO zo
c:i
i-l
Cdo
CQ
SUMNER LINES
The
17
A and B, c and d are laid off on

the chart, and a Hne ruled between A and B and another
between c and d these are lines of position. The line
A B must next be advanced to E F for the run of the ship
in the interval between the observations.
The point of
intersection of b F and c d at o is the true position of the
ship at the time of the 2nd observation, and by measurepositions
ment on the chart
it is
in 50 37' 30"
and 179
20'
E.
Fig. 68
J/N
JO-H
//jCIV
The True Bearing

.observation
tion
the
A B,
on a
of the
Sun
at the time of the 1st
line at right angles to the line of posi-
in this case
it
is
the line
to make an
The True Bearing is
protractor
Meridian.
is
is
h s, which
other side of the line of position, as the time

will
found by
therefore S 62^ E.
obvious that the Sun's Bearing could not
moment's consideration
is
angle of 62^ with the
lie
is
a.m.
II.
always prevent any mistake
in this regard.
VOL.
It
on the
SUMNER LINES
18
To sum up the result of our work

(1) The True Bearing of the Sun
:
1st observation is
(2)
at the
time of the
S 67^ E.
The true position
of the ship is Lat. 50 37' 30"
N,
Long. 179 20' 0" E.
same observations vforked on one parallel

This is commonly called the Double
Chronometer problem. It can be drawn on a chart or
calculated by the help of Johnson's Tables.
Here
are the
instead of on two.
2nd Observation
1st Observation
Tr.Alt. 35 5' 22"

50 20' 0"
Lat.
78 35' 41"
P. D.
Sec
Cosec
Sum 164
Sum 82
1'
Cos
Kemdr 46
55'
194961
008662
Tr.Alt. 47 22' 30"

50 32' 0"
.
Lat.
78 31' 43"
P. D.
9148091
Sin .9-863556
9'
Log. A. T.
S.
176 26' 13"
Sum
3"
0' 31'
196796
Sec
Cosec 008763
iSum
88 13'
Eemdr. 40
50'
= 9-210270
6"
36"
Cos
Sin
8-492634
9-815573
Log. A. T.S. = 8-513766
A. T. S. 18th 20" 49" 57'

-1 2-6
E. T.
.
A. T. S. 19th
E. T.
M. T. S. 18th 20 48
M. T. G. 19th 8 48
27
M. T. S. 19th 1 22 11
M. T. G. 19th 13 ^3_^49
Long, in T.
32-6
11
54-4
59
Longitude 179 53' 9"
Long, in T.
1^
E
.
Now by
the 1st Observation the

position of the ship is in Lat.
50 20' N and Long. 179 53' 9" W.
The ship then runs N 70
35'.
So we proceed
Lat. left
Eun
Lat. in
Then with
12'
50 32'
N
N
N
Lat. 50 32' the 2nd
Observation
Eun
50 20'
Dife. Lat.
is to
be worked.
W
W
39" W
Long, left 179 53' 9"

Diff. Long.
51' 30"
180 44'
Long, in
179 15' 21"
23"
_^l_
12
24
16''
38
11 58
22
W
E
So that the position at the

time of the 2nd Observation is Lat.
50 32' N and Long. 179 35' 30" E.
But the position at the same
moment by the 1st Observation
corrected for run is Lat. 50 32' N
and Long. 179 15' 21" E.
SUMNER LINES
19
As the Longitudes do not coincide

the Latitude used
must be taken out

of the ship
of
found by the use
1st
Observation
2nd
Azimuth
S 62 E
S 31
of
Longitudes
179 15' 21"
179 35' 30"
20'
Long.
1st Observation
179 15' 21"
5-85' X -83
True Long. 179
obvious that
therefore the
Johnson's Tables, as in
the previous example, or by graphic

Tr.
is
it
Azimuths
Burdwood, and the true position
erroneous
is
4'
51"
20'
12"
9"
method on the
Johnson's
Table
E
E
-=-
-83
chart.
Lat. used
Lat. 50 32' 0"
3-45
5'
51"
Lat. in 50 37'
51"
Corr.
2nd Observation
E
E
E
2-62
5-85 X 2-62
179 35' 30"

15' 18"
179 20' 12"
Fig. 69
2.
N
N
20
CHAPTEE XVII
{It is
not necessary
to
study this Chapter in order
learn hoiv to loork the remaining problems;
to
hut some
knowledge of Spherical Trigonometry is required of a

candidate for an Extra Master's Certificate, and is
desirable in
any
case.)
As Plane Trigonometry
triangles
drawn on
deals
with
the
solution
of
a plane surface, so Spherical Trigo-
nometry
deals
with the solution

of triangles drawn
on a sphere whose
sides are arcs of
great circles.
I will first of
all
endeavour
to
what
explain
spherical triangle
is,
and
how
its
angles and sides

are measured.
will
then proceed
to
show
how
Napier's Circular
Parts
of right-angled spherical triangles,
are
used
the
solution
and then I
will write
in
down
21
the formulas for the sokition of the ordinary spheri-
cal triangles
used in Navigation and Nautical Astronomy,
and show their practical working.
Let A B c be a spherical triangle drawn on the surface

sphere whose centre is o.
The side or arc A B is
measured by and is equal to the angle at the centre A o B
of a
A c equals the angle A c and the sides c equals

The angle a is the angle between the
the angle BOG.
tangents a d and a e drawn to the arcs a b and a c at the
point A, namely, the angle d a E
similarly, the angle B is
K B H, and the angle c is G c f.
the side
Right-Angled Spherical Tpigonometry
right-angled spherical triangle has one of
The most simple method
a right angle.
a triangle
which I
by the use
is
its
angles
of solving such
Napier's five Circular Parts,
of.
will proceed to describe.
(The Solution
angled Triangles by Napier's Circular Parts
is
of
Eight-
required in
the Board of Trade Examination for Extra Master
ABC
Let
be a right-angled spherical triangle, the
angle c being the right angle.

right-angled
spherical
In
this
and
tri-
in
any other
angle, the five Circular Parts
consist
two
the
of
including
the
right
sides
angle,
the complements of the two

angles
other than the right
angle,
and the complement
of
the side opposite to the
right
angle.
Therefore,
in
this triangle the five Circular
Parts
are
a;
90
90 -c;
90-B.
To solve any right-angled spherical triangle you have
only to remember two formulas, namely
:
22
Sine Middle Part
1.
= Product
of the Cosines of the
Opposite parts.
Sine Middle Part=Product of the Tangents of the
2.
Adjacent parts.
To
assist the
memory,
would point out that
first
in the
formula, Cosine and op-
Fig. 71
posite have the letter
each
and
'
'
in
Tan-
in the second
gent and adjacent have the

letter
'
'
in each.
Until you become familiar
with
the
use
Circular Parts,
when
72.
71, to
fig.
Eemember
Circular Parts in
their
segments into which the
No. 71 the right angle

to be entered in
fig.
is
proper
circle
c,
is
tri-
instance the
draw a
that the right
never forms one of the Circular Parts.
angle
the
fig.
advisable,
spherical
say for
triangle in
diagram similar to
it is
Napier's
desirous of solving a
right-angled
angle,
of
order
divided.
in
Place
the
five
In diagram
the two sides a and h are
72 in the adjoining compartments,
and the remaining Circular Parts, the complements

other parts of the triangle in diagram No. 71, are
of the
to be
entered in the same order in which they stand in that

triangle.
What
are
meant
opposite parts ?
bj'
middle parts, adjacent parts, and
Any one
of the five parts maj^ be called
the middle part.

(a)
Suppose a to be the middle
90
are its adjacent parts,
its
opposite parts.
given,
namely
part, then h and

and 90 A and 90 c are
Therefore by the formula already
(1)
the opposite parts and

of the
Sine Middle Part
Tangents
23
Product of the
Cosines of
Sine Middle Part
(2)
Product
of the adjacent parts

Fig. 72
or
or
(6)
90 B
Sin a
Cos (90 -a) x Cos
Sin a
Sin A x Sin
Sin a
Tan
Sin a
= Tan
x Cot b
Tan
are the opposite parts,
-c)
(90
Suppose b to be the middle
adjacent parts, and by the
(90
-b)
part,
then 90 c and
and 90 a and a
be repeated
(1)
or
Sin b
Cos
Sin b
Sin
or
Sin
-c) x Cos
(90
x Sin b
= Tan (90 -a) x

b = Cot A x Tan a
Sin b
(2)
(90
c
are the
same formula, which need not
Tan a
-b)
24
(c)
Suppose 90 -A
to
be the middle part, then 90 -
and a are the opposite parts and 90 c and

adjacent parts, and you have
= Cos
Cos A = Sin
Sin (90 -A)
(1)
or
=
A=
Cos
or
(d)
Cot
-b) x Cos a
b x Cos a
Tan
Sin (90 -A)
(2)
(90
h are the
x Tan
(90 -c)
c
X Tan
Suppose 90 c to be the middle
are the opposite parts,
part, then a and h

and 90 A and 90 b are the
Sin (90 -c)
(1)
Cos
or
=
c =
Sin (90 -c)
(2)
Cos
or
(e)
90
= Cos
a x Cos
Cos a x Cos
Tan
(90
-A) x Tan
(90 -b)
Cot A X Cot b
Suppose 90 b to be the middle
part,
A are the opposite parts, and a and 90
then
and
are the
Sin (90 -B)
(1)
Cos B
or
Sin (90 -B)
(2)
or
With
Cos B
= Cos
6 x
Cos
= Tan a
= Tan a
Cos
(90 -a)
x Sin A
x Tan
x Cot
(90
-c)
the above formulas any right-angled spherical
triangle can be solved, provided that
two
of its circular
parts are known.

If B had been the right angle, a and c would have to
be placed next to one another, and then the complements
SPHERICAL TRIGONOaiETRY
of the other parts,
So
also, if
and c, in their proper

one another and to a and c.
namely,
positions with regard to
25
A,
b,
A had been the right
and
angle, b
must be
placed next to one another and the complements of B, a,
and
c,
in their proper respective positions.
And now
for the practical working.

Fig. 74
Fig. 73
In the triangle in figure 73

and
and a two known
let
c be the right angle,
parts.
To find B
Look
at
diagram No. 74 given above.
circular parts are 90
90
is
adjacent parts.
a.
Therefore by
With respect
Log.
and so you find
B.
to these two,
and a are
(2),
= Tan a x Tan (90 -c)

Cos B = Tan a x Cot c
Cos B = Log. Tan a + Log. Cot c
Sin (90 -B)
or
and
the middle part, to which 90
The known
26
To find
You know only one of the adjacent parts to b, namely

know the two opposite parts, namely, 90 b
a; but you
and 90 -c.
Therefore by
Sin b
Cos
(1),
(90 -c) x
Cos (90 -b)
= Sin c x Sin B
b = Log. Sin c + Log.
Sin b
or
Log. Sin
and so
b is found.
To find
the
Sin b
remaining part a
You know the adjacent parts 90 c and b and you

also know the opposite parts, a and 90 B you can there;
fore use either formula
By
=
A =
Sin (90 -a)
(1)
Cos
Log. Cos A
or
or by
Cos a x Cos (90 -b)
Cos a X Sin B
= Log.
Cos a x Log. Sin b
= Tan b x Tan (90 -c)

Cos A = Tan b x Cot c
Cos A = Log. Tan b + Log. Cot c
Sin (90 -A)
(2)
or
Log.
and the triangle
is
solved.
In the same triangle suppose you were given

to find b.
parts of
and
a,
Well, here you are dealing with three circular
which the middle part
Log.
Therefore, by
is a.
Sin a
Tan
Sin
=
a =
Tan
x Cot B
Sin a
/-I
or
Tan
(90
-b)
^*^=T^6
Cot B = Log. Sin a Log.
Tan
(2),
SPHEKICAL TRIGONOMETRY
27
Take another case. Suppose you were given a and a

Here of the three parts with which you are
c.
deahng90 A and 90 c are opposite to a, which is therefore the middle part, and by (2) you have
to find
or
Sin a
Cos
Sin a
Sin A x Sin
o-
Sm
Log. Sin
(90 -a) x
Cos (90 -c)
Sin a
^p-.
Sm
= Log.
Sin a
Log. Sin A
Fig. 74
Fig. 73
I do not think
explanation
You
it
is
necessary to go into any more
on the subject
of Napier's
will experience little difficulty
correctly in the
care.
circle,
Remember
and
this
if
Circular Parts.
you place the parts
only requires a
that the right angle
is
little
ignored, that
the sides containing the right angle must occupy adjacent segments in the circle, and that the complements
of the
two angles and remaining
side
occupy the other
segments in their proper respective positions

is
easy.
the rest
28
Here
are
In the
90,
some examples
right-angled spherical
78 28', and a
triangle
57 48'
Parts.
Fig. 75
To find
Sin (90
.
.
a)
= Tan
6 X
Tan
Cos A = Tan b x Cot
Cos
- A
Cot
(90
c)
Tan 6
=
=
57 48'
78 28'
Log. Cos
Log. Tan
9-726626
10-690246
83 47' 39"
Log. Cot
9-036380
9-035969
AB
c,
given
find the other
Yoli could also have found
= Taa
= Tan
Sin a
Sin a
Tan
b x
a by the formula
-
(90
6 x Cot e
78 28' 0" Log.
15'
34"
Log. Cot
9-2.34673
a = 57
16'
15"
Log. Sin
9-924919
In the last example

than 90, but you
all
thus
Tan 10-690246
the angles
may have
(2),
b)
=
= 80
29
we dealt with were less
angles between 90 and 180.
In these cases you must pay careful attention to the signs

the Trigonometrical Eatios as explained in Chapter VI.
of
It is
shown there that
the Trigonometrical Eatios of
all
angles less than 90 are
the Sines and Cosecants of
angles between 90 and 180 are
the Cosines, Tangents,
Cotangents, and Secants of angles between 90 and 180
are
You know
that by Algebra
(1)
the product of two
positive or plus quantities is a positive or plus quantity

(2)
is
that the product of
two negative
a positive or plus quantity
positive or plus quantity

is
a negative or
(3)
or
minus quantities
that the product of a
and a negative or minus quantity
minus quantity.
Log. takes no account of signs.
Log. (6) is the

and therefore the Log. of the ratio of
any angle is the same as the Log. of the same ratio of
the supplement of that angle.
As an example
same
as
Log. (+
6),
Log. Sin
A=Log.
Log.
appear thus:
Log. Sin 150.

both
tell
+ and
,
which
it
Sin (180 a).

Sin
The Sine
is
30
= Log.
of 30
In figures
Sin (180
and the Sine
it
might
30)
of 150 are
impossible, therefore, from the Sine to
two angles you have.
It is
an ambiguous
in the case of the Cosines, although
Log. Cos 30
of the
case.
But
= Log.
30
is
Cos (180 -30)= Log. Cos

+, but the Cosine of 150 is
150, the Cosine of
and
if
from the
30
problem we know that ihe Cosine
we have
the Log.
be 30, and
it
must
is
of the angle of
quantity,
be 150,
it
is
clear
and no ambiguity
it
which
cannot
exists.
Fig. 76
Fig. 77
Perhaps an example or two

matter more
will serve to
make
the
clear.
Suppose in the right-angled spherical triangle A B c,

on figure 77, a = 90, b = 130 19', and c = 81 22'.
Pind the other parts, namely, b, c and a.
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETKY
81
To find b
.'.
= Tan
= Tan
Sin c
Sin c
..Tan6 =
c
Tan (90
x Cot b
6 x
ft
Cot B
81 22' 0"
130 19' 0"
ft
b)
Sin
Cot
is
Tan
is
is
Now
plus divided by minus equals minus, therefore the Tangent of 6 is

a minus quantity, and the angle obtained from Table XXV. must be sub-
Now
tracted from 180.

c
=
=
work
to
it
out.
81 22' 0"
130 19' 0"
Log. Sin
Log. Cot
49 21' 39"
Log.
9'995051
9-928684
Tan 10-066367
10066328
49 21' 39"
180 0' 0"
= 130
Sin (90
c)
^9
21"
38'
To find
= Cos c
+
Cos (90
b)
Cos c = Cos c X Sin b
The Cos
work
c is
+ the Sin b
,
is
therefore c
is leas
than
Now
90.
to
it.
0"
0"
Log. Cos
Log. Sin
83 25' 40"
Log. Cos
81 22'
130 19'
9176411
9-882229
9-058640
9-058820
180
To find a
Sin (90
- b) = Tan. c x Tan (90

Cos B = Tan. c x Cot. a
= Cos B
nt
Cot a
.
The Cos B is and

than 90. Now to work
,
Tan
a)
Tanc
c is
therefore Cot a
is
- and a
,
is
greater
it,
B = 130
c
19'
81 22'
0"
0"
84 23' 22"
180 0' 0"
Log. Cos 9-810912

Log. Tan 10-818640
Log. Cot
95 36' 38"
In this case no ambiguity
8-992272
8-992101
171
arises,
angled spherical triangle, the parts
but when, in a right-
known
are an angle
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETKY
32
and the
side opposite to that angle, there are always
two
solutions.
Let A B c be a right-angled triangle, the angle a being

The angle c and the side c are the known
angle and side, a and 6 are arcs of Great Circles which, if
the right angle.
way
The
common to
extended, meet again at the point D, just in the same

that Meridians on the Earth meet at either Pole.
angles at c and
are equal,
and the
side
AB
is
both the right-angled triangles cab and dab. The angles

c B A and D B A are supplementary. Therefore, if you only
know
the angle
cannot
tell
which
c,
which
to
is
triangle they belong,
The
solve both triangles.
equal to D, and the side
arc c
To
exemplify
this,
a c = 180 D
= 90
81 22' 0".
Circular
Then by Napier's
Parts
Cos
+ =
_
+
i,
Cos c
+
= 83 25' 40" Log. Cos 9-0S8637
= 81 22' 0" Log. Cos 9-176411
.
Sm
B =
49 40' 59"
B
and you must
suppose that in the
example we had been given A

and
side
Log. Sin
you
180, therefore the
is
Similarly the
D B = 180 - c B
- a b D.
180
=
c
and the angle A B
side
c,
9-882226
49 40' 59" or 130 19' 1"
a,
preceding
83 25' 40"

SPPIERICAL TRIGONOMETRY
That
AB
is
to say, the angle at
may
49 40' 59" or the angle a b d
Again
38
be either the angle
130 19' 1".
SPHERICAL TEIGONOMETRY
34
Quadrantal Spherical Triang-les
quadrantal spherical triangle has one of
its sides
quadrant, or 90.
Let A B c be a quadrantal spherical triangle of which

It is solved by the use of Napier's
is the quadrant.
Circular Parts,
Fig. 79
which are the
angles adjoining the quadrant
and the complements

other parts. In this
of the
case, c
being the quadrant, the Circular Parts are b, a, 90
90 c, and
triangle
way as
is
90 a, and
the
solved in the same
a right-angled spheri-
cal triangle, except that
two
b,
sides or
when
two angles come
together on one side of the

original equation,
quantities.
You
spherical triangle
a minus
sign
is
placed before those
are not required to solve a quadrantal
by the Board
of
Trade Examiners to
obtain an Extra Master's Certificate.
would
when
like to
c is
know how to do it,
But
I subjoin
all
the quadrant
= Sin a x Sin c.
= Sin b x Sin c.
Sin A = Tan B x Cot b
Sin B = Tan c x Cot c
Cos a = Sin b x Cos a.
Cos 6 = Sin a x Cos B.
Cos c = Cos A X CosB.
Cos a = Tan b x Cot c.
Cos 6 = Tan a x Cot c.
Cos c = Cot a X Cot b.
Sin A
Sin B
in case you
the formulas
The only problem
am
'
aware,
is
in
3o
Navigation which, so far as I
solved by Quadrantal Trigonometry
is
an
In that case you have the Polar Distance,
Amplitude.'
the Colatitude, and the Zenith Distance, which, as the
Body is on the Horizon, is of course

The next subject to tackle is the
triangles other
90.
solution of spherical
than right-angJed or quadrantal.
Spherical Triangles other than Right-angled
or Quadrantal
Let
a, h, c
the angles.
For
To find any angle, three sides being known.

be the sides of the triangle and
A, B, c
shortness and convenience say that
words
equals half the
sum
'
or in
of the sides.
Fig. 80
The formula
recommend
is-
A
Cos^=^.S^'^'^^î'^("-)
2
Eemember
therefore
Log. Cos
that
Sin h X Sin
= Cosec
_,^
Sm
h,
-,
and
~.
bm
Cosec
by Logs
{Log. Sin
+ Log. Sin
(s
a) + Log.
Cosec h + Log. Cosec c}
or in words, the Log. Cos of half the required angle
is
SPHERICAL TPJGONOIVIETRY
36
sum
equal to half the
Log. Sin of half the

half the
sum
quired angle,
of the following Logs.,
namely, the
sum
Log. Sin
of the sides, the
of
of the sides less the side opposite the re-
and the Log.
Cosecs of
the two sides
adjacent to the requu-ed angle.
Here
is
an example
In the spherical triangle

110 18' 40", and
ab c,
49= 24' 50"
a
;
To find X
f ^,5
"
h
c
=
=
=
110^
4!l
78 =
'-
/ Sin s X (Sin s a)
Sin 6 X Sin c
'V
required the three
angles.
-''
78" 29' 20"
SPIiERlCAL TRIGONOMETRY
To find
/Sin
Cos-
V
a =
78 29' 20"
= 110
18'
40"
49 24' 50"
s X
Sin
{s
Sin a x Sin b
c)
37
SPHERICAL TRICiONOMETRY
38
Or taking Logs,
Hav 0=Log.
(a)
Log.
(b)
Vers a
Here
is
of (a).
= Vers
(6
+ Log.
Sin b
c)
an example or two
Vers
Sin
+ Log. Hav a.
In the spherical triangle a b c, a = 53

110 18' 40", and c = 49 24' 50"
find a.
(1)
0.
19'
28"
Hav
= 110
= 49
A = 53
6
18'
24'
40"
50"
28"
19'
fl
Vers a
t
Log. Sin 9-972120

Log. Sin 9-880487
Log. Hav 9-303970
Log.
Hav
9-156577
44 30' 20"
= Vers
60 53' 50"
Hav
Sin 6 x Sin c x
[b
Vers
c)
+ Vers
513410
212
286750
20"
68
parts for 50"

9
44 80' 20"
Vers
parts for
Vers
800440
a = 78 29' 20"
(2)
In the spherical triangle a b
78 29' 20",
Hav
a =
c
B =
49 24' 50"
a-c
29
4'
Log.
Hav
= 102
= Vers
30"
Hav b
Log. Sin 9-991176

Log. Sin 9-880487
Log. Hav 9-914060
e
Vers b
B
h.
Sin a x Sin c x
78 29' 20"
49 24' 50"
129 51' 40"
c,
find
(a
9-785723
46' 26"
c)
+ Vers
125945
71
Vers
1220981
parts for 26"
123
Vers
parts for 30"
102 46' 26"
Vers
6
b
= 110
18'
40"
1347120
129 51' 40"
In the spherical triangle A b c, c = 38
78 29' 20"
b = 110 18' 40"
find c.
;
= Sin a
78 29' 20"
= 110
18'
38 25'
40"
58"
Vers
-a=
x Sin b x
Hav
= 36
8-998049
Vers
{b
a)
+ Vers
47'
3"
Vers
Vers
c
c
solution
is
150261
51
199094
parts for 3"
The above
36 47' 03"
parts for 20"

e
58"
9-991176
9-972120
9-034753
= Vers
31 49' 20"
Hav
Log. Sin
Log. Sin
Log. Hav
Log.
25'
Hav
a =
39
349415
49 24' 51"
used in the Lunar Problem, in
the Double Altitude Problem, and in Great Circle Sailing.

Fig. 80
If,
of
unfortunately for yourself, you
have no Table
Natural Versines, you will have to use the following
modification of the Versine formula
when
finding the
third side.
(1)
(2)
Hav e = Hav (180 - A) x

Hav a = Sin i (5 + c + ^)
Sin 6 x Sin
x Sin i (5 4
c.
6).
SPHERICAL TRIGO>'OMETEY
40
Taking the same data as in the

find a.
A
6
c
=
=
=
53 19' -28"
110 18' 40"
49 24' 50"
last
example, to
ence of b and
c,
you
will get the value of
following algebraical formula
Here
is
(6
c)
+ i
(6
c)
an example
78 29' 20"
= 129 51' 40"
38 27' 58"
c =
a
B
and i
(6
i (6
c)
c)
41
and
by the
42
CHAPTEE
XVIII
STELLAR NAVIGATION
{Tills
Chapter should he read by candidates for Extra
Master's Certificate.)
The
stars
many
have
advantages over the Snn for navi-
There
gational purposes.
is
but one Sun, and he
on
is
the Meridian only once a day, and on or near the Prime

Vertical
that
only twice a day

is
to say, quite or nearly
is
East or West
moreover, in our Northern Latitudes, he
never very nearly East or
West during the winter
but
there are about a dozen bright stars available for navigational purposes,
stars
and
in all Latitudes
and
vations of the
Sun cannot be checked by comparison, but
one star will serve to check another.
East and the other West,
two
at all seasons
can be found well situated for observation. Observa-
for
Two
stars,
one
Time and Longitude,
or
stars at about right angles to each other, for posi-
tion, will give
most
satisfactory results.
On
the other
hand, the stars are subject to this disadvantage, that

a practical difficulty exists, especially in our hazy, cloudy
Latitudes,
in getting
a Horizon
sufficiently clear
and
The
best
defined to render accurate contact possible.
time for
taking
stars
is
during morning
or evening
twilight, the former for choice.

It rarely
happens that atmospheric conditions permit
of the use of the inverting telescope in taking Altitudes of
STELLA U NAVIGATION
43
the stars at sea, and small binoculars fitted to the sextant,

or the ordinary telescope of low power, are generally to
With
be preferred.
a badly defined
Horizon
it is
better to
dispense with telescopes and tubes altogether, and the
good results thus obtained, after plenty of practice, will
Eemember
probably astonish you.
that in such a case
you are more likely to make the Altitude too small than
too large.
Owing
enormous distance
to the
of the fixed
stars
from the Earth, they have no Semi-Diameter or Parallax
From
seen from the Earth.
as
fixed star is
our Globe the nearest
but a point of light without any breadth, and
the Globe would be invisible from
it
The only
most powerful telescopes.
even through our

corrections,
there-
fore, to
be ma.de to the Observed Altitude are for Sextant
Errors,
if
Some
there are any, and for
Dip and Refraction.
planets have sensible diameters as viewed from
the Earth, and the
Earth has sensible diameter as viewed
from some of the planets
therefore in
astronomical
problems corrections for both Semi-Diameter and Parallax
would have to be made.

small to be
is
But the Semi-Diameter
is
too
distinguished with a sextant, and Parallax
not large enough to be worth considering in nautical
astronomy.
Hence
the
in
case
of
planets
also,
the
only corrections are for Sextant Errors, Dip, and Refraction.
You
will
remember
the Sun's lower limb,
that in the case of an Altitude of
the corrections, except for Index
all
Error, may, in practice, be taken out at once, from Table
IX.
and planets Table XV. gives

but whereas in the former case
so in the case of stars
one inclusive correction

the correction
is
additive, in the latter
it is
subtractive.
In the Board of Trade Examination, however, the corrections
must be made
separately.
STELLAR NAVIGATION
44
In most
stellar
problems Sidereal Time and Eight
Ascension are involved, and a fuller explanation of those
terms than has hitherto been given

think you had better
rea.l
is
necessary.
and understand the next few
pages before tackling the various problems, formulas, and
examples
but
and formulas
if
you prefer to take the actual problems

turn to page 57 and do so, and when
first,
you have mastered them, read the following explanation.
Apparent Time and Mean Time.

to explain the difference
the
Mean
be accurate,
or, to
Time
is
Angle
Time and Mean
it
actual Sun, and
appears to move, at
round the Earth along the
of speed
It is advisable first
Sun, and between Apparent
The Apparent Sun is the
Time.
between the Apparent Sun and
at the Celestial
through the centre
moves,
Apparent
Ecliptic.
that
Hour Angle
the Westerly
it
an irregular rate
is
the Westerly
Pole between the Meridian passing
of
the actual Sun and the Meridian
of the Observer.
The
would cause inexSun were used in calculating problems, unless Chronometers could be made to
match. Eor this and other reasons an imaginary Sun
moving at a uniform rate of speed along the Equinoctial
has been invented. This is the Mean Sun. Mean Time
is the Westerly Hour Angle, that is the Westerly Angle
irregularity in rate of speed
tricable confusion
at the Pole
centre
of
if
the actual
between the Meridian passing through the
the
Mean
Sun, and
the
Meridian
of
the
Observer.
In determining Longitude where you have to take the

difference
between Time
Mean Time
is
at Ship
and Time
at
Greenwich
used because your Chronometer gives you
Greenwich Mean Time.
It
is,
of
course, the
Apparent
Sun that you observe, and it is Apparent Time that you

obtain from your observation, but this Apparent Time
STELLAR NAVIGATION
must be turned
of
45
Mean Time by applying the Equation
into
Time.
Equation of Time
ments,
1st, to
motion
ment
(really
is
calculated to
meet two require-
average the unequal rapidity of the Sun's

the unequal rapidity of the Earth's move-
in her orbit)
2nd, to allow for the fact that the
Both
same plane the
Equinoctial and Ecliptic are not in the same plane.

are Great Circles
and,
if
they were
in the
if it moved at a
move uniformly with the Mean Sun on the
Equinoctial, and both would always make the same Polar
Apparent Sun on the Ecliptic would,

steady rate,
But, owing to the obliquity of the planes of the
Angle.
Equinoctial and of the Ecliptic, the Polar Angle of the
Apparent Sun on the Ecliptic would be sometimes
and sometimes greater than the Polar Angle
of the
less
Mean
Sun on the Equinoctial, even though both were moving

uniformly at the same rate therefore an allowance has
;
to be
made
for this obliquity.
Sun does not move
Moreover, the Apparent
rate, and allowance must

The greatest difference between
Apparent Time and Mean Time is almost 17 minutes,
and this difference is made up of about 7 minutes due to the
be
made
at a
uniform
for that also.
unequal motion of the Apparent Sun, and about 10 minutes

to the obliquity of
The
the two planes above mentioned.
largest differences occur early in
November.
February and
In the former month 14 m. 26
s.
have to
month
from Apparent Time
be added to Apparent Time, and in the latter

16 m. 20
s.
have to be subtracted
in order to get
Sidereal
Mean Time.
Day consists
the measure of the period in

revolution on its axis.
23
h.
56 m. long
of
24 Sidereal Hours, and
is
which the Earth makes one
Expressed in Solar Time
in other words, that
Mean Time which elapses between
is
it is
about
the interval of
a star's departure from
STELLAR NAVIGATION
46
a Meridian
and
makes 366^
of these rotations in its journey
The year
therefore 366^ Sidereal
is
its
A Solar Day is the time
axis
Days
round the Sun.
long.
that elapses between the Sun's
departure from a Meridian and

it is
The Earth
return to that Meridian.
return to that Meridian
its
not the true measure of the Earth's rotation on her

it is
only the measure of her rotation in reference
to the Sun.
Sun
in about
The Earth completes her journey round the

865j of these rotations. Thus the year
consists of 365| Solar Days, but of 866| Sidereal Days,
and consequently the Solar Day is about 4 minutes longer
The reason why
than the Sidereal Day.

rotation of the
Solar
Day
a complete
Earth does not exactly coincide with a
The
is this.
Day
Sidereal
is
the exact period
of the Earth's rotation because, great as is the distance
travelled
by the Earth round the Sun, her distance from
the stars
is
orbit
so infinitely greater that her
makes no appreciable
respect to the stars
movement
difference in her position in
but the motion of the Earth along
her orbit round the
Sun
that luminary to
an appreciable extent.
orbital
in her
alters
her position in respect of
movement causes the Sun
The Earth's
move in
to appear to
the same direction, namely. Easterly, and in order that
may
the Earth at the end of a rotation
Sun the same portion
of
at the beginning of a rotation, she
i minutes extra.
present to the
her surface that she presented
must
rotate for about
Consequently the Solar
Day
is
about
4 minutes longer than the Sidereal Day.

In measuring Hour Angles or Time, the Meridian
assumed
to be fixed,
though in
and the body
is
assumed
to
is
move,
reality of course the reverse is the truth.
Sidereal
Time
is
the Westerly
Point of Aries, or in other

of the Eirst
words
Point of Aries
Hour Angle
it is
West
of the First
the angular distance
of the
Meridian
of the
STELLAR NAVIGATION
observer.
It is
m. s. by a sidereal clock when the

on the Meridian.
the diagram No. 81 may assist to
h.
First Point of Aries
47
is
Consideration of
make clear the above explanation of the nature of Apparent

Solar,
Mean
The
Solar,
and Sidereal Time.
centre of the diagram
is
the Earth, which spins
The
round in the direction indicated by the arrow.
two Great
Circles,
the Ecliptic
and
Equinoctial,
are
Fig. 81
represented by A
and p R
First
is
B and A n
s'
and Equinoctial
at the
the position of the Apparent

s' is
the Celestial Pole

I.
is
the
Spring Equinox,
that
is
the actual
s is
Sun,
Mean
Sun.
round the Ecliptic from a back to a in a year,

round the Equinoctial from A back to A in the same
s gets
s'
is
the corresponding position of the fictitious object
called the
and
Point of Aries, the point of intersection of the
Ecliptic
and
B.
the Meridian of an observer at
STELLAR NAVIGATION
48
time.
The Arc n b
actual Sun, and
is
is
Hour Angle of the

The Mean
Equation of Time N s'.
the Westerly
Apparent Time
Time at Ship would be s' R and the

The Arc A r is the Sidereal Time at
increases
Mean
If
at Ship.
Ship, and A
s',
which
4 m. a day, measures the difference between
Solar and Sidereal Time.

an interval of Sidereal Time has to be converted into
Solar Time, a suitable
This operation
is
amount must be subtracted from
Table
called 'Retardation.'
XXXVII.
gives you the parts appropriate to the excess of

real over
Mean Time.
Take out the parts
it.
Side-
for the hours,
minutes, and seconds of your interval of Sidereal Time,
and deduct them from the interval, and you have the
Mean Time. Acceleration Table XXXVIII.
interval in
is
'
'
the process of converting an interval of
Time
into Sidereal Time.
the parts due to
it,
To
the
Mean
Mean
Solar
Solar
Time add
and you have the Sidereal interval
STELLAR NAVIGATION
The former process
required.
far as I
am aware,
of a star the elapsed
necessary.
Mean Time, must
by Acceleration
Sidereal interval
Mean Sun
time you use
is
it,
but the latter
In double Altitudes
time measured by a Chronometer,
of course keeps
sion of the
of Retardation is never, as
necessary in navigation
process of Acceleration
which
49
be reduced to a
and the Eight Ascen-
requires to be accelerated every
unless the date of your observation
is
movement
in
Greenwich noon, on account
of the Sun's
Eight Ascension.
Bight Ascension.
Celestial
Eight Ascension
the angle at the
is
Pole between the Meridian passing through the
centre of the body and the Meridian passing through a
point called the First Point of Aries.
Eight Ascension
The Eight
always measured in terms of time, not of arc.

Ascension of any Heavenly
Body
is
measured along the
Equinoctial (the Equator extended indefinitely

Heavens),, from the First Point of Aries
Easterly, that
of the
is
hands
the North Pole,
same
Aries
round
thing, the
or, in
the
circle
Westerly Angle
other words,
to the
measured
is
movement
an observer suspended above
it is
through 24 hours.
what
is
Point of
of the First
the angular distance of the
body East from the First Point
of Aries, or the
distance of the First Point of Aries
Do
it
the Easterly Angle of the body, or
It is therefore
the
in a direction contrary to the
of a watch, to
is
West from
angular
the body.
not allow yourself to get puzzled by the expression
East and West.
Though North and South may be
considered fixed positions, being in the
Heavens the
prolongation indefinitely of the Axis of the Earth, and

are expressions applicable to a circle such as
the
Celestial concave to be.
arbitrary
and
applicable to
VOL.
11.
relative expressions,
any
we
represent
East and West are purely
and are not properly
fixed point in the Celestial concave.
If
STELLAR NAVIGATION
60
you were
to steer
and kept your
East from say the Meridian

course,
you would
sail
of
Greenwich,
Easterly for ever
round and round the Globe, though during every circumnavigation you would have sailed towards the West.
in the
same way the movement
of
So
body along the
always Easterly, though
Equinoctial, or in any orbit,
is
may
move towards the West.

East and West are used in
appear in
It is a pity,
Astronomy
its
I think, that
to signify the direction in
for the use of
it
progress to
these terms
is
which bodies move,
apt to cause confusion of
mind, and plus and minus, or some other expression,
would have done equally

will
show what
is
well.
I think the diagram below
meant by East and AVest and Eight
Ascension.
Fig. 82
Let M R A o be a figure on the plane

1^
the North Pole,
N M the Meridian
of
of the Equinoctial,
an Observer, a the
STELLAR NAVIGATION
x
First Point of Aries, and
is
Then a o
0.
51
Body whose Meridian
a Celestial
am
the Bight Ascension of x.
is
is
the Eight Ascension of the Meridian and the Sidereal
Time
of the Observer.
in the direction
you travel round the Equinoctial
If
m e A o you
will be
going Bast
in the
if
contrary direction, West.
The
Sun
Ecliptic (the apparent path of the
in the
Heavens) and the Equinoctial (the indefinite extension of
Plane of the Equator) are not in the same plane.
the
They
are inclined to each other at an angle of about 23 27'.
Consequently they cut each other at two points, the

and the First Point
We
of Libra.
have only to do with their intersection at the First Point

of Aries
the Spring Equinox.
Once upon
a time the Equinoctial
really intersected in the
The
Aries.
F"'irst
intersection
Point of the Constellation

Equinoctial and the
of the
Ecliptic has long ago departed

to the precession of the
point
intersection,
of
starting place for
and the Ecliptic
from that point, owing
Equinoxes
which
but that particular
all-important
is
measuring Eight Ascension,
the
as
is still,
for
convenience sake, styled the First Point of Aries.
Though Eight Ascension

of time,
it
is
always described in terms
does not give us time, because
which manufactures time
Polar Angle of a
the
Sun
Sun
Apparent Time, and
is
Mean Sun
star, planet, or
is
the
Apparent Time nor Mean Time, but

to determine
is
Therefore while the
Polar Angle of the Apparent

the Polar Angle of the
it
for us.
it
Mean Time, the

Moon is neither
can be easily used
Mean Time.
The Eight Ascension of the Meridian is the angular

distance, measured Eastward along the Equinoctial from
the First Point of Aries to the Meridian passing through
the Observer.
The Eight Ascension
of the
Mean
E 2
Sun,
STELLAE
53
as of
I\
AVIGATIOX
any other Heavenly Body,
of the
is
the angular distance
Mean Sun measured Easterly
along the Equinoctial
from the First Point
of Aries.
The angle which the Meridian of a Heavenly Body

makes at the Pole with the Meridian of the Observer, is
its Polar Angle.
In the case of the Sun the Polar Angle
Hour Angle, for it is the measure of Apparent

But in the case of any other Heavenly Body the
the
is also
Time.
Polar Angle does not give you the time.

it
commonly
is
angles
misleading,
commonly
is
Meridian
is,
Xevertheless,
Angle, and
time
this
all
such
nomen-
and you must not forget that

the Hour Angle is really
called
only the Polar Angle.
fixed,
Hour
its
described in terms of
are
clature is
Avhat
called
In calculating Hour Angles the
as has been already stated, supposed to be
and the Hour Angle
is
counted "Westerly from the
Meridian to the body.
you must understand how Sidereal Time is used

at Ship by means of the Hour Angle
any Heavenly Body other than the Sun. Sidereal
Novsf
Mean Time
to find
of
Time
is
the Westerly
Hour
thing, the angular distance
Angle,
or,
what
is
the same
measured Westward along the
Equinoctial, from the Meridian of the Observer to the

First Point of Aries.
The
the
First Point of Aries appears to
future I will
simply say moves
Equinoctial 360 in a Sidereal
The
Day
of
move and
right
for
round the
24 Sidereal Hours.
moves at the uniform

Hour, 30 in two Sidereal Hours,
Sidereal Time simply means that the First
First Point of Aries, therefore,
rate of 15 in one Sidereal
and so on.
Point of Aries
is
so
many
degrees and parts of a degree
Westward of the Meridian consequently if you

know Sidereal Time that is, the Westerly Hour Angle
to the
of the First
Point of Aries
you know the position of the
STELLAR NAVIGATION
53
on the Equinoctial
in reference to
your Meridian.
The Mean Sun moves

360 in 24 hours of
right round
Mean Time.
It
the Equinoctial
moves
at the rate of
two hours, and so on. Mean

Time means that the Sun is so many degrees and parts
15
in one hour, 30 in
of a degree to the
if
Westward
of the Meridian.
you know the position
Equinoctial in reference to your
Time
Consequently
Mean Sun upon the

Meridian, you know Mean
the
of
at Ship.
In the case of the
Mean
Sun, the angular distance or
Hour Angle measures Mean Time in the case of the fixed

stars the angular distance or Hour Angle measures Sidereal
Time. The angles made by the Sun in one hour of Solar
Time and by a star in one hour of Sidereal Time, are the
;
same, but the times used to measure the angle are different.
The Sun's Hour Angle
increases
Solar Time, and a star's
Mean
measured by the standard

an angle of 15 in
less
6 in
Hour Angle
hour of Sidereal Time, which

than an hour of
is
one hour of Mean
increases 15 in one
about 10 seconds shorter
Solar Time.
of Solar
In other words,
Time, the star makes
time by 10 seconds than the Sun.
now to see how to deduce Mean Time at Ship

Hour Angle.
Find the star's Hour Angle, which is its angular
West of your Meridian.
It is easy
from a
1st.
star's
distance
2nd.
its
Find the Eight Ascension of the
star,
which
is
angular distance Bast of the First Point of Aries.

3rd.
which
Find
is its
the Eight Ascension of the
Mean
Sun,
angular distance East of the First Point
of Aries.
4th.
Add the star's Hour Angleto its Eight Ascension,
which gives you the Westerly distance of the First Point
of Aries from your Meridian, or, what is the same thing,
STELLAR NAVIGATION
54
the Easterly distance of your Meridian
from the First
Point of Aries.
5th.
From
the Eight Ascension of the Meridian (the
distance East of the Meridian from the First Point

Aries) deduct the
distance of the
Aries)
and
jôu
Eight Ascension of the
Mean Sun East from

have
left
Mean Sun
of
(the
the First Point of
the distance of the Meridian
East from the Mean Sun, and that
the same thing as
is
Mean Sun West from the Meridian,

Mean Sun's Westerly Hour Angle, and
the distance of the
and that
that
is
is
the
Mean Time at
Ship.
little
diagram
will
make
that quite plain.

Fig. 83
Let M s E A be a figure on the plane of the Equinoctial.

Let p be the North Pole of the Heavens A the First Point
;
of Aries
a Celestial
Body whose Meridian
is
p E
the
Mean Sun, and p m the Meridian of the Observer. Then

AE is the Eight Ascension of x, ae s is the E.A.M. . ae s
is
the Eight Ascension of the Meridian (or Sidereal Time),
STELLAE NAVIGATION
and
Mean
is
65
It is obvious that
Tinae at Ship.
ae +
R M equals Sidereal Time, as does also as + s m. Therefore

AR + KM = AS + sm; or in other words, a r (star's
E.A.) + R M (star's H. A.) = A R s (E. A.M. 0) + m s (M.T.S.)
It
why
remains only to explain
Mean Sun
the
of
Greenwich date
requires
to
the Eight Ascension
of your observation.
The Eight Ascension
of the
Mean Sun
Greenwich noon on every day under

the right-hand
Almanac.
column
of
'
page II for
is
given at
Time
each month of
Sidereal
angular distance
in
the
Time at Greenwich noon is the Eight

Mean Sun because Sidereal Time is the
Westward of the First Point of Aries
from the Meridian, and the Eight Ascension of the

is its
'
Sidereal
Ascension of the
Sun
the
be accelerated for
Mean
angular distance Eastward from the First Point
As the Sun
of Aries.
is
on the Meridian at noon, the
Sun's Easterly distance from the First Point of Aries (or
Eight Ascension) and the Westerly distance of the
its

are one
the
at
same thing
(or Sidereal
Sidereal
Time
at
Time)
is
not
Mean Sun
Greenwich noon.
the Earth to be fixed and immovable in space
and not
to turn
and the
Mean Sun
West
But
as the Eight Ascension of the
any moment except
Assume
to
from the Meridian
and the same thing.
daily,
on her
axis,
and the First Point
to be revolving
and the Mean Sun
along the Equinoctial.
The
of Aries
round her from East
moving Eastward
Point of Aries com-
to be
First
a Sidereal Day of about

Mean Solar Time. The Mean Sun
takes 24 h. of Mean Solar Time to complete the same
circle.
The Mean Sun, therefore, lags behind the First
pletes
the circle of 360 in
23 h. 56 m. of
Point of Aries to the extent of about four minutes daily,
and the First Point

the
of Aries appears to
Westward 4 minutes,
or about
1,
have moved to
along the Bqui-
STELLAE NAVIGATION
56
The Eight Ascension of the Mean Sun
noctial daily.
is its
angular distance from the First Point of Aries, measured
Eastward, or what is the same thing, the angular distance

of the First Point of Aries from the Mean Sun measured
Westward.
Point of Aries and the
If the First
Mean
Sun completed their daily circle round the Earth in the

same period, the Right Ascension of the Mean Stin wotild
remain always the same but the First Point of Aries
goes 4 minutes to the Westward in 24 hours, or what is
the same thing, the Mean Sun lags behind it 4 minutes
in the 24 hours elapsing between one Greenwich noon
;
and the next Greenwich noon.

The Eight Ascension
of the Mean Sun at Greenwich noon is, as has been ex-
Time;
plained. Sidereal
the
Mean Sun
on the Meridian
is
be proportionally accelerated
of
observation, that
since
is,
Greenwich noon,
tion.
What you
are
of
the Greenwich date
for
for the
time that has elapsed
in order to give
Mean Sun
Ascension of the
Time when
Greenwich must
therefore, the Sidereal
really
at
you the Eight
the time of observa-
doing
increasing
is
the
Look
of the Mean Sun by acceleration.
Almanac on any day you like, say Februarj' 12,
You will see that, at Greenwich Mean Koon,
Eight Ascension
at the
1898.
Sidereal Time, or, in other words, the Eight Ascension

of the
it
is
Mean
21 h.
Sun,
is
21 h. 30 m. 13-36
s.
The
The amount has
34 m. 9-91
about 4 minutes.
s.
difference,
On
the 13th
you
see,
is
increased or accelerated
4 minutes in the 24 hours, therefore the amount at noon of

s., must be increased
by an amount proportionate to the hours,
minutes, and seconds that have elapsed between Greenwich
noon and the Greenwich date of your observation.
Now I think we may go on to the Problems and
the 12th, namely 21 h. 30 m. 13-36

or accelerated
Formulas,
STELLAR NAVIGATION
Latitude
57
by a Meridian Altitude above the Pole
{Required for First Mate's Certificate)
This problem
worked exactly
is
Meridian Altitude of the Hun
same way
in the
as a
the only difference being
that Declination does not require
correction,
and that
observed Altitude requires no correction for Semi-Diameter

or Horizontal Parallax.
All
you have to do
is
as follows
Find the True Altitude from the Observed Altitude by

correcting the latter for Index Error, Dip,
Look
for the star
under
'
Mean
Nautical Almanac, and you will find

given, look for that
of Stars
out
its
'
in the
its
'
in the
Eight Ascension
Eight Ascension under 'Apparent Places
Almanac, and you will find your star. Take
Declination.
Zenith Distance
if
and Refraction.
Places of Stars
Then
90
True Altitude
and Zenith Distance
both are of the same name,
the
Declination,
Latitude
if
Zenith
Distance and Declination are of different names, then their
which
difference equals Latitude,
is
of the
name
of the
greater of the two.
Here
is
an example
1898, September 20th, the Obs. Mer. Alt. of the star
Fomalhaut was 67 18' 20", South of Observer. I. E. +

40", Height of Eye 20 feet.
Eequired the Latitude.
1'
Obs. Mer. Alt.

E.
.
I.
Dip
67 18' 20" S
1'4 0"
_+
67 20'
0''
4'
24"
67"= 15'
Eef.
Tr. Alt.
Z. D.
Dec.
Latitude
36"
24^'
67 15' 12" S
90 0' 0"
22 44' 48" N
30 9' 22" S
7 24' 34" S
STELLAR NAVIGATION
58
Latitude by a Meridian Altitude below the Pole

(Required for First Mate's Certificate)
Latitude by Meridian Altitude below the Pole

just as simply as is Latitude
The problem
the Pole.
only
when
it
Whereas
it is
is
found
by Meridian Altitude above
of course applicable to the
is
Sun
does not dip below the Horizon.

in
an observation
on the ^leridian when
in an observation
it
body above the Pole
of a
attains its highest Altitude,
below the Pole
it is
on the Meridian
when it reaches its lowest Altitude.

To the True Altitude below the Pole add
the Polar
Distance, and the result
is
the Altitude of the Pole, and
the Altitude of the Pole
is
the Latitude of the Observer.
That the Altitude
of
the Pole
is
the Latitude of the
Observer, will be seen by the following diagram
Let
Fig. 84
A^j, B
be
Earth, whose
the
p and p^
and Equator ^ S'd
Poles are
let
be
part
of the Celestial con-
cave, z the Zenith,
the Horizon, and
p the Celestial Pole.
Then a
Latitude of
pq
as
is
is
is
a.
the
But
equal to 90,
also
ab
take
from each the arc

that A g
= jj B.
But ^ B
is
A p and you find

measured by the angle ^ o b,
and this angle measures the arc p h, therefore the arc
STELLAR NAVIGATION
2)
B or the arc A g
the Pole and a g
is
arc p
but p
is
59
the Altitude of
the Latitude of the Observer.
must be remembered that, in observations below the

Greenwich date of the observation must be
It
Pole, the
found in order to correct Declinations, in the case of the
Sun or
planets, so as to ascertain their true Polar Dis-
The time
tances.
12
of observation in the case of the
hours from noon,
in
or,
other words,
is
Sun is
12 hours
Apparent Time at Ship, to which your Longitude in Time
must be
applied.
must be added
In the case of a planet 12 hours
to the date of
its
Meridian passage as
taken from the Nautical Almanac, to which Longitude

in
Time
is
to be applied,
for the Planet's
and a small correction
movement
the change of Declination
stars,
sidered.
It
is
is
to allow
In the case of fixed
in E. A.
too small to be con-
only given for every tenth day in the
Almanac, and then only amounts to decimals of a second.
Here follow one or two examples

1898, June 18th, in Longitude 160
:
Alt. of
I.
W,
the Obs. Mer.
the Sun's L. L. below the North Pole was 9 22' 10",
E. - 1' 20", Height of
Eye 16 feet. Eequired the Latitude.
3-02"
22-7
2114
604
604
68-554"
A. T. S. 18th
Long, in Time
121'
10
STELLAR NAVIGATION
60
1898,
November
30th, the Obs. Mer. Alt. of a Crucis
below the South Pole was 15
Height
of
Eye 24
feet.
14' 40",
I.
B.
Required the Latitixde.

a Crucis Dec
Obs. Mer. Alt.

I.
E.
15 14' 40"
+0' 50"
15
Dip
Eef.
Tr. Alt.
P. D.
Latitude
42 35'
3" S
62 32' 10" S
90 0' 0"
0'
50",
STELLAR NAVIGATION
on the Meridian below the Pole, and take
61
its
star's
when
And as a
Altitude
on the Meridian above the Pole, or vice versa.
Polar Distance never varies sufficiently to affect an
observation, the
shows,
is
mean
of the
two
Altitudes, as the
diagram
the Altitude of the Pole, and the Altitude of the
Pole equals the Latitude.

Fig. 85
In the figure
let
o be the centre of the Earth, z the
Zenith of an Observer,
and H X and
Xj the
the Eational Horizon, p the Pole,
True Altitudes
above and below the Pole.
and p
mean
It is
of a
Heavenly Body
obvious that since p x
two Altitudes
p,
the Altitude of the Pole, which equals the Latitude, as
is
Xj are equal, the
proved on page 58.
of the
is
STELLAR NAVIGATION
62
Ex-Meridian of the Pole Star

(Beqidred for Ordinary Master's Certificate)
Ex- Meridians below the Pole are

ticable,
but there
is
of course quite prac-
no particular object
in them,
and with
the exception of Alpha Ursse Minoris (Alpha Polaris or

the Pole Star), stars are not, I think, subjected to this operation.
But an Ex-Meridian of the Pole Star is exceedingly

The problem is very simple, and knowledge of your
useful.
time within ten minutes

If the
purposes.
to
make
is
Horizon
good contact,
good enough
is
clear
for all practical
enough
no better way
to enable
of
you
finding your
position exists than by an Ex-Meridian Altitude of the
Pole Star, and an Altitude of a star East or "West,

possible, of
two
stars,
or, if
The
one East and the other "West.
Pole Star gives your Latitiide, and the other star worked
with that Latitude gives you your time and consequently

your Longitude.
To work an Ex-Meridian of
the Pole Star.
Correct
the star's Observed Altitude in the usual way, and deduct

the constant
1'
from the True Altitude.
Find the Sidereal Time of your observation, that is in

other words the Bight Ascension of the Meridian. To do
this, note the time of your observation as shown on
your Chronometer, and correct it for Chronometer error.
From the Greenwich date thus found, get Mean Time at
Ship by applying your Dead Beckoning Longitude in time.
Take out Sidereal Time for Greenwich noon from the
Almanac (Bight Ascension of the Mean Sun at Greenwich noon). Accelerate this for the Greenwich date and
you have the Bight Ascension of the Mean San at the
time of your observation.
Mean Time
at Ship
-|-
the
STELLAR NAVIGATION
Eight Ascension of the
Mean Sun
cension of the Meridian,
Time
63
gives the Eight As-
other words, the Sidereal
or, in
of observation.
Enter Table
Almanac
in the Nautical
I.
for 1898) with
Almanac
and take out the correction corresponding to

adding or deducting
1',
sign of the correction
Enter Table
is
it
or
4-
according to whether the
with your Sidereal Time of observation
II.
and the
at the side,
Apply
it.
True Altitude reduced by the con-
this correction to the
stant
571 of the
(p.
your Sidereal Time of observation,
star's Altitude at
out the correction, which
is
the top, and take
always to be added to the
Altitude.
Enter
same page with your

and the months at
the top, and take out the corresponding correction, which
is always to be added to the Altitude.
Table
Time
Sidereal
on
the
of observation at the side,
True Altitude
correction,
III.
and
of the star
Constant,
-i-
or
the
the second and third corrections,
-I-
first
the
is
Latitude.
As
in
minutes
Table
I.
and as
Sidereal
in
Table
Time
is
given for every ten
II. Sidereal
Time
is
given for
every half-hour, and Altitude for every five degrees

as in Table III. Sidereal
and the date
Time
for the first of
is
and
given for every two hours
each month,
it
is
well in
all
cases to roughly average the various corrections unless
your Sidereal Time of observation, the star's Altitude, and
month happen to coincide pretty

Sidereal Time Altitudes and dates given
your day of the
nearly
with the
in the
tables.
The
various corrections are rendered necessary by the
fact that the
Pole Star
is
not exactly at the Pole.
If
it
was, of course, its true Altitude would be the Altitude

of the Pole,
and the Altitude
of the
Pole
is
equal to the
STELLAR NAVIGATION
64
The
Latitude.
make
object of deducting the constant 1'
corrections
II.
and
III.
following diagram exemplifies the case
In
this diagram,
let a, h,
and
which
while
Altitude
when
is
is
on the plane
of the Horizon,
less
It is obvious that
practically the
same
when
it is
at
as that of the Pole,
at a, its Altitude is greater
than that of
and on the contrary when it is at c, its
than that of the Pole by p I. Here is an
it is
the Pole by p
Altitude
to
be positions which Polaris assumes during
a rotation of the Earth.

b, its
is
is
The
always additive.
t,
example
1898, August 10th, in Longitude 35
meter showed on the 10th, 12
h.
W, when a Chrono-
18 m. 40
M. T.G. was slow 4 m. 10 s., the Obs.
s.,
whose error on
Alt. of the
Pole
STELLAR NAVIGATION
Star
20
was 46
feet.
22' 30",
I.
B.

Chron. Time 10th 12''
Error on M. T. G.
2'
10", Height
65
of
Eye
STELLAE NAVIGATION
Mean
Sun, which gives you
following diagram
makes
Mean Time
The
at Ship.
this clear, I think, but don't
be
deluded into taking the hours as meaning hours of time

as represented
on the
dial of a clock.
They
are hotirs of
Eight Ascension.
Fig. 87
11
av
oaiii
viii\-
xrv
XIII
In diagram No. 87, constructed on the plane of the

Equinoctial, let p be the North Pole, z the Zenith, p
the Meridian of the observer whose
Heavenly Body,
of
Aries
x,
and
is
Mean
Sun, and a the
the Colatitude, z
px
is
is
z,
first
ii
x a
Point
the Zenith
that Body|s Polar Distance.
x p z, the angle
Hour Angle of x,
the solution of the spherical triangle
at p
and
the
then p z
Distance of
By
Zenith
X p z
is
is
equa.l to
obtained,
which
is
the
the arc of the Equinoctial
Ji
?)t
Ji
is
STELLAR NAVIGATION
M. T.
Body
S.
From
X.
known, d
and a d
the E. A. of the
is
Almanac A m and a d
the Nautical
m m
or
adm
M.
obtained
is
T. S.
is
from
Observed
under
Mean
'
Proceed thus
Index Error, Dip, and
Places of Stars
Eight Ascension.
find its
for
Look
and so get True Altitude.
Eefraction,
star
Altitude
this arc deduct
ascertained.
To work a Star Chronometer Prohletn.

Correct
are
has been found, and by adding a d and D
together, the arc
A.m, and
E. A. M.
is
67
Then
in the
'
your
for
Almanac, and
look for that Eight
Stars,' and you will

Take out its Eight Ascension and Declination a star being a simple and unsophisticated creature.
Eight Ascension and Declination need no correction.
Take the Declination from 90, and so get the Polar
Distance.
Take out Sidereal Time (Eight Ascension
Ascension in 'Apparent Places

find
your
of the
of
star.
Mean
Sun) for the day of your observation from
the Almanac, and accelerate
it
Greenwich date
for the
of
your observation (the time elapsed since Greenwich noon.)
Then find the star's Hour Angle in the same way as you
would the Sun's Hour Angle, namely. Altitude, Latitude,
Polar Distance, Sum, Half Sum, Eemainder, Secant,
Cosecant, Cosine, Sine
the star
is
West
you remember
of the
the formula.
Meridian you have
its
If
Westerly
Hour Angle but if the star is Bast of the Meridian you

must deduct the Hour Angle from 24 hours to get the
Westerly Hour Angle. Then to the Westerly Hour Angle
;
add the
star's
Eight Ascension, and so get the Eight
Ascension of the Meridian, and from the Eight Ascension

of the Meridian,
with 24 hours added
24 hours, you have

to
Mean
Mean Time
at
if
necessary, deduct
Sun, and,
Ship
if it is
but
if it
less
than
amounts
more than 24 hours take 24 from it, and the result is

Compare Mean Time at Ship with
at Ship.
Mean Time
F 2
STELLAE NAVIGATION
68
Mean Time
Greenwich, as shown on your Chronometer,
at
and.the difference is the Longitude in Time "West if Greenwich time is the greater. East if Greenwich time is the
lesser.
Turn Longitude in Time into arc, and there you
are.
Of course the time shown on your Chronometer
must be
corrected for error, as has been thoroughly ex-
Sun Chronometer Longitude problem
plained in a
Vol.
on
I.,
Here
p. 297.
is
how
the pro Diem looks in skeleton form
App.
E. A.
Dec.
Obs. Alt.
Dip
in
'^^
Alt.
E. A. M.
Eefr.
Tr. Alt.
Lat.
P. D..
Sec
Coseo
2).
Sum
Cos
Eemainder
Sin
Log. H. A.
E.A.*
E. A. Mer.
E. A. M.
M. T.
The
star's
Polar or
S.
Hour Angle
is,
it
will
be seen,
found in precisely the same way that the Sun's Hour or
In finding Longitude by a star

therefore, nothing new to remember, except that
Polar Angle
there
is,
is
found.
you have to add the Eight Ascension of the star to its

Hour Angle to find the Eight Ascension of the Meridian,
and then have to deduct the Eight Ascension of the Mean
Sun from the Eight Ascension of the Meridian to get
Mean Time
at Ship.
find the star's Hour Angle by the

methods
given for finding the Sun's
second of the two
Hour Angle, by all means do so. Here it is again
If
you
like
to
STELLAR NAVIGATION
Lat.
69
STELLAE NAVIGATION
70
Latitude by an Ex-Meridian of a Star

(Bequired for First Mate's Certificate)
Latitude can be found by an Bx-Meridian Altitude of

a
same way as by an Exthe Sun, only remember that in the case of
fixed star in precisely the
Meridian of
you have nothing whatever to do with Noon. You

have to do with Noon when working an Ex- Meridian of
the Sun, because we call it Noon when the Sun is on
stars
'
'
the
Meridian, therefore his Polar Angle, the angle he
makes with the Meridian of the Observer, is time from

But the Polar Angle of any other Heavenly Body
the angle it makes with the Meridian has nothing to
noon.
do with
Noon it
Eight Ascension
is
simply the Polar Angle between the
circle of
the
Body and
sion of the Meridian of the Observer
time the Body
is off
the Eight Ascen-
but
it
shows the
the Meridian.
To work an Ex-Meridian of a star. Note the time of

taking the Altitude as shown by your Chronometer. Find
Mean Time at Greenwich by applying the correction for
error of the Chronometer,
and find Mean Time
applying your Longitude in Time.

sion of the
date
Mean Sun and
at
Ship by
Find the Eight Ascenit for your Greenwich
accelerate
and then take out the Eight Ascension
of the star
To Mean
Time at Ship add the Eight Ascension of the Mean Sun.
The result is the Eight Ascension of the Meridian. From
for the nearest
day from the Nautical Almanac.
the Eight Ascension of the Meridian deduct the Eight
Ascension of the
Angle.
mVol.
of the
star,
and the
result
is
the star's Polar
Then proceed with the same formula

I. p.
Sun.
prescribed
345 for obtaining Latitude by an Ex-Meridian
STELLAR NAVIGATION
The
Angle
following diagram will

is
VI
show how
derived from a knowledge of
a star's Polar
Mean Time
at
Ship.
Fio. 88
pqaUwMai^
Diagram 88
p
is
the Pole
Mean Sun
is
drawn on the plane

the Meridian
is
of the Equinoctial,
the position of the
A the First Point of Aries and is a Star.

M
is the Westerly Hour Angle of the Mean Sun, i.e.
Mean Time at Ship a is the Eight Ascension of the
Mean Sun A R is the Eight Ascension of the Star.
A0 + 0M = AM = Eight Ascension of Meridian a m
;
AE
=EM =
Westerly Hour Angle of the Star.
STELLAR NAVIGATION
72
Planet
The Chronometer and Ex-Meridian problems are

worked in precisely the same way when a Planet instead
of
a fixed star
observed,
is
with the exception that,
in the case of a Planet, changes in Declination
and Eight
Ascension are pretty rapid, and allowance must be

for
them.
To do
so proceed thus
made
Take out the Planet's Eight Ascension and Declinanoon preceding and the noon succeeding the
Greenwich date of your observation, from the pages in
the Nautical Almanac headed Mean Time
under the
Planet's name.
Take the difference between the two
tion, for the
'
'
Eight Ascensions, multiply the difference by the excess of

the Greenwich date of your observation above Greenwich
noon, divide the result by 24, and you will have the
change in Eight Ascension due
The
observation.
to the
Greenwich date
correction thus found
of
to be added to
is
the Eight Ascension taken out of the Almanac for the
preceding noon,
is
to
if
the Eight Ascension
be deducted from
it
if
is
increasing,
and
the Eight Ascension
is
decreasing.
Treat Declination in the same way, adding
or deducting
it.
Those
are
all
the
be made, for though
corrections
really
necessary to
some Planets show appreciable
diameter and the Globe has in reference to them appreci-
amounts are too small to

Nautical Astronomy, and may be dis-
able Horizontal Parallax, the
have any value in

carded
he
would
be
distinguish between
Venus vdth a
wonderful
man who
could
the upper or lower limb even of
sextant.
Nevertheless, these minor correc-
tions are included in the following examples, for superlative accuracy
may have
value in the Examination
Eoom.
STELLAR NAVIGATION
1898,
May
6th, at about 8.5 p.m., in Lat. 54 26'
Long. D. E. 14
9 h. 1 m. 30
73
W, when
20'
whose
Chronometer showed
M.
N,
was 50 s. slow, the

Venus L. L. (W. of Mer.) was 11 19' 30",
40", Height of Bye 21 feet.
Eequired the
s.,
error on
T. G.
Obs. Alt. of
E.
I.
1'
Longitude.
E. A.
15" 43-12'
20 52-74
9-62
Ship Time 6th

Long, in Time
8' 5 0"
Greenwich Time
B. A. of
Venus on 6th
4"
15- 43-12"
1
56-62
17
39-74
57 20
at Sights 4
2 20
60
309-62
Chron.
Error
9hi
30"
50
9-04
M. T. G. 6th 9
123848
278658
12) 2798-9648
)
1 56-62
Dec.
21 47' 48-5"
22 2' 50-6"
36084
81189
12)8154-984
2
60
679-6
339-8
5'
39-8"
P. D.
'3o
-05
^"^
20-
Obs. Alt. Venus
11 19' 30"
LB.
1'
40"
11 21' 10"
4 31"
11 ]6''39"
'
S.-D.
5^
902-1"
9-04
E.A.M. 0atSights2 58 56-42
Dip
015' 2-1"
60
21 53' 28-3"
90 0' 0"
20
At Sights
233-25
60)116-62
E. A. M.
on 6th 2" 57" 27-33"
Acceleration for 9>'
1 28-71
))
Dec. of Venus on 6th 21 47' 48-5"

5' 39-8"
11 16' 44"
Eef.
4^5"
11 11' 59"
Par
5"
Tr. Alt,
Lat.
P. D.
54
68
68
6'
32"
STELLAR NAVIGATION
74
1898,
51 18' N,
December
16th, at about 3.30 a.m. in Lat. D. E.
and Long. 162
21'
W, the Obs. Alt.
of
MarsL. L.
near the Meridian, bearing South, was 59 34' 80",
showed 2
slow.
I.
E.
Eye 17 feet, when a Chronometer

s. whose error on M. T. G. was 58 s.
Eequired the Latitude by Eeduction to the Meridian.
10",
1'
Height
h.
of
19 m. 36
E. A.
28-84
Ship Time 15th 15" 30 0Long, in T.

10 49 24
21-4
Greenwich T. 16th 2 19 24
50-24
2-35
1070
642
428
12
50-290
)
4-19
2-1
on 16th 17" 40"' 35-88'

19-71
Acceleration for 2"
3-29
20"
E. A. M.
E. A. M.
Chron.
Error
2"
IQ" 36'
58
-09
34"
at Sights 17
E. A. ol Mars on 16th
40
58-97
8" 46"' 50-2"

2-1
STELLAR NAVIGATION
75
The Moon
So
much for
much more
her
elements
explain
they are tolerably
how
She
precarious person.
many
great rapidity, and

'
and Planets
and require but few corrections, but the
reliable,
fixed stars
Moon
is
about with
corrections are required to get
into proper
'
shifts
shape.
will be well to
It
made
these corrections are
before working
any problems connected with the Moon.
Her Eight
Ascension, which
always increasing, and
is
her Declination will be found in the Nautical Almanac for

every hour of every day, with the variation in ten minutes.
To find the Bight Ascension of the Moon for the

Greenwich date of an observation. Take out the Eight
Ascension for the hour of your Greenwich date. Take out
one ten minutes appropriate to
also the variation in the
that hour.
Multiply the variation in that one ten minutes
by the excess over ten minutes

or
of
by what your Greenwich date
the case
date
may
This
require.
is
your Grreeiiwich date,
lacks of ten minutes, as
a simple process.
your
contains an excess over ten minutes, introduce a
decimal point and multiply.
minutes
minutes
fifteen
is
Suppose you have
represented by 1-8, 24 minutes by

date gives you something
decimal point to
minutes
five
it
less
is
2-4,
on.
Then having
your
Suppose you had
multiplied the variation in

is
If
half of one ten minutes, or
eight minutes will be equally as well expressed by
by what your date
be
will equally
and so
than ten minutes, prefix a
and multiply.
minutes
fifteen
one ten minutes and half of
Eighteen minutes
ten minutes, or 1-5.
on.
If
five
'5
;
and so
ten minutes
in excess of or is less
'8,
than ten
minutes, add the result to the Eight Ascension taken out

for the hour,
and you have the Eight Ascension proper
your Greenwich date.
Declination
is
to be treated
to
in
'
STELLAR NAVIGATION
same way, and requires no further explanation.
Here are a couple of examples
exactly the
M.
1898,
correct E. A.
44 m. 18
3rd, 2 h.
and Declination
Var. in 10" 21-163"

44" 18" = .
4-43
60
May
T. G.
Moon's B. A.
at 2"
21-163' X 4-43
63489
84652
84652
Moon'sE. A. corr.
for M. T. G.
93-75209
Moon's Dec. at 2'

144-42" X 4-43
Find the
17" 28-38" increasing
12'>
s.
Moon.
of the
12
33-75
19
2-13
7 15' 18-7" S increasing

10' 39-8"
.
.
1 33-75
Moon's Dec. corr.

for M. T. G.
Var. in 10" 144-42"

44> 18'
1
'
,,
-^S
58 5
4-43
43326
57768
57768
60
689-7806
10' 39-8"
M.
1898,
T. G.
November
34 m. 46
21st, 16 h.
s.
Find
the corrected E. A. and Declination of the Moon.

in 10"
34" 46" =
Var
20-422'
3-48
163376
81688
61266
Moon's E. A. at 16'
20-422' X 3-48=
Moon's E. A. corr.
for M. T. G.
>
1 2^
Moon's Dec. at 16" 0

141-54" X 3-48=
60)71-06856
1 11-07
in 10"
34" 46" =
Var
23''
45-28" increasing
11-07
<-e ok
^^'^^
^
8'
8'
Moon's Dec. corr.

00'
for M. T. G.
I
141-54'
9"'
12-1" S decreasing
12-6"
0-5"N
3-48
113232
56616
42462
60
492-5592
8' 12-6'
Horizontal Parallax and Semi-Diameter must also be

corrected, because the
Moon
is
so near the
Earth that her
Semi-Diameter varies according to her Altitude, being

greater
if
the
Moon
an Observer than
is
it is
high, and consequently nearer to
when
she
is
low, and consequently
STELLAR NAVIGATION
further from
him
77
and the Semi-Diameter of the Earth-
is the Semi-Diameter which consists of the radius

drawn from the Observer to the centre of the Earth
subtends an angle at the Moon's centre, which angle varies
according to the Latitude, owing to the fact that the Earth
that
is
not a perfect sphere.
And
Moon
Parallax must also, unless the
is
on the
Horizon and unobservable, be converted from Horizontal

Horizontal Parallax
Parallax to Parallax in Altitude.
when on
the angle subtended at the Moon's centre
Horizon by the radius
and the centre
of the
is
the
Earth between the Observer
of the Earth.
angle subtended by the same radius
when
is
the
Moon
the
is
above the Horizon, and decreases proportionately to the

Altitude, disappearing
The
Zenith.
Let
altogether
when
following diagram will
be
the
she
show
is
this
in
the
Fig. 89
centre of the Earth,
and B the position
Let
of
an Observer.
c,
D, E, z represent
Moon
the
in
four
positions,
different
at z at the Zenith,
on the Horizon,
at c
and
at
E and D
intermediate
tions.
Altitude
at
posi-
Parallax in
is
the angle
by a b.
no angle, at e
the angle ad B, and at c it
subtended
At
z there is
it is
is
the angle A e
the angle a c
A c B is the Horizontal Parallax, A D B

and A E B is less than A d b.
d it is
The angle
B, at
b.
is less
than
this,
STELLAR NAVIGATION
78
The same diagram
will also serve to show the change

Moon's Semi-Diameter due to the Altitude of the
Moon. AC and Az, being radii of the same circle, are
in the
Bz
equal to one another.
is
shorter than
a z by the
Semi-Diameter
of
Pig. 89
bz
the Earth ab.
therefore shorter
is
AC
by
the
same amount.
As
than
the
Moon
from
is
on
at her
is
distance
greatest
B when
c,
and
she
at her
distance
shortest
from B when she

at z,
quently
when
at c,
and biggest when
Semi-
her
Diameter
smallest
is
and as conseappears
at z, it follows that
her Semi-Diameter increases in proportion to her Altitude
above the Horizon.
To make
these
corrections.
Semi-Diameter on page
midnight, whichever
your observation.
is
Look
III. of the
out the Moon's
Almanac
for
noon or
nearest to the Greenwich date of
Take
also the
Semi-Diameter
for the
succeeding or preceding midnight or noon, so that your
Greenwich date falls between noon and midnight, or

between midnight and noon. Take the difference between
the two Semi-Diameters, and multiply that difference by the
difference in time
between the Greenwich date of your
observation and the noon or midnight the Semi-Diameter

for
which you propose
12,
and the
from
the
to correct.
Divide the product by
result is the correction to be
Semi-Diameter
added to or taken
according to whether
it
is
STELLAR NAVIGATION
79
To this corrected Semi-Diameter
increasing or decreasing.
add the augmentation due to Apparent Altitude (Table D).
and your Semi-Diameter

Horizontal Parallax
at last perfectly correct.
is
same
treated in precisely the
is
way, but remember that the reduction for Latitude (Table
E)
always
is
to
from
subtracted
be
the
corrected
Horizontal Parallax.
Now
able to
The
for Parallax in Altitude.
Apparent Altitude
corrections applic-
for Parallax
Look
you
the
at
left-hand
pages
XXX.
XXX., and
Table
of
and
in Altitude
for Eefraction are taken out together from Table
Apparent Altitude in the left-hand column
will find
given in degrees and minutes, and Horizontal Parallax at
Find your
the top of the page given in minutes of arc.
Apparent Altitude to the nearest

that
along to the right
less ten
minutes
follow
you come to the column
till
containing the nearest minute of your Horizontal Parallax,
and take out the number there found.

your Apparent Altitude.
Then
if
Write
this
you have any seconds
Parallax over you will find the allowance to be
them on the
and
if
right of the page under
'
Add
you have any minutes of Altitude
them in
column under the heading Add
the allowance due to
'
under
made
of
for
for sec. of Par.'
over,
you
will find
the extreme right-hand

for
minutes of
All
Alt.'
these allowances are to be added to Apparent Altitude, and
the result
is
table can be
True Altitude.
made
clearer
means. Suppose 40
0" the H. P.
.59'
10'
The method
of using the
by example than by any other

0" is the Apparent Altitude, and
On page
300,
Table
XXX,
with
40 10' at the side and 59' at the top, you will find 4o' 48",
which
is
the Parallax in Altitude less Eefraction, to be
added to Apparent Altitude.
Suppose
Horizontal
again Apparent
Parallax 59' 10".
Altitude
With
is
40 15',
40 ]0', which
is
and
the
STELLAR NAVIGATION
80
next less ten minutes to 40 15' at the
To
the top, you will find 43' 48".
this
hand column
of those
Look
headed 'Add for
in the block opposite Apparent Altitude,
headed 0"
from the
will find 8" to
you
Par.'
first
left
59' at
must be added the
allowance for 10" of Horizontal Parallax.

left
and
side,
in the
sec. of Par.'
and in the column
under 'Add for
sec.
The
be added to 43' 48".
of
allow-
ance for the odd minutes of Altitude must also be made.
This will be found in the right-hand column of
'Add
minutes
for
Alt.'
of
also to
One
40
be added
under
In the block opposite the
Apparent Altitude and opposite

is
all,
5'
you
will find 7",
which
to 43' 48".
Suppose the nearest Altitude is

and the Horizontal Parallax 59' 26". With
other example.
23',
40 20' Apparent Altitude and 59' Horizontal Parallax, the
allowance
is
Follow 20" in the left-hand column
43' 41".
and under 6"

the top will be found 20", the allowance due to the 26"
Horizontal Parallax, and the allowance for the odd 3'
under 'Add for Sec. of Par.' to the
Altitude is 8",
right,
In
Eefraction
....
40 10'
43'
In
the
Second Case
40 15'
43' 48"
First Allowance for 40 App. Alt. and 59' H. P.
Second Allowance for 10" H. P.

Third Allowance for 5' of App. Alt.
True Altitude
In
8"
r
40 59'
3"
the Third Case
App. Alt
First Allowance for App. Alt. 40 20' and H. P. 59'
Second Allowance for 26" of H. P
Third Allowance for 3' of App. Alt.
True Altitude
.
all
48 "
40 53' 48"
Alt.
may
of
the First Case
True Altitude
It
of
and will be found as in theprevious examples.
App. Alt
App.
at
40 23'
43'
41
7'
41"
20"
8"
9'^
be advantageous here to show by an example
the corrections applicable to the
by an Altitude
Moon
of that disagreeable body.
in finding time
STELLAR NAVIGATION
81
p.m. at Ship, in Latitude 51 47'
N,
and Longitude
W, when a Chronometer showed
h. 10 m. 30 s. which was 5 m. 59 s. fast on M. T, G.,
the Observed Altitude of the Moon's Lower Limb was
16 7' 30", Index Error + 1' 15", Height of the Eye 10 ft.
August 23rd, 1898,
7 30'
.5
Chronometer showed
M. T. G. on August 23
J S. D. at Noon
5 S. D. Midnight
15' 50-C"
15' 55-3"
20
59
21
15' 50-6"
Noon
J S. D. at
10
Error of Chronometer
'
4-7"
X
bv Time from
Greenwich Noon
Change
< (S.
5-1
D. in 5-1 hr.
D. increasing)
of S.
J'l
15' 52-6"
47
235
4-7"
Augmentation (Table D)
J
S.
D. at Time of Obs.
15'
57^'
12)23-97"
H. P. at Noon
Change of H. P. in 51
58'
Change
1-99"
in 5-1''
Practically 2"
hr.
2-9"
7-2"
(H. P. increasing)
58' 10-1"
Noon
))H. P. at
58' 2-9"
58' 19-8"
H. P. Midnight
16-9"
by Time from
Greenwich Noon
Eeductiou for nearest Lat.

52 and H. P. 58'
H. P.
at
time of Obs.
7-2"
58'
R. A. at 5 hr.
14 47
))
Var. in 4 rain. + (B. A.
increasing)
j
.
169
845
12)86-19"
Change
10
X
by
-4 (4
min.)
Var. in 4 inin.
D Dec. at
in
10 min.
X by
-4 (4
Dec.
min.)
Var. in 4 min.
-4
9-40"
Time
Obs. Alt.
E.
I.
for 10 feet
in
87"
-4
45-2
9-4
54-6
20 53' 51-2" S
(Dec.
34-8"
of Obs.
2^ 54'
23-5"
Dip
Var.
14 47
of Obs.
-<:
E. A. in
min
Time
J E. A. at
Dec. at 5 hr.
Var. in 4 min.
increasing)
Practically 7-2"
Var. in
7-18"
5.1''
in
2-9"
34-8"
5 S. D.
App.
Alt.
Par. in Alt.
J True Alt.
16
26'^
STELLAR NAVIGATION
82
Latitude by a Meridian Altitude of the

{Latitude by Meridian Altitude of the
for the
Ordinary Master's
Remember
must
that
Moon is
required
Certificate.)
Latitude by D. E.
if
Moon
is
not given, you
from the approximate Altitude in
find a Latitude
order to reduce Horizontal Parallax.
Some
problem.
slight difficulties exist in connection
The
first
with this
consists of the fact that whereas the
time of the Moon's Meridian passage at Greenwich

given for every day in the ISTautical Almanac,
follow that the time
Meridian on that day
at
is
the Greenwich time of transit,
erratic body.
If, for
is
an
instance, she crosses the Meridian
10 hours,
at
Greenwich, but
when
West
The Moon
She lags behind the Sun on account of her
proper motion.
Greenwich
is
does not
which she crosses any other
plus or minus the Longitude in Time.
of
it
it
will
will
it
not be 16 hours at
be about 16 hours and 15 minutes
she crosses the Meridian of an observer six hours

of
Greenwich.
And
it
will not
be 4 hours, but
when
it
will
be about 3 hours and 45 minutes
the
Meridian of an observer 6 hours East of Green-
she crosses
wich.
The second
rapid motion
it
difficulty
is
is,
that owing to the Moon's
necessary that the Greenwich date of
her passage of the Meridian of an observer should be very

accurately fixed in order that her Declination
properly corrected.
It will not
date by taking the time
which
the
Moon
do to find
may
shown by your Chronometer
attains
her
be
the Greenwich
greatest
Altitude
at
by
STELLAR NAVIGATION
observation, for the best
83
may
observer
be out 5 or 6
minutes or more in time when he marks the
on the Meridian, particularly
to be
and
tude,
she has a low Alti-
5 or 6 minutes' error in time in the
may involve
date
if
and 2 minutes
Moon
Greenwich
2 minutes' error of arc in the Declination,
of arc error in Declination
error in Latitude.
You must
means
2 miles'
therefore find the exact
time at Greenwich of the Moon's passage of your Meridian

of the Nautical Almanac and Table XVI.
Having the exact Greenwich date at which the Moon
crosses your Meridian, you can get her exact Declination,
which is very important it is true you may be out a few
by means
seconds of arc in your Altitude, but that will have no

appreciable effect
To find
thus
If in
the
upon the Latitude.

date
of the
West Longitude,
Moon's Transit.
Proceed
take out of page IV. of
the Nautical Almanac the time of the Moon's upper
Find
Meridian passage for the day and the day
after.
the difference between these two dates.
Enter Table
XVI. with
this
difference
corresponding allowance.
and your longi-
at the top,
tude to the nearest 10 at the
Add
and take out the
side,
this
allowance to the
time of the Moon's Meridian passage at Greenwich for
Mean Time at Ship of the Moon's

To this apply your Longitude
you the Mean Time at Greenwich
the day, and you have the
passage of your Meridian.

in Time,
at
which gives
which the Moon was on your Meridian.
Correct her
Declination for that date.

If
you are
in East Longitude, take out the time of the
upper Meridian passage at Greenwich for the day and the

day
before.
Find the
difference as before,
and deduct the
allowance taken out of Table XVI.
Then proceed
exactly as in
Meridian Altitude of the Sun.
finding
Here
is
Latitude by a
an example
STELLAR NAVIGATION
84
1898, September 5th, in Longitude 85 17' E, the Obs.
Mer.
1 was 32
Alt.
Height
Eye 18
of
18' 40", bearing
North,
I.
E. +1' 30",
Required the Latitude.
feet.
D Dec.
)i
S.-D.
15' 26-12"
Noon
})
15' 19-82" Mid.
6-3"
9-63
0'
9"38
48
Difference
2889
5778
12
Mer. Passage 4th 15'' 30" 30'

3rd 14 41 42
5 Mer. Passage 4th
Long
M. T. G. 4th
J'
IS"- 30"'
Long. 85 E,
5-06
At Sights 18=
48
34'
44"
30-
5 41
in T.
60-669
18 28' 36-7"
6'
7-3"
At 9"
Diff.
49
22
-11
49"
38
22
H. P.
Noon
56' 33-08"
!> S.-D.
15' 26-1".
56' 10-01" Mid.
23-07"
Corr.
^63
))
5-1"
Aug.
331"
18-5 5"
Corr.
15' 21-2"
6921
13842
H. P.
56'
56' 14-6"
9-9"
4-2"
Eed.
56' 10-4"
15' 31-1"
^763
12)222i;64l
Obs. Mer. Alt.

I.E.
18-51"
T)
Var. in 10""
Dec.
96-65"
38" =
Dip.
32 20' 10"
4' 11"
3-8
32 15' 59"
77320
28995
60
S.-D.
Ap.
367-270"
6'
Alt.
..
Lat.
Moon
Tr. Alt.
'
38f S
Longitude by a
way
32 31' 30"
43"
10"
45'
Par. in Alt
'
Z. D. 57* S
Deo. 18^ N
31"
^15'
7-3"
To find Approx. Lat.

Approx. Alt. 32| N
32 18' 40"
+ 1' 30 "
Z. D.
Dec.
Lat
33 17' 23"
90 0' 0"
56 42' 37" S
18 34' 44" N
38
7'
53" S
Moon Chronometer, and
Latitude by
Ex-Meridian, are worked precisely in the same
as in the case of a star or planet.
remember
is
that in dealing with the
The only thing
to
Moon you must
be
extra particular in finding the Greenwich date of observation,
and in making the various corrections, otherwise
results will be seriouslj' inaccurate.

of
each problem
Here
is
an example
STELLAR NAVIGATION
80
1898, July 26th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 43 22' S,
when
the time by Chronometer was on the 26th 16 h. 18 m. 10
whose
error on
2W
Alt.
Bye 19
of
- S.-D.
15' 55-98"
16'
2-36
6-38
4-25
3190
1276
2552
12
of
2-26
H.
was 2 m. 24
T. G.
Mer. was 25
13' 0", I.
s. fast, the Obs.

E. -1' 30", Height
Required the Longitude by Chronometer.
feet.
J S.-D
T. by Chron. 26th 16" 18" 10"
2 24
Error
15' 55-98"
M. T. G. 26th
15'
16
15
46
8-28"
58-24"
58' 30-77"
Aug.
E. A. M.
8"
Bed.
7'
5"
16'
37-7
2-46
13
19^
28-77
1) E. A.
14" 30"' 50-27
37-07
)i Dec.
19 56' 11-1" S
2' 32-5"
27-34
19 58" 43-6" S
90 0' 0"
14 31
P. D.
Obs. Alt. 25 13'
1'
70^
1'
0"
30"
25 11' 30"
11685
4674
9348
Dip.
25
99-3225
8-28
4'
16"
7'
14"
5"
16'
S.-D.
12
25 23' 19"'
50' 15"
Ap. Alt.
P. - E.
23"
9"
5 E. A.
23-4641-58
Tr. Alt. 26 14' 6"

43 22' 0" Sec
Lat.
.70 1' 16" Cosec
P. D.
.
187712
117320
23464
37-07312
J)
Dec.
96-54"
60
152-53 22
2'
32-5"
-138481
026952
139 37' 22"
69 48' 41" Cos
9-537959
43 34' 35" Sin
9-838423
Log. H. A.
1-58
77232
48270
9654
25"
16" 48-48"
58' 22-49"
23-37
4-25
5-6
58'
P.
58 45-86
)) H. P.
58' 22-49"
2-26"
27-1150
'
M.
s.,
? H. A.
D E. A.
4"
49"
= 9-541815
18-0'
14 31
27-3
19
8
20
19
45-3
26-8
M. T. S.26th 11
M.T.G.26th 16 15
16-5
46-0
Long, in T.
29-5
Longitude
E. A. Mer.
E. A. M.
14
78 37' 22"
16^"
STELLAR XAVIGATIOX
86
1898,
November
6th, a.m.
40 11' N, Long. 157^ 47'
Ship, in
at
W, when M.
T. G.
Lat. D. E.
by Chrono-
meter was on the 6th 4 h. 4-3 m. '28 s., the Obs. Alt. 2. 'was
62 26' 0" near the Meridian, I. E. + 1' 25", Height of
Eye 17
feet.
Eequired the Latitude by Reduction to the
Meridian.
D S.-D.
14'
3'
52-59"
1 4 55-67
M. T. G. 6th 4'' 45'

Long in T. 10 31
"iS-
M. T.
20
S.-D.
14' 52-59"
D E. A.
9" 6" 18-36'
1-23"
27-13
45-49
3-08
4-8
S.
5th 18 14
14' 53-82"
12-8"
Aug.
2464
1232
12
)
i
15'
14-784
t
1-23
1>
'
I
H.P.
54' 30-21"
54 41-52
9048
4524
E.
6-6"
STELLAR NAVIGATION
Obs. Alt. 62 26'
I.E.
..
+
62
1'
0"
25"
IT 25"
4'
Dip.
87
2"
62 23' 23"
S.
D.
Ap.
P.-E.
15'
7"
62 88' 30"
Alt.
.
Tr. Alt.
Bed.
24'
16"
14"
3"
STELLAR NAVIGATION
88
M.
T. S.
22nd
Long, in T.
E. A. M.
Acen.
12 23' 15"
4 49' 44"
2 15-57
M. T.
30-08
15
S.
U_
23
E. A. Mer.
R. A.
14 26
1 33
Is
* H.
12 52
51
A.
54
2nd Bed.
Bed.
52 51-
1st
12''
A.
9-00
5-42
-09
* H.
1 33' 31"
M. T. G. 22na
1st Eed. Sin
12
Time from Mer.

Lat.
Dec
Log.
52 51
49 2' 0" S Cos
57 45' 5" S Cos
106 47'
i Eed.
0 16'
5"
Cosec
38" = Sin
8-121739
9-816652
9-727211
Tr. Alt.
Const.
-018902
3" = Sin
7-684504
0 16' 38"
2
17
Tan
.
7-9862
2
5-9724
9-4830
9-6990
5-1544
2ndEed = 3"
STELLAR NAVIGATION
Deo.
25-8"
E. T,
4-4
ri88
113-52
53-52"
1'
5 S.-D.
14' 54-64
.'i
On
26th
4''
21 12' 49" N.
90 0'
0P.D.6847' 11"
39-43
3-94
4~ 17
^Fse
H. P.
])
54' 37-72"
5 S. D.
54-64"
1-38"
3-77"
14'
4-4
1508
1508
14'
Aug.
121 16-588
ri8
-3 10~
16" 18-49'
Accel. 4*
Accel. 24"
14' 58-41
46
59
'
K. A. M.
23
E. T.
3" 11-13*
Dec.
21 10' 55-5"
1 53-5"
4" 21' 13-
4-4 Error of Chron.
108 M. T. G. 26th
108
1032
1032
60
Time by Chron.
27'
89
Aug. S.-D. 15'
54' 42-79" 8
56-02"
11"
Bed. H. P. 54' 36
15
]>
H. P.
54' 37-72"
15
90
54' 51-.55"
13-83"
4-4
To Correct
5532
5532
)
Obs. Alt.
60-8 52
5-07
I.E..
39 11' 40"
-1'20"
39 10'
D R. A.
19-462"
Dip.
S.-D.
77848
38924
467088
'P Dee.
107-08"
2-4
42832
21416
60
2^;992^
4'
16-992"
'Ap. Alt.
'e,-p.
Tr. Alt.
1-96
46-7
56
48-66
tJie
4'
} Dec.
9' 13-9"
4'
17"
4'
57"N
0'
0"
5 P. D. 74' 55'
3"
Altitudes
12
56"
6-8"
Bed.
7"
E. A.
5)
5-07"
Obs. Alt.
I. E.
.
51 19'
0"
+1'20"
STELLAR NAVIGATION
90
Having now got the two Longitudes, the next

to look out in
of
Burdwood's Tables
the Sun and Moon.
The Sun
Table
is,
with
of course, plain sailing,
Lat.
50 N,
3 h. 34 m. P.M., his True Bearing

or S. 75i
In
21
Dec.
is
step
is
True Bearings
for the
and entering the
N, and A. T.
found to be
S.
N 104^ W,
W.
utilising
remember that
will correspond
Burdwood
if
the
to find the
Moon
is
with p.m. time
Moon's Azimuth
West
of
but
the
if
Mer. the H. A.
Moon
is
East
Mer. 12 hours must be deducted from her H. A., and

the remainder will correspond with a.m. time in the Tables.
of
In this problem, therefore, you must enter the Tables

with Lat. 50 K, Dec. 15 N, and 10
h. 48 m. a.m., that is
H. A. 22 h. 48 m. 11 s. less 12 h. this gives the
Moon's True Bearing as N 151 E or S 29 E.
to say the
Fig. 90
A B be the Parallel of 50 6' N let

be the position given by the Altitude of the Moon, and
that given by the Altitude of the Sun; the hnes of
In the diagram
m
s
let
STELLAR NAVIGATION
position,
M p and
Bearings of the
s p,
drawn
at right angles to
Moon and Sun
the true position of the ship

section
the Latitude used
91
is
is
respectively,
the True
show
therefore too
much
Southward, and the Longitude given by the Sun
much to the Eastward, while

too much to the Westward.
Now, by Johnson's
that given
True Bearings
S 75i
Moon S 29 E
to the
is
too
by the Moon
is
Tables, the position of p can be
determined in the following manner

Sun
that
at p, their point of inter-
STELLAR NAVIGATION
92
If the
two Longitudes do not come out alike it shows

is something wrong in working Johnson's
that there
Tables.
Take notice that when the Bearings

Bodies are in adjacent quadrants, as
example, the
sum
of the
Tables must be used
is
of the
Heavenly
the case in this
numbers taken from Johnson's
but
when they
are either in the
same quadrant, or in opposite quadrants, the difference

between the numbers taken from Johnson's Tables must
be used.
93
CHAPTEE XIX
SECOND DIFFERENCES
(Candidates for Extra Masters' Certificates are ex-
Board
pected by the
work
to
of Trade Exaviiners to he able to
lohat are called
'
Second Differences.')
As you know, the Declination of the Sun and the

Equation of Time are given you in the Almanac for
every day at Greenwich noon and the Variation in one
hour is given at every Greenwich noon. The Variation in
;
one hour
the hourly rate of change of Declination or
is
Equation
of
change
of
Time
for every
at
hour
Greenwich noon.
Greenwich noon, the correction

Equation
of
If the rate of
24 was the same as that for
of the
Time would be
for Declination or
for
accurately found by multi-
plying the Variation due to one hour, as given in the
Almanac, by the Greenwich date
But
of
your observation.
does not follow that the Variation for one hour, in
it
other words the rate of change, for every hour in the
24
is
the same as the Variation in one hour, or rate of
change
To
at
Greenwich noon.
take an imaginary and exaggerated case
suppose
the Sun's Declination to be 15 North to-day, and 15 24'
North to-morrow
the 24 hours.
1'
to-day,
the Sun will have gone North 24' in
Suppose the Variation in one hour were
and were
also 1' to-morrow.
Obviously the
Variation for any one hour in the 24 would be

if
the Greenwich date
all
of
1'
;
you would have to do would be to multiply
and add the result
to
and
your observation were 6 hours,

1'
by
6,
the Declination at noon to-day.
But suppose the Variation
in one
hour given
for
noon
SECOND DIFFERENCES
94
to-day were 2', and the Variation for one hour given
noon to-morrow were 30", in that case if you were
multiply
2'
by
6,
and add the
for
to
result to the Declination at
noon to-day, you obviously would not get the Sun's
As the Sun was moving

North at the rate of
an hour at noon to-day, and was
moving North at the rate of only 30" an hour at noon
to-morrow, it is clear that the assumption that it was
moving at the rate of 2' an hour at 6 hours to-day would
Declination at 6 hours correct.
2'
be highly inaccurate.
You know
Declination
the Moon's Bight Ascension
that
and
given you for every hour in the Almanac,
is
and that the Variation in ten minutes is also given at

every hour. That Variation in ten minutes is the rate
of
change in ten minutes in every hour.
change
all
for every ten
you would have
to be applied to the
would be
to do in order to find the correction
Moon's Eight Ascension or Declination
to multiply the variation in ten
Greenwich date
is
minutes by the
But it does not

Moon, that is to say the
your observation.
of
follow that the motion of the

rate of change,
the rate of
If
minutes in the hour were the same,
the same during every ten minutes
contained in an hour.
Take an imaginary and extreme

Declination of the
and
at 7 hours
North
3 in
Moon
at 6
Suppose the
case.
hours to-day was 22 North
was 25 North.
The Moon has moved
Suppose the Variation in ten
one hour.
mmutes was 30' at 6 hours, and was also 30' at 7 hours.

The moon would have moved North 30' in every ten
minutes during the hour
date to be 6 h. 20 m.,
all
and supposing your Greenwich
you would have
to do
would be
to
multiply 30' by 2 and add the result to the Moon's
Declination at 6 hours.
But suppose the Variation
ten minutes at 6 hours was 1 and at 7 hours was 15',
obvious that
if
you were to multiply
by
2,
in
it is
and add the
SECOND DIFFERENCEvS
95
you would get an
result to the Declination at 6 hours,
erroneous Declination at your Greenwich date 6 h. 20 m.
minutes
If the Variation in ten
hours was
at 6
the Variation in ten minutes at 7 hours
was
all
and
15', it is quite
minutes
clear that the Variation in the six periods of ten
contained in one hour are not
1,
the same.
In the case of the Sun, you would have to find out

the Variation in one hour at 6 hours Greenwich date.
In the case of the
Moon you would have
to find out the
To
Variation in ten minutes at 6 h. 20 m. Greenwich date.
do so you must work to
What you have
'
Second
to do
is
Dii3:erences.'
the
to find
mean
rate at
moving during the time elapsing between

the Greenwich date of your observation and the nearest
previous date at which the body's Variation in one hour
which a body
is
or in ten minutes, as the case
may
be, is given in the
Nautical Almanac.
Take the case
of the Declination of the Sun.
Suppose your Greenwich date
on June
6 hours
is
What you want to get at the average rate

which the Sun has moved between noon and 6 hours.
The Variation for one hour is given to you at noon on the
16th, and at noon on the 17th, namely 5-08" on the 16th,
and 4-05" on the 17th, the difference 1-03" is the change
16th, 1898.
is
at
in rate
What
which has occurred during the 24 hours.
you want to know
is
the average rate at which the
has progressed to the Northward in the 6 hours.
must assume that the

24 hours.
This
is
Sun
We
rate changes uniformly during the
not strictly true, but
it is true enough
and on that assumption it is
for all practical purposes,
obvious that the average rate for the 6 hours will be the
actual rate at 3 hours
so
what we have
the actual rate at 3 hours.

first
to find the actual rate of
rate of
change for one hour
The
best
change
is
for
easily
to do
way
to
is
to get
do that
one hour.
is
The
found by dividing
SECOND DIFFERENCES
96
the change of rate during the 24 hours, which
24
1-03
^ 24
-04" very nearly.
is
1-03" by
-04" is therefore the
We want to know the change of

clearly -04" x 3, and -04 x 3 = -12".
change of rate in one hour.

rate in 3 hours.
This
Now
noon on the 16th was travelling

hour and at noon on the 17th
the
Sun
at
rate of 5'08" per
is
travelling at the rate of 4'05" per hour, therefore

is
at the
it
was
its
rate
decreasing, and as the rate has decreased during 3 hours
by
-12", that
was the
amount must be deducted from
rate at noon.
5-08
'12
= 4-96.
5'08",
which
This result
is
the Variation for one hour proper to the Greenwich

date of your observation
for
that
is
to say, the Variation
one hour to be used in correcting your Declination.
This explanation shows the exact principle involved

but, to avoid the unnecessary trouble of exactly dividing
the time elapsing between your Greenwich date and the

previous noon, which might be a difficult operation,
advisable to adopt the following
method
it is
Divide the change of rate in 24 hours by 48 instead
and multiply by the whole time elapsing between

your Greenwich date and noon instead of half of it.
Obviously in the above example it comes to the same
of
by
24,
whether yoii divide by 24 and multiply by 3, or

by 48 and multiply by 6. It is simpler to multiply
and it is easier to divide by 4 and
first and divide after
then by 12, than by 48. Therefore, in working this
example to second differences you should multiply the
change of rate in 24 hours, namely 1-03", by 6, the Greenwich date, and divide by 4 and 12, thus
thing,
divide
1-03"
6
4)6-18
12
^54
13"
This gives -13" instead of -12" as found before.
The
SECOND DIFFERENCES
and
difference is infinitesimal,
97
arises because a sufficient
number of decimal places were not

the more accurate of the two.
To work this example out to
used.
-IS"
is
of course
The
the bitter end.
Sun's Declination at noon on the 16th was 23 22' 11-1"

Variation in one hour given
increasing.
the 16th was 508" decreasing.

difference -13" deducted
at
date)
=
of
from 5-08"
;
4-95",
which
is
the
4-95" x 6 hours (the
29-7" to be added to the Declination
noon, which therefore
The Equation
noon on
Correction for second
Variation in one hour to be used
Greenwich
for
is
Time
is
same way.
some examples
23 22' 40-8" N.
corrected for second difference
in precisely the
Here
'
are
On January
Time
at
10th, 1898, at 14 h. 13
m. 18
s.
Mean
Greenwich, find the Declination of the Sun and
the Equation of Time.'
Declination on January 10th at
wich was
Mean Noon
21 54' 49-2" South, decreasing.

Variation in
1''
on 10th
at
Green-
SECOND DIFFERENCES
98
Equation
Greenwich, 7
of
Time on January 10th
m 61'61
s.
increasing.
Hourly Variation on 10th

11th
at
Mean Noon
SECOND DIFFERENCES
Equation of Time on March 18th
Greenwich 8 m. 7'17 s. decreasing.
Var.
at
Mean Noon
at
SECOND DIFFEREXCES
100
The Moon's Declination

decreasing.
At
Oh. was 25 14' 31-7" S
at
the Variation in 10 minutes was 25-77,"
h.
was 27-75" we want to know what is

h. 35 m., in other
the Mean Variation between h. and
words we want to know the actual rate at 17i minutes,
Take the difference between
or decimally, 17-5 minutes.
25'77" and 27-75"
it is 1-98", which is the change of
this divided by 60 equals -033", the
rate in one hour
change of rate in one minute, which multiplied by 17-5
equals -5776", and that is the correction to be appHed to
and
one hour
at
it
the Variation in 10 minutes at
h.,
as the Variation in 10 minutes
added to
is
25-77"
Therefore
it.
namely, 25-77"
increasing,
This
Variation in 10 minutes to be used.
explanation of the process.

it
is
to
namely 1-98"
the
the correct
way
of doing
and the Variation in 10 minutes at 1 h.,

multiply by the total number of minutes
h.,
;
Greenwich date
you 69-3", and divide

gives
is
simplest
to be
is
it
26-35",
take the difference between the Variation in
10 minutes at
of the
The
-58"
and,
you
which gives
by 120 instead of 60, which
35, or decimally 3-5,
this
-58" very nearly,
and
this is the correction to be
added to the Variation for 10 minutes at
Let us
h.
complete the operation, working to second differences.
The Variation
found to be 26-35".
which
is
26-35" by
in 10
minutes to be used has been
Your Greenwich date
3| times, or decimally
3-5,
3-5.
is
35 minutes,
Therefore multiply
and you have 92-225", which equals
1'
32-23",
the correction to be applied to the Declination at

to be subtracted, because the Declination
Declination at O"
Change in 35"
Declination at O" 35"
Treat
manner.
is
h.,
and
decreasing.
25 14' 31-7" S
1' 82-2"
25 12' 59-5" S
the Moon's Eight Ascension

Here are a few examples
:
in
the
same
SECOND DIFFERENCES
1.
On August
19th, 1898, at
Uh.
56 m. 30
101
s.,
M.
T. G.,
required the Moon's Eight Ascension and Declination.
On August
11 h. 43 m. .55-01
19th at 14
h.,
s.
Variation in 10' at 14"
the
Moon's E. A. was
SECOND DIIFERENCES
102
2.
On
October 31st, 1898, at 17 h. 28 m. 10
s.
M.
T. G.,
required the Moon's E. A. and Decimation.
At 17
was 4
h.
h.
on October
31 m. 52-44
31st, the
s.
Variation in 10" at
17i'
18"
Moon's Eight Ascension
SECOND DIFFERENCES
elapsing between your Greenwich
103
date
and noon ex-
pressed in hours and decimals of an hour, and divide the

result
the
by 48 (by 4 and then by
Moon, multiply the change
12)
of rate in
in the case
of
one hour by the
time, expressed in minutes and decimals of a minute,
elapsing between your Greenwich date and the next less
hour, and divide the result by 120.

All this involves a great deal of trouble for very little
profit, as
the difference between working with or without
second differences
immaterial
but
is,
it
for all practical purposes, absolutely
has to be done at the Board of Trade
Examination, and therefore

should
know how
to do
it.
it
is
necessary
tbat
you
104
CHAPTER XX
(Bequired for Extra Master's Certificate)
The Double
inasmuch
is
Altitude problem
as accurate
is
a pretty one,
knowledge
not necessary to obtain accurate Latitude.
may
Altitude
consist of
two Altitudes
and
useful,
Greenwich date
of the
of the
A Double
same body,
taken with an intervening interval large enough to give a

sufficient angle at the Pole, or of Altitudes of
so situated
as
may
Altitudes
to
give
sufficient
two bodies
The
Polar angle.
be both on the same side of the Meridian,
or one on one side
and the other on the other
latter situation gives
diagram
the best results.
The
side.
glance at the
will explain the nature of the problem.
The figure is drawn on the plane of the Horizon. The

circle n w o s i e is the Horizon,
p is the Pole, z the
Zenith, s the True position of the Sun East of the
Meridian, and y the True position of the Sun "West of the
Meridian,
and y o are the Altitudes, z x and
y are
the Zenith Distances, and p x and p y are the Polar Distances.
Angles.
The angle x p y
The problem is
is
the
Find
sum
of
the two Horn-
the Colatitude, pz,
and
thence the Latitude.
The
first
step
is
to find
x y.
For
have the two known sides p x and p

included angle x p y.
You want
this purpose
y',
you
and the known
to find the third side
Proceed by the formula already given in page 37,

namely. Log. of the angle x p y + Log. Sine p x + Log
Y.
105
Sine p Y gives auxiliary angle 6 in time, which turn into

arc.
Find the
difference
between p x and p
y.
The
natural Versine of this difference + the natural Versine of

6 gives the Versine of
frequently the
case,
x Y, which take
the
difference
Distances does not amount to more than
of
6 gives
appearance
SY.
The sum
X P Y
will
out.
If,
as
is
between the Polar

1,
the Versine
present the following
106
Add
oiDposite side p y.
together the three sides p x, Y x,
P T, call the result the sum, divide the
the result the half sum.

half
sum and
Find the
sum by
difference
p y, and call this the remainder.
2,
and
call
between the
Then add
together the Log. Cosecant of p x, the Log. Cosecant of
y x,
the Log. Sine of the half sum, and the Log. Sine of the
remainder, and the sum, divided by
Cosine of half the angle p x

multiply
it
looks this
by
2,
way
P X
YX
PT
Sum
2,
gives the Log.
Take out the Cosine,

and you have the angle p x Y. The sum
Y.

This
is
member
side
is
all
plain sailing,
and there
is
107
nothing to
re-
except that you must always deduct the opposite
from the half sum.
Having thus found the big angle p X y, the third step

x y.
You have the two including sides z x, y x, and the
to find the smaller angle z
Proceed exactly as in step 2, and you

Take the lesser angle z x y from the
angle pxy, and you have the angle pxz. Now
opposite side z y.
will get z
greater
Y.
for the fourth
You have
and you want
and you have
and
final step.
the angle
to find p
it.
pz
is
z.
pxz, and the two
sides px, zx,
Proceed precisely as in step
taken from 90 gives the Latitude, and there you
whole problem would present
itself like this
(i)
If
1,
the Colatitude, and the Colatitude
(ii)
are.
The
108
Fig. 92 shows
how
Altitudes of the
Meridian.
the problem presents
Sun
are taken
All you have to
itself if
on the same
remember
is
both the
side of the
that whereas in
the case of Altitudes on different sides of the Meridian the
sum
of the
Hour Angles forms
of Altitudes
on the same
the angle
side of
xpt,
in the case
the Meridian the greater
Hour
Angle
xpz the lesser Hour Angle
Y p z, forms the
angle xpt.
In this explanation
the
problem
has
worked
been
with the angles

at X.
solve
You can
it
using
the
angles
the
first
Alti-
at
X, or
tude
of
with the angles

of the
second Altitude at
plan is
It
to use whichever
y,
is
whichever you
like.
The
best
the larger angle of the two.
may be that in the interval between two observations
of the
same body
it
crosses the Meridian
North
of the
Zenith, as in figure 93.

If
you are unaware
of this fact
you
will
soon find
it
come out grievously wrong.

But it can soon be put right. The only difference in
working the problem is that in North Latitude if the body
crosses North of the Zenith you take the sum of the angles
p X Y and z X Y to get the angle p x z, instead of their
difference, as you would do in the case of the body crossing
out, because the Latitude will

South
Zenith
of the
and
of course in
you would adopt the same course

South
if
109
South Latitude
the body crossed
of the Zenith.
Instead of finding the angle x p T from the two

Angles, you
may note
Hour
the interval between observation by
your Chronometer, turning the
Mean Time by Chronometer
into Apparent
Time, so as to
get an interval of
Appar-
ent Time.
have
treated
this
Double
Alti-
tude problem
as
if
the posiof
the
observer
did
tion
not shift be-
tween
the
observations
but
as,
if
at
sea, his posi-
must be reduced to
had been taken from the position
tion does shift, one of the Altitudes
what
it
would be
if
it
occupied by the observer at the time of the other observaIn other words, an allowance must be made for
tion.
the run of the ship.
If
Latitude
is
required at the time
the second observation, the first Altitude must be

If it is wanted at the time of the first observareduced.
of
tion,
the second Altitude must be reduced.
That
is
easily
done.
Take the case

second Altitude.
of finding
If,
Latitude at the time of the
in the interval,
you have approached
110
the Sun the
Altitude will have to be increased.
first
you have receded from the Sun

This
at
is
to
be South of you
you moved South jôu vi'ould increase
if
Sun
overhead 90.
v^âs
North you would decrease the angle

the Horizon
If
miTst be decreased.
Suppose the Sun
obvious.
an Altitude of 30,
the angle until the
it
If
until the
you moved
Sun was on
0.
Take the Bearing of the Sun at your first observation,

and take the Course and Distance made good during the
interval.
Find the difference in angle between the Sun's
Bearing and the Course, if there is any. If there is none, you
are approaching the Sun directly. If the angle is less than
90 you are approaching
is
it
an acute angle.
at
If the angle
it nor receding from it.

between 90 and 180 you are receding
90 you are neither approaching
If the angle lies
you are receding

you are directly approaching
receding the whole run is the correction for
it
at
from
it
directly.
or are directly
Altitude
If it is 180
an obtuse angle.
from
and
Of course
if
if
the angle
is
90,
approaching nor receding, there
is
and you are neither

no correction. The
Traverse Table affords the simplest means of ascertaining

the correction
under
any
other
conditions.
If
you
are approaching the Sun enter Table II. with the angle
between the ship's Course and the Sun's Bearing as a
Course, and the run in miles in the Distance column.
The corresponding number

be the correction.
If
column will
you are receding from the Sun,
in the Diff. Lat.
enter the table with the supplement of the angle between
the Course and Sun's Bearing, and proceed as before.
A
is
at
Double Altitude by two observations of a star

in the same way, but remember that the angle
worked
the Pole, namely, the angle x p y,
Sidereal Time.
interval
is
an interval
of
The angle x p Y is found by measuring the
by chronometer, but
in that case the interval of

Solar
Mean Time must
111
be converted by acceleration for
the hours and minutes of the interval into an interval of

Sidereal Time.
In the event of taking simultaneous Altitudes of two

stars,
their
hours
the angle at the Pole,
Eight Ascensions
;
but
if it
to the lesser
if
p y,
is
the difference between
that difference
is less
than 12
exceeds 12 hours, 24 hours must be added
Eight Ascension before finding the
difference.
112
Mean
Solar Time,
it is
so short as to
make
acceleration
imnecessary in order to get Sidereal Time.
Let X and y be the position
them
Altitude of one of
position
when
obvious that
taken
first,
is
two
the Altitude of the other

if
stars
when
is
taken.
the Altitude of x, the Eastern
the
y, their
It is
star, is
the position of the Western star will be at
Y, after the' short interval of
Angle
of
taken, and x, and
will be
xpy,
xpx,, or ypy,, and the Polar
but on the contrary,
if
the Altitude
the Polar Angle will be XiPY.
Y be taken
Double Altitudes may be taken with any Heavenly
Bodies in suitable positions, and in any connection but
of
first,
the
Moon
is,
as usual, troublesome
on account
of her
rapid motion, and the Greenwich date of the observation
must be precisely known in order to correct her Declination and Bight Ascension with sufficient accuracy, whereas
with all other bodies a rough Greenwich date is sufficient.

In dealing with stars be careful to
113
two
select
stars a
connecting which will pass well clear of the Zenith,
line
otherwise you cannot
North or South
of
whether the small angle
xY
is
to be taken
added to p x Y in order to find p x

examples
2'
passes
Here
z.
from or
some
are
I. On June 11th, 1898, a.m.

showed June 11th 2h. 59 m. 22
24
xy
whether the arc
tell
and consequently you do not know
it,
40", Bearing
27i
Chronometer
at ship, a
s.,
M.
(true)
T. G., Obs. Alt.
and
p.m. at ship,
when the Chronometer showed June 11th 7 h. 51 m. 29-4 s.,

the Obs. Alt. ^ was 15 9' 60", Height of Eye 20 feet, run
between sights S 36
(true)
Eequired the
26 miles.
Latitude at the time of the second observation.

10-21"
9-19"
10-21"
9-19"
1-02"
To
1-02
7-86
8)3-06
6)-38
610
816
714
06
8)8-0070
10-15
C)l-00
At
23
6'
52-9"
30-5"
N.A.
23-4"
23
90
0'
0"
113
7'
23-4"
7'
At
Eq. of Time.
Declinatiou
p. 93
0'" 37-62"
36-1
+ M.T.
2ncl
Observation
Declination
23 6' 62-9"
1'
18-8"
23
8'
11-7"
90
0'
1-52
0"
113
17
To find
10-04
7-85
5020
8032
7028
60)78-8140
1'
18-8"
505
-614
-505
-514
009
-009
7-85
48)-0278)-07066
-001
-506
6)-009
506
-806
-001
1-518
correct the necessary data
1st Observation
-506
7-85
2530
4048
3542
3-97210
VOL.
II.
M. T. G. 11th
E. o T.
the
Apparent Interval
Eq
of
O"
+M.
T.
Time
37-62
3-97
33-66
114

To Correct
At Isi Observation
Obs. Alt.
the Altitudes
At 2nd Observation

To find the side x y
(1)
X P Y
4'<
^'
113
113
PY
52"
5-
7'
23"
12"
8'
XY
.-.
(2)
XY
PY
PX
To find
66 20' 30"
113 8' 12"
113 7' 28"
XY =
the angle
4"
pyx
Log. Hav
Log. Sin
Log. Sin
9-54899
9-963629
9-963585
Hav
9^476204
Log.
25- 22' = 66 20' 30"

(3)
To find
tlie
angle z y x
116
116
In the subsidiary calculations
on the
side
Second
Quite sufficient accuracy
Differences have been used.
would be obtained without them, but they will serve as

an example of how Second Differences are worked.
II. On October 31st, 1898, in Lat. D. E. 15 40' S, Long.
160 25'
W,
at about 11 h. p.m., A. T. S., the Obs. Alt. of
Canopus
(E. of Mer.)
was
moment
the Obs. Alt.
of
35 17' 30",
I.
the Latitude.
A. T. S. 31st
Long, in T.
B.
nil,
"i'i"
34' 50",
and
at the
same
Aldebaran (B. of Mer.) was
Height
of
Bye 16
feet.
Eequired

(1)
To find
= V' 51' 35"

PA =106 18' 29"
p c = 37 21' 52"
A p c
the side a
o.
117
118

(4)
To find
Z P c A
Z z c A
Z
(5)
-p
^ 30
8"
30"
93 44' 38"
To find p
152
0'
= 58 15'
z c p
z c p
z c
p c
angle z c p
tJie
6"
14" 58-5'
2 (^7 Colatitiide)
Log. Hav
Log. Sin
Log. Sin
14" 5S-5'
= 67 31' 22"
= 37 21' 52"
6''
9'
9-72644
9-965687
9-783105
Log.
Hav
30"
Nat.
Vei-s.
30"
Nat. Vers. 135287
30"
9=4''
25"
2"
= 66
15'
9'
9-475232
597253
133
zc-pc =
30
74
p z or Colat.
Nat. Vers. 732747
481
^66
.-.
0'
57"
0"
Latitude 15 30'
3"
p z or Colat.
74=
yO
29'
S.
11
The Verifleation of Double Altitudes
The accuracy
of a
Latitude found by a Double Altitude
can be tested by Sumner
Examination must be
To do
so, find
the
and in the Board
lines,
of
Trade
so tested.
Hour Angles
of the
body or bodies
less and the other

by Double Altitude, by
the difference between these
two Latitudes, one
observed, using
greater than the Latitude found

15' or 20'
on each
side.
Call
Latitudes C.
the
If
observations are on
Meridian, find the

lesser Latitude
sum
and
sides
different
the
of
Hour Angles due to the

sum of the Hour Angles due
But if the observations are on
of the
also the
to the greater Latitude.
the same side of the Meridian, find the difference in both
These sums or differences are the elapsed times
cases.
due to each Latitude used.
Find the
difference
between the elapsed time due to
the lesser Latitude, and the true elapsed time, which

the Polar Angle used in the Double Altitude.
ence
is
is
differ-
the error in time consequent upon using the lesser
Latitude.
Call this difference B.
Find the
lesser
This
difference
between the elapsed time
for the
and the elapsed time for the greater Latitude.
difference is the error of elapsed time
between the Latitudes used.
Now
This
due to the difference
Call this difference A.
you have a simple proportion sum, namely, as A

due to the erroneous Latitudes
(the error of elapsed time
used)
is
to
Latitude) so
Latitudes) to
(the error of elapsed time

is
(the difference
X a
due to the
less
between the assumed
correction to be applied to the less
120
assumed Latitude. The simplest way of working the sum
by using proportional Logs. (Table

still more simpHfied if,
Log. of A from the
proportional
instead of deducting the
sum of the proportional Logs, of B and C, you use the ar.
in proportion
XXXIV.)
is
This operation can be
(arithmetical complements) of the proportional Log.
CO.
of
and add all three Logs, together. The ar. co.

found by deducting the proportional Log. of A
Log.
is
from 10-0000.
The
result
the
of
sum
in proportion
gives
correction to be applied to the lesser Latitude.
elapsed time, that
is
you a
If the true
the Polar Angle, and the elapsed time
for the greater Latitude are both greater or both less than
the elapsed time for the lesser Latitude, the correction is to
be added to the lesser Latitude. But
if
of the true elapsed
time and the elapsed time for the greater Latitude, one
is
greater and the other less than the elapsed time for the
the correction
lesser Latitude,
is
to be subtracted
horn the
lesser Latitude.
If
the correction
is
found to be subtractive,
it
is
obvious that the Latitude derived from the Double Alti-
tude
is
very v?rong.
It is scarcely possible that the Latitude derived
the verification by
as that derived
Sumner
lines,
Sumner
lines vsdll be exactly the
from
same
from the Double Altitude, because the
though considered to be
straight,
are in
reality slightly curved, being segments of circles of equal
Altitudes.
and,
if
such
Altitude
is
The
is
difference will, however, be very slight,
the case, you
correct.
may assume
that the Double
Here follow two examples
troublesome and not very useful problem
of this

Example
121
I.
Proof of the Double Altitude given on
113 by
p.
Sumner's method, the assumed Latitudes being 37 30' S
and 38
0' S.
With Latitude 37
30'
S
P.M.
Tr.Alt. 24 0' 4"

37 30' 0"
Lat.
P. D. 113 7' 23"
.
Tr. Alt.
Sec
Cosec
100533
-036371
174 37' 27"

87 18' 44"
Cos
63 18' 40"
Sin
Log. H. A.
Lat.
P. D.
15 17' 55"
37 30' 0"
8'
12"
165 56'
7"
113
4"
0'
7'
0"
23"
175
7'
27"
-036415
8-671111
82 58'
3"
Cos
9-087896
67 40'
8"
Sin
9-966143
Log. H. A. = 9-190987
8-799090
H. A. = 3'' 5" 38-
With Latitude 38 S
0'
-100.533
9-951075
H. A. = l>' 50" 55-
Tr.Alt. 24
38
Lat.
P. D. 113
Cosec
Sec
122
Example
II.
Proof of the Double Altitude on page 116 by Sumner's
method, assuming Latitudes 15
20'
Assuming Latititde 15
Canopns (E)
Tr.Alt. 22 28' 38"

.15 20' 0"
Lat.
37 21' 52"
P. D.
.
Sec
Cosec
.
-015741
-216895
and 15
20'
50'.
123
CHAPTEE XXI
LUNAR
{Bequired for Extra Master)
A LuNAE
a very foolish but rather fascinating problem.
is
It is foolish in so far as it is of
fascinating because
because
in
it
it
is
affords the only
theory,
at
any
very slight practical value,
a nice problem
means whereby
ascertain the
rate,
without knowing his exact Longitude.

in practice, a
to
work, and
a mariner can,
Greenwich date
If
he could do so
Lunar would. Chronometers notwithstanding,
be of great value.
All
ships in
Chronometers.
known, and
it is
modern days are well supplied with

From them the Greenwich date is
as easy to imagine a ship-master without
a head as without a Chronometer.
But he may
possibly
become ignorant of his Chronometer's error and rate. If

so, and if he is in sight of any known and charted land,
his best way of finding the Greenwich date is by the
hour angles of good stars East and West, and his Longi-
But at sea he does not know

find Greenwich time without a
tude derived from them.

his Longitude,
and
to
Chronometer a Lunar
The
trouble with a
is
his only resource.
Lunar
is
the extreme difficulty of
measuring, with sufficient accuracy, the distance between
The difficulty of
making exact contact with the sextant held horizontally
the Svm, star, or planet, and the Moon.
LUNAE
most inconvenient
or at various
when
taking a distance,
the instrument
is
angles, as
infinitely greater
is
is
necessary
than when
held vertically, as in taking an Altitude.
When it is borne in mind that an error of only half a minute

of arc in the distance will
make on
the average an error of
fifteen minutes of Longitude, it will be

on shore and under most favourable
minute in time, or
realised that even
no easy matter to ascertain a Chronometer's error and to fix Longitude by means of a Lunar.
circumstances,
it is
And the difficulty is enormously increased at sea. A powerful inverting telescope
movement
past the edge of the

ble to hold
must be used, and
as a very moderate
of the ship will suffice to send a star flying
them
Moon,
it
becomes absolutely impossi-
and contact must be guessed
together,
at.
Moreover, good opportunities of taking Lunars are
By
not frequent.
difficult
And
day,
when
at night,
the stars, and
if
the
it is
Moon
is
Moon is small it is a
Moon if the Sun is bright.
the
matter to distinguish the
large
and bright she puts out
not easy to see them.
The most that can be said in favour of Lunars is that

if a great number of them are taken under very favourable
circumstances by a practised hand fairly accurate results
may
be expected.
It is
first-rate observer availing
even just conceivable that a

himself of frequent and good
opportunities of taking distances during a voyage of
months might succeed
in
many
arriving at a tolerably good
estimate of his Chronometer's rate
but I should not
like
upon it.
However, we need not bother our heads about whether
Lunars are useful or not. You need never work one at
sea unless it amuses you to do so but you must work
one on shore in the Examination Eoom to get an Extra
Master's Certificate, and that is the end of the matter.
to rely
LUNAR
The problem
Moon
is in
nature simplicity
its
traverses the heavens as the
round the
Moon from
given in
hand
itself.
The
dial.
The
of a clock goes
Certain stars and planets and the
dial.
represent the hours on the
is
125
Sun
distance of the
Sun and from certain planets and stars

the Nautical Almanac for every three hours at
the
Greenwich.
All
you have
to do
is
to
measure
a distance
star, and by simple calculawas at Greenwich when the

The bother
star was at that distance from the Moon.
connected with the problem lies in what is called clearing
between the Moon, and say a

tion ascertain
what time
it
'
the distance.'
As the distance
the arc of a great circle having
is
centre in the observer,
it
must be reduced
an arc
to
great circle having its centre in the centre of the
its
of a
Earth
and as the errors due to Parallax and Refraction are errors

acting vertically, whereas the great circle of which the
distance
is
an arc
not a vertical
is
correcting the apparent distance
Lunars may be
the operation of
somewhat complicated.
You may
of three kinds.
may
Altitudes of both bodies, or you

of
is
circle,
observe the
observe the Altitude
one body and calculate the Altitude of the other, or you
may
The
calculate both Altitudes.
latter
proceeding
is
quite useless except for practice, as in order to calculate
both Altitudes you must have an accurate Greenwich

date.
To observe both
Altitudes
is
good plan, and
a very
saves a lot of trouble, but as the problem
by the Board
of
Trade in the shape
observed and the other to be calculated,

that,
and take
first
'
I.E.
let
the case of the Sun.
be something in this shape
will
is
of
always given
one Altitude
us deal with
The problem
On August 23rd, 1898, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 51 47' N.,

+ 1' 15", Height of Eye 16 feet. Chron. assumed
LUNAR
126
to
be
5'
59"
fast.
21 30' 0".
Chron. showed 5 h. 24 m. 44
Obs. Dis.
s.
75 12' 50".
Obs. Alt.
Esquired
the error of the Chronometer and the Longitude.'

First of
get the necessary elements right, using
all
the Chronometer time corrected for the assumed error.

Correct the Sun's Declination and the Equation of Time.
Look out
Find the Eight
the Sun's Semi-Diameter.
Ascension of the
Mean
Diameter, and augment
Sun.
Correct the Moon's Semi-
you have calculated

her Altitude. Correct her Horizontal Parallax, and reduce
Find her corrected Eight Ascension and
it for Latitude.
as soon as
it
Then proceed to correct the Observed Altithe Sun for Index Error, Dip, and Semi-Diameter,
Declination.
tude of
which gives you Apparent Altitude
this is
elements required in clearing the distance, so

of
From
it.
one of the
make
a note
the Apparent find the True Altitude, and
thence the Zenith Distance, which
is
another element in
Find the Sun's Hour Angle in the

Turn Apparent Time at Ship into Mean
clearing the distance.
usual way.
Time
at Ship.
Now
to
Meridian
Add
M. T.
calculate the Moon's Altitude.
E. A. M.
1)
E. A. of the Meridian.
E. A. gives the Moon's
together the
Log
of the
H.
A.,
Hour
6,
-l-
Angle.
the Log. Sine of
the Colatitude, and Log. Sine of the P. D.

the Log. of Auxiliary angle
S.
E. A. of the
The sum
is
which take out and turn
into arc.
Take the
difference
between the Colatitude and Polar
Distance, and add the natural Versine of this difference

to the natural Versine of 6
this gives the natural Versine
Moon's Zenith Distance, which take out. 90.

Z.D. = Moon's True Altitude.
To find Apparent Altitude from True Altitude the
correction for Parallax in Altitude less Eefraction must be
of the
LUNAR
127
subtracted instead of added, as you have been accustomed

to
do in turning Apparent into True Altitude.
XXX.
Table
Enter
with Horizontal Parallax at the top and
the True Altitude at the side in the Apparent Altitude
column, and take out the correction.
Deduct the correc-
True Altitude, to get an approximate Apparent

Enter the Table again with this approximate
tion from the
Altitude.
Apparent Altitude, and take out the correction.

this correction
from True
parent Altitude as nearly absolutely accurate as
While you
are about
is
required.
take out the auxiliary angle
it
from the right-hand pages
Deduct
and you have the Ap-
Altitude,
of
Table
XXX. Enter the Table
with Apparent Altitude at the side and Horizontal Parallax
Take out the minutes and seconds of the

precisely the same way as you find the Moon's
at the top.
angle in
The only
Parallax in Altitude.
difference is that
the
seconds to be added for the odd minutes of the Moon's

Altitude are given at the bottom of the page instead of at
the sides, and the right-hand column contains seconds to
be added for Altitude of the Sun or
To
star.
and seconds taken from the Tables add
the minutes
60.
This
is
angle A, an auxiliary arc used for clearing the distance.
Correct the observed distance for
and Moon's Semi-Diameters, and

Distance.'
You have now
To work the Problem.

and the Moon's Z. D.
Add together
Alt.,
all
I.
E.,
call this
add the
the
'
Sun'f.
Apparent
the elements required.
Add together the Sun's
this is arc
Z. D.
I.
the Sun's App. Alt. and the Moon's App.
and to the sum apply angle A, taking their sum,

is arc II., and their difference, which is arc III.
which
Take the sum and

and angle A.
the
difference of the
sum
is
Apparent Distance
arc TV. and the difference
is
arc V.
Now
add the natural Versines of
these
five
arcs
LUNAR
128
and the result is the natural Versine of the

True Distance. It is quite sufficient to write down the
together,
the natural Versines of the arcs, and
last five figures of
the last five figures of the natural Versine of the sum.
Look
for this
sum
in
the Versine column containing
the degrees of your Apparent Distance, and you will find

it
either in that
column
or in one of the adjacent columns
take out the degrees, minutes, and seconds appertaining

to the
sum
this
is
the True Distance.
Turn to the Nautical Almanac under Lunar distances,

commencing on page XIII. of each month, and opposite the
day of the month on the left hand you will see the distance of the Sun from the Moon given for every three
hours.
If the distances are increasing take out the dis-
tance next less to your true distance

decreasing take out the next greater.
if
the distances are
In either case take
out also the proportional Log. in the adjacent column.
Take the
between the proportional Log. and the

next one, and note whether the Log. is increasing or
difference
mark the difference

Take
in the latter case +
out the difference between
your True Distance and the distance taken from the
Almanac, and from Table XXXIV. take out the prodecreasing;
in the former case

.
portional Log. due to this difference.

tional
From
this propor-
Log. deduct the proportional Log. taken from
the Almanac, find this difference in Table

take out the time due to
Add
it.
XXXIV.
and
this time to the hours
given at the top of the column in the Almanac which

is Mean
Time at Greenwich very nearly.
To make it M. T. G. exactly: Enter Table LIV.
contains the distance you took out, and the result
with the difference between the two successive proportional Logs,
in the Nautical
the time to
be added
to
Almanac
the
at the top,
and
hours taken from the
LUNAR
Almanac
129
and take out the appropriate correcwhich add or deduct from M. T. G. accordwhether you have marked the difference between
at the side,
tion in seconds,
ing to
Almanac -h or
The
M. T. G. The difference between M. T. G. and
the time shown on your Chronometer is the error of the
Chronometer. With the M. T. G. and the M. T. S. by the
Sun the Longitude is ascertained in the usual way. This
the proportional Logs, in the
result is
is
a long, and, I fear, an obscure explanation, but until
you try yourself you can have no idea how

to explain tables in writing.
Lunar
will serve best to
in clearing the Distance.
(1)
To find
o
Obs. Alt.
I.
E.
difficult it is
Perhaps a skeleton form
make
of
clear the various stages
LUNAR
ISO
(5)
Z. D.
J Z. D.
O
.
II
To Clear
tlie
Distance.
LUNAR
131
in your working, especially in correcting all the data of
the Moon, and in the Distance, and in Angle A.

Altitude, unless large,
make no
Errors in
appreciable difference in
the result, but very small errors in anything affecting the
Distance produce serious errors in the result.
In working a Lunar be very particular in marking
all
them down quite separate

from each other, or you may fall into the
the data clearly, and writing
and
distinct
inconceivably irritating mistake of using the Sun's Polar
Distance in working the Moon's Altitude, oz vice versa, or
some other equally disgusting mistake necessitating
into
your working the whole blessed thing over again.
Here
are examples
worked to second
1898, October 21st, p.m. at
differences
5 30' S,
in Lat.
ship,
Long. D. E. 54 20' W, when the Time by a Chronometer

was on the 21st 7 h. 50 m. 10 s., which was supposed to be
fast 2 m. 30 s. on M. T. G., the Obs. Alt. Q. was 23 56' 30",
I. E. + 1' 25", Height of Bye 28 feet, the Obs. Distance
was 82
<L
27' 10",
I.
E.
the Longitude and the Error of the
M.
28".
1'
T. G.
Dec.
53-37"
52-95
-43
E. ol T.
(1)
;187"
-360
To find Approximats M.
Time by Chron.
330
294
)
3-276
8)
-55
07
60
66-7
47
2-9874
correct the necessary
40
7-8"
4'
R. A. ir. s.
! 59 48-71
9-00
[Aeon. 1
16' 11-60"
87"
2-99
10 55' 47-2"
90 0' 0"
P.D. 79
15
16' 10-73""
22-15
15-1"
13"
16' 25-83"
5)
19>'
Data.
S. D.
E. T.
15"' 19-16"
10 48' .51-5" S
6' 55-7"
-004
3064
2681
To
('Decliiiiitiori
8)-035
4264
3731
(2)
6)-2106
-383
7-8
415-74
216
189
63-3
7-8
SO" 102 30
Supposed Error
-U27
7-8
T. G.
7"
'21st
M. T. G. by Chron. 2l3t
Eequired
Chronometer on
B. A.
as
59-41"
57-95
30
67-3ti
Declination
il" 3' 50-2"
6' 44-2"
5)
59' 19 71
3-19
'
7-72
-11
19
14
20 57' 6" S
90 0' 0"
59' 16-62"
0-1
6-54
P.D. 69
2'
64"
59' 16-42"
LUNAR
132
5 S. D.
16' 11-60"
16' 10-26 "
12
H. p.
7-8
4-9
7-8
1072
988
392
343
10-452
12
I.
B.A.
S.
App.
86-0
1-3
4-8
104
12
-2
24678
8
196584
98292
60
6-24
ii
84-22
4-8
67376
83688
1 17-9504 60 )
404256
1 57-96
6 44-266
Par. in Alt.
Tr. Alt. 65 18' 67'24 19
AlJpr.App.Alt64 54 38
D.
Alt.
Tr. Alt.
Lat.
0P.
'
_52_
^21
1'
25"
5'
D.
11"
23 52 44"
16' 6"
24
E.-P.
83-7'
41
208
Dip
Dec,
052
4-8
13)
E.
23 57' 55"
3-19
24-594
24-542
To find M. T.
23 56' 30"
Obs. Alt.
88-22
-87
T)
(3)
69' 19-71"
89' 14-81 "
24 6'
5 30'
79 4'
50"
59"
S.
LUNAR
(7)
0Z.
D.
J Z. D.
To
183
clear the Distance
6.5 ,53'
24 41'
90 34' 12'
O App. Alt.
J App. Alt.
Angle
Pts. for
Sees.
I.Versine
24 8' 50"
64 54' 14"
89 ~3^ 4^'
60 29' 55"
149 32' 59'^ II.
28 33' 9" III.
App. Dist. 82 58' 14"

Angle A 60 29' 55"
09890
II. 61924
III. 21600
IV. 03511
V. 75898
Parts
287
I.
Tr. Dist.
To find the Longitude
Prop. Logs.
(8)
True Dist.
82 42' 36"
At VI. hours 81 43' 42"
Increasing
Corr.
287
73110
143 28' -9' IV.

22 28' 19' V.
At VI. hrs. 2622

At IX. hrs. 2625
58
147
21
26
35
= 82
42' 36'
LUNAR
134
Colatitude, and
late his
you find the Sun's Polar Distance.
Calcu-
Zenith Distance and True Altitude precisely as in
Remember that the
the preceding example.
being calculated there
is
no
Sun's Altitude
Semi-Diameter
E., Dip, or
I.
and that to turn True into Apparent
to be allowed for,
Altitude Refraction and Parallax are applied in the reverse
way.
Here
is
On March
an example
of
such a problem
13th, 1898, at about 7 h. 45 m. a.m., in Lat.
41 10' S, Long. (D. R.) 127 10' E,
showed 11 h. 22 m. 12
s.,
whose
error
when a Chronometer
on M. T. G. was sup-
posed to be 30 seconds slow, the Obs. Alt.
5.
(W.
of Mer.)
was 35 17' 20", I. E. nil, and the Obs. Distance between

the Sun and Moon N. L. was 120 59' 20", I. E.-H8",
the Height of the Eye was 24 feet. Required the Longitude and the Error of the Chronometer.
To find
(1)
Rough Ship Time 12th

Long, in Time about
the approximate
Bough Greenwich Time 12th 11

This M. T. G.
is sufficiently
(2)
To
Time
Sid.
Aoc. for
48
48-42
3-61
22
29-02
1-S7
11-i
59-02
548
1507
2S608
64922
IVJ
12)16618 60)672-828
1-3
-12
4L>
On
At Noon on 12th
At Sights
16'
16'
Augmentation
5 Augd.
7-18"
1-30"
8-48'
9-6"
S.-D. 16' 18-08"
Horizontal Parallax
At Noon on
12tll 59'
11 12-8
8-51"
4-78"
59' 8-29"
Reduction
4-9"
3 11' 36-4"
11' 12-8"
12tll
59-02" X 11
-41'
At Sights
Pol. Dist.
Moon's Semi-Diametei69-00
42
Sun's Declination
20 36-87"
12tll 23>"
11''
-912
S.D.
16' 7-18"
16 8-56
22
30
Data.
M.
22"!
-08
11-1
accurate to use for correcting data.
coirect the necessary
Deo.
59-08
lit 22'" 12-
M. T. G. by Chron. 12th 11
16
R. A.
59-00'
M. T. G.
45" Chronometer Time

29 Supposed Error
19'
On
0'
90
0'
23-6" S
0"
86 59' 36"
Equation of Time
" 49-92'
13tli
7-84
688xll-4''
At Sights
42-08-toM.
Moon's Right Ascension
On 12th at 111"
16l'108-86
24-8068' X 2-27
At Sights
56-31
16 11
5-16
Moon's Declination
On 12th at 11>' 22 29' 37-8"

81-62" X 2-27
3'
5-1"
Red. Hor. Par. 69' 8-39"
At Sights
22
Pol. Dist.
67 27'
32' 42-9"
17"
LUNAR
E. of T.
(3)
e85
(i96
To find Mean Time at Ship.
Obs. Alt.
Dip
oTT
11-4
48
-1254
S.-D.
-003
-686
688
11-4
27S2
7568
7-8432
5 H.P.
59'
59'
3-51"
8-54"
5-03
11-4
2012
5583
12
57-342
4-78
E, A.
24-797
24-849
12
Dec.
81-79"
80-37
-052
2-27
1-42
2-27
454
1185
994
284
284
-11801
-0098
24-797
12)3^2234
24-8068
81-79
2-27
81-52
1736476
496136
4 96136
66-311436
27
2-27
5^7064
16304
16304
60)185-0504
"5^1"'
135
35 17' 20"
4'
48"
LUNAR
136
(5)
H. P. 59'
H. P. 3"
Minutes of
*^'*-
To find Angle A.
60 0' 0"
18'
Alt. 9'
(6)
To find
the App. Dist.
Obs. Dist. N. L. 120 59' 20"
46" Table XXX.*

1"
4"
2"
I.E.
J
S.-D.
S.-D.
Apparent Dist
+18"
16'
16'
18"
121 32'
3"
60 18' 53"
(7)
To
Z. D.
1)
Z.B.
clear the Distance
68 59' 6"
53 44' 25"
122 43' 31" Vers 40485
App. Alt. 21
J)
App.
/.A.
3'
Alt. 35 28'
13"
50"
56 32' 3"
60 18' 53"
116 50' 56" Vers 51397
3 46' 50" Vers 02160
pj^
127
7"
LUNAR
137
you would in a ordinary Longitude by Chronometer

Here is an example
as
Problem.
On November 2nd, 1898, at about 1 h.

0' B, when
10 m. a.m., in Lat.
a Chron. showed
whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to
be fast 24 s., the Obs. Alt. of Fomalhaut (W of Mer.) was
25
47' 0", L E. nil; the Obs. Dist. F. L. was
28 17' S, Long. D. E. 90
7 h. 8
m. 10
s.,
105 14' 20",
I.
E. 1'
Height
12",
Eye 28
of
Ee-
feet.
quired the Error of the Chron. and the Long.

2
S.-D.
68-34"
55-24
5H.P.
51-3"
39-92
To ascertain Approximate M. T, G.
(1)
Bough Ship Time,

Long, in Time
1st
3-1
11-38
7-1
.7'1
31
217
12)22-01
(2)
B. A. M.
14'>
1-92
6-73
43"
1
To
E)
Dec,
4-92"
77
77
S.-D.
14' 66-42"
8-1"
54' 44-67"
Pomalliaut's B. A.
868
B. A.
J)
S""
9-82
i"
17-16
6
26-98
42"
Pomalliaut's Dec,
30 9' 27" S
90 0' 0"
22'' 62> 6-5
Dec.
24 49'
3)
3-7"
P. D. 59 50' S3"
24 49' 39-9"
12)-9648
P. D. 114 40' 40"

22-287
-77
156009
166009
080
4^92
77
To find M. T. S.
(3)
0"
11"
25
Obs. Alt. Fomalhaut

Dip.
.
17-16099
3388
3388
App.
Alt.
25 41' 49"
Eel
1'
Tr. Alt,
Lat.
P. D.
.
58"
25 39' 51"
28 17' 0"
59 50' 33"
Z. D. 64 20' 9"
-055214
Sec
Cosee -063160
113 47' 24"

~5"6~53'
42"
Cos
9-737332
31 13' 51"
Sin
9-714738
9-570444
Fomalhaut's H. A.
S"-
0'
E. A. 22 52
46
2-5"
21-0
12)-00924
Data
54' 61-3"
6-73"
24
G., 1st 7
Hor. Par.
1-92"
.7'' 8"' 10"
Approximate M. T.
54'
1-24
22-288
Error fast
14' 68-34"
10-8'
....
Chronometer
10
-1
14 44
-012
001
0^
correct the necessary
ri
H. A.
22-288
22-276
lO"
Rough Grreenwich Time
1138
7966
12)80-798
13>>
.
37-7"
5-5
E. A. Mer.
E. A. M. S.
27 52
14 44
48-2
21
M. T.
13
22-2
S. 1st
138
LUNAK
LUNAR
(8)
To find
the error of the
139
Chronometer and Long.
Prop. Log,
3426
3441
-15
True Distance
At VL hours
.
104 28'
103'='
0
l''
57'
6"
14"
Prop. Log
3426
LUNAR
140
B
3 H.
S.-D.
16' 23-8"
16' 16-9"
3-9"
-2"
12)1^
0'
25-37"
2"
12
5-074
-42
-11
E. A.
22-891
22-826
141-61
142-12
Dec.
0-51
1-17
-066
1-17
455
715
12
p.
60' 4-42"
59' 39-05"
-07605 12
-006
22-891
367
661
)
-6967
LUNAR
e= 0''46'" 2-7'
= 11 30' 40"
Con*, in Alt.
3"
51'
51-5"
9"
52'
3-5"
25 43' 17"
3"
52'
24 51' 14"
51'
20"
52"
10"
52'
22"
Prop. Log.
2405
2421
-16
P. D.
olat.
= 6259' 33"
LUXAR
142
The
'
following diagram shows
what has
to be
doae in
clearing the distance.'
Let
NWSE
be a figure on the plane of the Horizon,
Meridian
x, the Apparent Sun,

by Refraction, diminished by
Parallax, if any, above the True Sun, Planet, or Star at x,
as its position would be if observed from the centre of
z the Zenith, p s the
Planet,
Star
or
the Earth
raised
m^ the Apparent Moon, lowered by Parallax,
diminished by Eefr action beneath the True

as its position
Earth.
would be
Then
xm
is
if
Moon
observed from the centre of the
the True Distance as given in the
Nautical Almanac, and x, Mj
is
the Apparent Distance as
observed from the position of the observer.
What is done
by the Versine method in clearing the Distance
is
the com-
bination of two operations in one formula, namely

triangle zii,x,,
at m,
knowing the three
sides
in the
ZM, and zx,
LUNAR
the complements of the Apparent Altitudes
Apparent Distance
in the triangle
I4;i
and
x, Mj, the angle at z is fomid.
ZXM, knowing
the
Then
the two sides z x and z M,
the Zenith Distances and the angle z included between
them, X
the True Distance
is
found.
144
CHAPTEE XXII
now given
{This problem is not
Examination,
albeit it is
a useful
Board of Trade
and well loorthy of
in the
one,
consideration.)
If you could, with a sextant, ascertain the* exact instant

of the
Meridian passage of the Sun you could find your
you knew the Greenwich date or you could

find the G-reenwich date if you knew your Longitude. But
nobody can observe closely enough with a sextant to get
Longitude,
if
within a few minutes of noon,

exact
The
moment when
means
best
the
of
Sun
much
less ascertain
the
attains his highest Altitude.
ascertaining the exact
moment
of
Sun some time before

transit is
noon the longer the better, noting the time by Chronometer and then to note the time by Chronometer when
the Sun has fallen to the same Altitude in the afternoon.
to take an Altitude of the
Half the
the
interval, corrected for
moment
called the
Equation
good means
with an
It
of noon.
may
is
Equal
of ascertaining a
artificial
Horizon
of
Any
of arriving at this
Altitudes.
is
is
It affords a very
Chronometer's error on shore
Horizon, but
be useful
used.
changes of Declination,
The method
here
it is
to
of little use at sea.
state
how an
artificial
level reflecting surface will serve
as an artificial Horizon, but quicksilver forms the best

material,
and small portable
procured at
artificial
Horizons can be
any nautical instrument maker's.
Suppose

you are taking Equal Altitude of the Sun.
artificial Horizon on the ground, or on some
where
145
Place the
solid basis
not exposed to the wind or to vibration of any
it is
Seat yourself in such a position that you can see
kind.
With your
Sun down as you would
in ordinary practice at sea, and make an accurate contact
between the lower limb of the Sun reflected in the
the Sun's reflected image in the mercury.
sextant properly shaded, bring the
Horizon
glass,
and
it is
well to
appear to be
in
the
artificial
the
Sun
of that body reflected

must
use
an
inverting telescope,
You
remember that the contact will therefore
and the upper limb
in the mercury.
made between
Horizon
glass,
Horizon.
separating whereas
;
and
the
Before contact
two
rising, the
is
the upper limb of the
if
the
approaching each other.
lower limb
the
in
made when
quite
is
Sun
reflections will appear to
Sun is
falling, the
be
images will be
Therefore
if
in your a.m. sight
the images approach each other, or
if
in the p.m. sight
they recede from each other, you will

are
making contact with the wrong
artificial
Horizon the angle
is
know
limbs.
doubled, and
that
you
In using the
it
must thereBut re-
fore be halved to find the observed Altitude.
member
that Index Error, if any, is to be applied to the

whole angle, and remember also that there is no Dip.
In an Equation of Equal Altitudes the best plan is to
set the sextant at a convenient 10' of Altitude.
instant of contact with exceeding care
Altitude
is
changing slowly
then
if
Note the
the Sun's
shift the vernier 10', or
if
fast
and again note the instant when contact is made.

Eepeat the process till you have taken three or five
20',
Altitudes.
Leave your sextant clamped at the last Altitude,

watch for contact, note the time as
and, in the afternoon,

before, then
move the
may
each of the three or
be, for
VOL.
II.
sextant back 10' or 20' as the case

five Altitudes.
146
Turn your a.m. and
mean
of
times,
when
p.m. times into
your a.m. times and the

the
Sun had equal
interval of elapsed time
former from the
Apparent Time. The
mean
of
your p.m.
you an
Altitudes, will give
between sights by deducting the
remembering
latter,
12 hours must be added to the latter
of
if
it
course
that
is less
than
Do not allow yourself to become fogged

by ascertaining through the application of the Longitude
in Time the date which the Chronometer is showing. All
that the Chronometer has to do is to indicate the interval
of time that elapsed between the time j'ou took your sight
in the morning, and the time you took your sight in the
the former.
afternoon.
Half the interval added to the a.m. time gives you the
middle time by Chronometer, which would be the instant
of
noon were
it
not for changes of Declination.
Do
not
be tempted to find out what date the middle time by
Chronometer represents by considering your Longitude in

Time.
Correct the Sun's Dechnation and the Equation of
Time
place
for the
;
Greenwich date
of
noon Apparent Time
at
using for this purpose your Longitude in Time.
Find the
difference
between the Sun's Declination
given in the Nautical Almanac for the day before and for
the day after your observation. Turn this difference into
seconds.
Enter Table LII., and vdth the interval take

A and B. Add together Log. A,
out two Logarithms,

the Log. of the
Declination,
number
of
seconds in the change of
and the Log. Tangent
of
the
Take out the natural number corresponding

these Logs, and call
it
the
Latitude.
to the
sum
of
'first part.'
Add together Log. B, the Log. of the number of

seconds in the change of Declination, and the Log. Tangent of the corrected Declination; take out the natural

number corresponding
this the
'
second
sum
to the
of these
147
Logs, and
call
part.'
two parts when Latitude and

Declination are of contrary names but take their difference when Latitude and Declination are of the same name.
This sum or difference is to be added to the middle time by
Take the stim
of the
Chronometer when the Polar Distance

is
to be subtracted
The
when
is
increasing
the Polar Distance
is
or
it
decreasing.
by Chronometer,
other words the exact time by Chronometer when it
result is the corrected middle time
or in
was noon with you.

You want to find the
error of your
Chronometer on
Mean Time at Greenwich, and on Mean Time at place.

To Apparent Noon at place, which is h. m. s.,
apply the Equation of Time, which gives you Mean Time
at place
the difference between this and your corrected
Chronometer time
is
the error of the Chronometer on
Mean Time at place.

To Mean Time at place apply the Longitude in Time,
and so obtain Mean Time at Greenwich the difference
between Mean Time at Greenwich and the corrected
;
middle time by Chronometer
meter on
Mean Time
If the error of the

at place or
hours
it
if
it
the error of the Chrono-
Chronometer on either Mean Time

at
Greenwich
is
more than
six
it
from twelve hours, and name
fast, or fast
instead of slow. For instance,
deduct
comes out eight hours

if it
is
Greenwich.
Mean Time
fast or slow,
slow instead of
and
at
fast call
be eleven hours slow
call it
it
four hours slow,
one hour
fast.
The rule given above for applying the equation to the

middle time by Chronometer may have to be reversed in
the Tropics, because in the event of Latitude and Decli-
nation being of the same name, and Declination greater
than the Latitude, the second part
may
be greater than
L 2
148
the
first
part, in
which case the equation
is
to be
added
by Chronometer when the Polar Distance

decreasing and subtracted when it is increasing
Here is an example
to middle time
is
1898, Sept. 15th, Lat. 50 42' 24" N, Long. 1 32' 42"
the following Times by Chronometer were noted
when the Sun had Equal

At
Altitude.
A.M. Sights
At
29" 10"
8 30
5
8 30 45
8''
P.M. Sights
gt 52" 24-
3 53
3 53
19
58
Eequired the Equation of Equal Altitudes, also the

error of the
57-85"
1
5-785
-879
-1
0879
Chronometer on M. T.
at
Place and on
M.
T. G.
may
star
problem
change
is
149
be observed instead of the Sun, and the
in that case simpler, because as the star's
of Declination in the interval
is
imperceptible, no
equation has to be added to or subtracted
from the middle
time by Chronometer.
In taking a
an instrument
sights.
star,
for
look
upon the Chronometer
as merely
measuring the interval in time
betvsêen
Half the interval added to the time of your
sight before the star
was on the Meridian gives you the
time by Chronometer of the

find out the
Greenwich date
star's transit.
You have
of the star's transit.
to
Proceed
thus:
Greenwich date
by deducting Sidereal Time at Greenwich noon (Eight
Ascension of the Mean Sun) from the Eight Ascension of
the
First
find an approximately correct
star.
This gives you
Mean Time
at Ship,
which turn
Mean Time at Greenwich by applying your Longitude

But as a Sidereal Day is four minutes shorter
Time.
in
than a Solar Day, add to the Mean Time at Greenwich
into
thus found
an amount
of
time proportionate to the
if Mean Time at GreenGreenwich

wich was three hours you would add thirty seconds, if it
was six hours you would add one minute, two minutes
The proper amount
if it was twelve hours, and so on.
date.
to
For
instance,
add will be found in Table XXXVIII.
This will
Greenwich date very nearly, and quite

near enough. Accelerate the Eight Ascension of the
Mean Sun for this Greenwich date, take it from the
give you the
Eight Ascension
of
the
star,
and you have the exact
Greenwich date of the star's transit.
The
difference
between the Greenwich date
of transit
and the Chronometer date of transit is the error of the

Chronometer on Mean Time at Greenwich. If you
want the error on Mean Time at Ship turn Mean Time at
EQUATION OF EQUAL ALTITUDES
TliE
150
Greenwich into Mean Time at Ship by applying the Longitude in Time, and you have it.
Change
in the
of
DecHnation would have to be allowed for
case of planets,
And
preferable.
the
and,
Moon
is
therefore, fixed stars are
so rapid in her vagaries
that she had better be left severely alone.
In Equation of Equal Altitude be very careful to
make
Chronometer time
perfect contact, to note the
to
parts of seconds, and to ascertain the index error of your

sextant.
after
This, indeed, should always be done before and
taken for the purpose of such a delicate
sights
operation as determining a Chronometer's error and rate.
Equal Altitudes taken
at sea
should never be relied
on for ascertaining a Chronometer's

inaccuracies as are
between
slight
sights,
bound
error,
because such
run
to occur in the
of the ship
even in the best regulated vessel, and
errors in the
Altitudes taken
by even the most
talented observer, would throw out your calculations.
In taking stars with the

difficulty
may
artificial
be experienced at
Horizon some
in
first
little
finding the
reflection of the proper star in the mercury, but a little
practice
will
yachtsmen,
overcome
this.
who cannot have
I venture to
recommend
constant practice at sea, to
take occasional observations of the Sun, Moon, and stars
on shore.
An hour spent out-of-doors on
with a sextant, a good watch, and an
a fine clear night
Horizon is
ways of getting
through part of a wet day than in working out a few
observations, and the practice will prevent him from
getting too rusty in the use of the sextant and the worknot unpleasantly spent
ing of problems.
artificial
there are worse
151
CHAPTEE XXIII
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSITIONS OF
You may
find
the times
when Heavenly Bodies occupy
it
very convenient to be able to ascertain

certain positions,
and the positions which Heavenly Bodies
and you
certain times,
will
will
be required to do
occupy at
by
so,
cal-
culation or by inspection of Tables, in the Examination
Eoom.
You
tables
will be asked
on the examination papers where
the approximate times
giving
of
the
Meridian
passage of the principal stars are to be found, and whether
Mean
the dates are in
You
will find
Norie, Table
or Apparent Time.
such tables in
XLIV.
Apparent Time.
pp. 376-381.
Eaper, Tables 27, 27a, pp. 664, 665.
You
will be asked also
of transit of a
Apparent Time.
whether the approximate date
Planet can be found in the same
way
as
that of a Star.
The answer
is,
yes
by taking the Planet's Eight
Ascension from the Nautical Almanac and deducting

from
it
Time
of its
You
Meridian passage
will be asked
is
Mean Sun
the
Mean
found.
where the dates
of
Meridian pas-
sages of Planets can be found.
The answer
in the year in
is,
in the Nautical
Mean
Time.
Almanac
for every
day
POSITIOKS OF HEAVE.XLY BODIES
162
YoTi
means
you
be asked to describe the Star chart or other
'n-ill
for recognising the fixed Stars
and Planets which
prefer.
There are many Star charts and planospheres pubhshed, and jôu should describe that particular one with
which you are best acquainted. Personally I consider
Enghsh's Star-finder Globe as very much the best and

simplest instrument for the identification of Stars and
Planets.
Problems relating to the position
you of the following nature

At such and such a time,
of Stars will
be
set
civil
or other, at Ship, in
Latitude and Longitude so and so, required the approximate
time at ship when such and such a Star would be on the

Meridian.
You
vdll
be required to find the names (from the
Xautical Almanac) of the Stars not less bright than a

certain
of
magnitude that
vpill
be within a certain distance
your Meridian, above the Pole and above the Horizon,
at a certain date at ship, the ship's position being also
given
and you
will
Hour Angle East

to
state
or
have also to give approximately the
West
whether they
of
one or more of the Stars, and
will be to the
North or South
of
your Zenith when passing the Meridian.

Having found by a former question the principal Stars
about to cross the Meridian on a certain date, and in
Latitude and Longitude so and
so,
you
will
have to com-
pute the approximate observed Meridian Altitude of one

of
them
in order to put the angle
and index error being
of the eye
These problems are
To find
Meridian
the time at
all
on the sextant, height
of course given you.
included in this chapter.
which a Star or Flanet
Find the
Star's E. A.
Find E. A. M. 0.
is
on the
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSITIONS OF
Then
A.-E.
Star's E.
A.
M.
M.
163
T. S. of Star's
Meridian passage.
the
To find what Stars are East or West of you above

Horizon and above the Pole, and loithin a given dis-
any given time

The data to work with are M. T. S. and E. A. M. 0.
Then M. T. S. + E. A, M. Z- =E. A. Mer. Take from the
tance of the Meridian, at
Nautical Ahiianac the bright Stars whose E. A.'s are within

the given distance
all
those whose E. A.'s are greater
than the E. A. of the Meridian are Bast of you, and
all
those whose E. A.'s are less than the E. A. of the Meridian
same
West of
name as the
you.
name,
than the Colat., crosses the Meridian above
are
Lat., or
is less
the Horizon.
be 12
If
Any
Star whose Dec.
whose Dec, being
If a Star is
h. greater or less
App. Time
at
Ship
is
whose Decs, are of

North of the Zenith.
good in South Lat.
Stars
the apj)roximate
+ Dec, when
E. A. must
the Meridian.
of
Mean Time. In North Lat.

the same name as Lat. and
The
greater, cross
To find
its
given either use the E. A. of the
App. Sun or apply E. T. to
Lat.
of the contrary
below the Pole
than the E. A.
of the
is
reverse holds
Meridian Altitude of a Star
they are of different names; or the
between Lat. and Dec. when they are of the

same name, = Star's Z. D. 90-Z. D. = Alt.
To put the approximate obs. Mer. Alt. up>on a Sextant
difference
To
the calculated Mer. Alt. apply
reversed.
Here
1898,
March
at
what time
are
two examples
all
11th, in Lat. 48 30' N,

(civil)
is
the corrections
Long
Jupiter South, and
should be put on the Sextant
I.
E.
4'
15",
To find Greenwich Date

Mer. Pass, on March 10th
Long, in T
IS"-
li" IS'
35
Approx. G. Date 10th 15 49
18
38 45'
W,
what Angle
Dip for 28 ft.
To
R. A. M.
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSIT EONS OF
154
accelerate K. A.
at Transit at G. 23"
Accel, for IS"

Accel, for
E. A.
JI.
M
2
279
15
19-7
49"
To find M. T.
S. of Jupiter's
Jupiter's B. A.
11.
Greewich Date
at date 23
R. A.
for.
12" 43-8"
Transit
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSITIONS OF
155
1898, August 22nd, in Lat. D.E. 29 20' S, Long. 117 E,

at
what time
(civil)
a Lijise (Vega) pass the
will the Star
Meridian and what should be the Sextant Angle

2' 30",
Height
of the
Bye 18
feet.
To find Approximate M. T. G,
Vega's K. A.
E. A. M.
on 22nd
Approximate M. T.
Long, in T.
18" 33" 82'
10
15
30
48
17
42
17
S.
22nd
Approximate M. T. G. 22nd
To
accelerate E. A.
M.
for Oreenwich Date
at Transit at G. 10"
E. A. M.
...
Accel, for 42"
10
To find M. T.
Vega's E. A.
15-5'
22-4
6-9
Meridian Passage
S. of
E. A. M.
3"
18" 33'" 32'
10
Mer. Passage at 22nd
30
10 M. T. S.
Or
30
10 p.m. on 22nd.
at
To calculate
Lat. D. E.
the
.
22
Sextant Angle
I.
B.
POSITIONS OF
156
To find
and
Vertical,
The
(1)
the time at
rule
HEAVENLY BODIES
which any Body
also its Altitude
is
on the Privie
is
Cos H. A.
Therefore Log.
Cot Lat. x Tan Dec.
Cot Lat.
Log. Tan Dec.
= Log.
Cos H. A.
(2)
Sin. Alt.
= Cosed Lat.
x Sin. Dec.
Therefore Log. Cosec Lat.
+ Log.
Sin Dec.
Log.
Sin Alt.
In the case
Sun the Hour Angle is, if Westerly,

if Easterly it must be turned into
of the
Apparent Time
at Ship,
a Westerly Angle
by deducting
it
from 24 hours.
In the
case of any other Heavenly Body, the Westerly Meridian

distance
found,
is
of
the
if
course
Body
is
its
Polar Angle West, which
East of the Meridian, by deducting
Then Westerly
the Polar Angle East from 24 hours.
Mer. D.
M. T.
E.
is
A. = E. A. Mer., and E. A. Mer. - E. A. M.
S.
It is well to
Prime Vertical
remember that a Body cannot be on the

unless its Declination is of the same name
as the Latitude of the observer.
Let
NWSE
be a figure on the plane of the Horizon,
w Q e the Equator, x and y the

same Heavenly Body when on the Prime
z the Zenith, p the Pole,

positions of the
Vertical East and
of
West
p X z and p y z are two right-angled spherical triangles,

which we know p x or p Y the Polar Distance, and p z
the Colatitude.
By
explained elsewhere,
zp
of the observer.
or z p Y, or
this, as in all cases
Napier's Circular Parts, which are

it
is
easy to find the
the Zenith Distances z
where the Altitude
is
Hour Angles
Y or
z x.
In
calculated, the
angle to be nut on the sextant can be found as explained
on
p.
153.
POSITIONS OF
HEAVENLY BODIES
157
Thus:
1 St.
Cos z p X (H.
A.)
= Tan
Or Cos H. A.
p z (Colat.) x Cot p
= Cot Lat.
Or Log. Cos Lat. x Log. Tan Dec.

2ncl.
Cos p X
rP. D.)
Cos p z
(P. D.)
(Colat.)
Log. Cos H. A.
x Cos
zx
Or Cos z X = Cos p x x Sec. p z.

Or Sin Alt. = Sin Dec. x Cosec Lat.
Fig. 97
Tan Dec.
(Z. D.).
from the Hour Angle

at
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSITIONS OF
158
Mean
find
or
Apparent Time
Ship in the usual way.

Fig. 98
In this diagram, which
is
drawn on the Plane
Horizon, x represents a Heavenly
Body on
of the
the Eastern
Horizon with North Declination, and y another Body

having Southern Declination, that is to say, that these
Bodies are
rising.
We know from the

p
z
Nautical Almanac the Declination
and we know our Latitude. The triangles
of these Bodies,
X z and p Y z are each Quadrantal Triangles, in which

X and z Y are the Quadrants respectively.
In the triangle p x Z p x = 90 Dec p z = 90
;
Lat.
zx = 90
By
Quadrantal Spherical Trignometry
Cos z p X
or
.
Log. Cos H. A.
= Cot p z X
= Tan Dec.
=
(see p. 34)
Cot p X
x Tan Lat.
Log. Tan Dec.
Log. Tan Lat.
POSITIONS OF
The minus
HEAVENLY BODIES
shows that the H. A.
sign
and the angle taken out

subtracted from 180.
of
the
p y
90,
Again
90
in th
Lat.
triangle p
is
159
greater than
Tables must
90
Dec.
p z
be
90.
Then
Cos Z P Y
But p Y
If the
Cot P
greater than 90, and
is
Therefore Cos H. A.
or Log.
PYX
Cot
its
z.
Cot
is
Tan Dec. x Tan
Tan Dec. + Log. Tan
Lat.
Lat.
Log. Cos H. A.
Bodies are setting, precisely the same formulas
apply.
To find the Altitude of any Body at any given time

The data required are Lat., Dec, and H. A. The
:
rule is
(a)
Hav
(B)
Vers
= Hav H. A. x Sin Colat. x Sin P. D.

Z. D. = Vers (Colat. ~ P. D.) + Vers 6.
Therefore
(a)
Log. H. A.
= Log 6.
The
easiest
way
+ Log. Sin Colat. + Log. Sin

+ Vers (Colat. ~ P. D.) =
Vers 6
Polar D.
Vers Z. D. and 90 - Z. D.
(b)
True
Meridian passages rising
of the Stars. and their times of
and setting
is fully
pass
is
by English's Globe
described in Vol.
I. p.
Alt.
approximately the position
of finding
Observations Towson's
Practical
'
the Deviation of the Compass
whose use
For purposes of Com-
Star-finder,
261.
'
Information on
contains a useful
list
of
having their Azimuths obfor

each hour of Sidereal Time.
Latitudes
different
served at
stars in the best position for
Full explanation of their use
is
given in the book, which
also contains other tables giving the
True Azimuths
Sun, Moon, and twenty-four of the brightest
stars.
of the
POSITIOXS OF
160
HEAVEXLY BODIES
To find the True Lunar Distance

Greenwich Date :
Proceed thus.
any
at
From the Nautical Almanac take out the
Distance and Proportional Log. at the time next
To
given time.
the
given
this
less
than
Proportional Log. add the
Proportional Log. of the difference between the time in

the Nautical Almanac and the given time.
sum
This
is
the Proportional Log. of the difference in Distance due to
Take out
the difference in Time.

it
to
the Distance
Distance
is
the
in
and add
this difference
Nautical Almanac
increasing, and deduct
it
if
if
the
the difference
is
decreasing.
To find the True Lunar Distance at any Greenwich

Date by calculation :
The data required are the Decs, and thence the P. D.'s
of the
two Bodies, and the Polar Angle between them.

Then by Spherical Trigonometry, having the two
and
sides
included
the
angle, find the
third side
which is the Distance.

Let M be the Moon, x
the other Heavenly Body.
PM
p
is
the Moon's P. D.,
is
the P. D.
other Body, and

the
Polar
formula
(A)
Hav 9
(b)
Vers
= Hav x p M
+
Vers
(p
m)
the
x p m is
The
Angle.
is
x Sin p x x Sin p
x~P
of
= Vers x m, which is
the
Distance.
Therefore
(a)
Log.
Sin p M = Log. Hav
Vers True Distance.
6.
Hav x p M + Log. Sin p x + Log.

(B) Vers d + Vers (p x ~ p m) =
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSITIONS or
161
Azimuth of any Body when you Jcnow

and Hour Aîgle
The principle is, 1st, with the two sides, namely, the
Colat. and P. D., and the included Polar Angle, find the
third side, which is the Z. D. 2nd, with the three sides,
namely, the Colat., Z. D., and P. D., find the angle at the
Zenith, which is the Azimuth.
To
calculate the
the Latitude, Declination,
In this diagram, constructed on the plane of the

is
Distance p
x we know,
pz
the Colatitude
pz
Body whose Polar

Hour Angle z p x, and
the position of a Heavenly
Horizon, x
X we know
p x, p
as also its
therefore
z,
in the spherical triangle
and the angle z p
x,
and require to
find z X.
"
= Hav z p x x Sin p z x Sin p x

= Vers + Vers (p x ~ p z)
(a)
Hav
(b)
Vers z x
(a)
Log. Hav.
Log. Sin p
VOL.
II.
X.
{b)
Log.
Vers 6
Hav
+ Vers
z p
(p
x f Log. Sin p
x~p
z)
= Vers z x.
M
POSITIONS OF
162
p z
HEAVENLY BODIES
Then having the three sides p z, p x, and

X is found by the following formula
z x, the angle
Cos I p z x= v'Cosec p z x Cosec z x

X -v/Sin
^(pz + px + zx)x Sin
{-^
(p
+ zx + px) px|-
or Log. Cos J pzx=-| [Log. Cosec pz + Log. Cosec zx

Sin i (pz + zx + px) +Log. Sin [^ (pz + zx + px)
+ Log.
-PX}].
Fig. 100
Here
It is
(a)'
^
is
another method which
used
founded on the following two formulas
Tani^ (pzx + pxz)
(.)Tani(PZX-PXz)
it
may be
(p
X +
you like.
= ^î^.^^ - t z)
Cos ^
if
Cot^zpx
^
z)
= |gi-||--).CotizPX
Having thus found ^ (p z x + p x z) and ^

is easy to get the two angles by Algebra
(p
x pxz)
(a)
^(PZX+ PXZ) + ^(PZX PXZ)

= i PZX + iPXZ +i PZX iPXZ =PZX
POSITIONS OF
(6)
of
two
equal to the larger quantity.
is
Half the difference subtracted from half the
two quantities
By
is
Half the difference added to half the sum
quantities
(h)
163
^(pzs+ pxz) -^(pzx p X z)

= i pzx + i PXZ i PZXfiPXZ =PXZ
which, expressed in words,

(a)
HEAVENLY BODIES
Logs,
is
it
P X
equal to the smaller quantity.
works out thus
sum
of
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSITIONS OP
164
Therefore
= Log. Tan
H. A. + Log. Cos Dec. = Log. Sin
Alt. + Log. Sec Arc II. = Log. Cos
Arc I. - Arc III. = Colat.
90 Colat. = Lat.
Log. Cos H. A.
Log. Sin
Log. Sin
Log. Cot Dec.
The diagram drawn on the plane
of the
Arc
I.
Arc
II.
Arc
III.
Horizon explains
this.
Fio. 101
Let X be a Heavenly Body, then p x is its P. D. and

z X its Z. D. and p z is the Colat. Drop the perpendicular
X M on the Meridian N s.
We want to find p z the Colat., and then the Lat., and
we know
(1)
which p
p x, z x and the H. A. x p
z.
In the right-angled spherical triangle pxm,
M X is
the right angle, find the arc p
Circular Parts, and call
it
Arc
I.
of
M by Napier's
HEAVENLY BODIES
POSITIONS OF
Thus
Tan
A
T N
(Arc
I.)
PM
CosCotX px
Cos x p
Cos x p
m
Tan
or
Tan
or
px
If
is
greater than
XM
x Cot p
x.
-p.--
it is
Tan
px
must be
minus.
In the same triangle to find x

Sin
(3)
165
90 the arc found
deducted from 180 because

(2)
Sin p
or Arc II.
x x Sin x p
M.
In right-angled spherical triangle z x M, to find z
or Arc III.
=
Cos z M =
Cos z X
or
(4)
To
Cos z
X Cos X
(Arc
II.)
Cos z X X Sec x m.
find p z, the Colat.
(Arc
zM
I.)
(Arc III.)
90
This problem
is
all
p z
p z (the Colat.)
= the Latitude.
very well to look at
but as the
accuracy of the Latitude obviously depends upon the

accuracy of the
Hour
Angle, and as that in
little
turn
its
depends upon the accuracy of the Latitude used,
it
is of
practical value.
To find
the
Longitude by an Altitude taken near the
Meridian
When
the Altitude of the Sun exceeds 70
to get a fairly accurate
equal Altitudes of the

side of the Meridian.
it is
possible
Longitude at Noon by observing
Sun within ten minutes on

If the ship
mean
Apparent Noon
either
has not changed her
time gives the
Latitude in the interval the
of the
Greenwich date
of
at Ship,
Longitude.
however, the ship has made Northing or
If
and hence the
POSITIONS OF
166
HEAVENLY BODIES
Southing, a correction must be applied.
It is
found in
way
this
Sin ^ Diff. Lat. x Sec Lat. x Cot Az.

tion
or Log. Sin ^ Dilf. Lat.
Sin Correc-
Log. Sec Lat.
Log.
= Log. Sin Correction.

This correction turned into time must be subtracted
Cot Az.
from the time by Chronometer

the Sun in the interval
has gone away from
the ship has approached
if
but must be added to
it
if
she
that luminary.
Latitude by a change of Altitude.
You can find your
Latitude without reference to the Nautical Almanac by

observing the change in Altitude of any Heavenly
when such Body
a given time
is
Body in
on or near the Prime
Vertical.
Divide the number of seconds in the change of Altitude by 15 times the number of seconds in the interval of
time, and you have the Cosine of the Latitude.
Thus, for an example, suppose that during an interval

of 2
m. 50
changes
s.
the Altitude of a
Body near the Prime Vertical
32'.
32'
Cos. Lat.
= 1920"
^^,
2 50" = 170" x 15 = 2550"
or Log. Cos Lat.
= Log. 1920 - Log.
2550
1920 Log. 3-283301
2550 Log. 3-406540
"9^6761 = Log. Cos

and Lat.
9'
Lat. 41
9'
35"
15"
you are observing the Sun it is, perhaps, simplest

note the time in which he rises or falls his own diaIf
to
is
41
meter.
167
CHAPTEE XXIV
The
following problems, though not given in the Board of
Trade Examination, are very useful, in coasting especially,
and may, I think, be profitably studied here. They depend

upon the fact that any chord of any circle subtends the same
angle from any point
,,
Fig. 102
on the circumference
the circle on one
of
side
the
or
other of
Thus in
hedc
the chord.
diagram
the
is
chord
circle,
and the
A B
subtends
equal angles at
or at
of
c, d, e,
any other point
the circumference
between a and b round
by E D
tends
c,
and also sub-
angles
which
are equal to one another at F, H, K,
and
all
other positions
on the circumference between b and A round by k H

This being
so, it is
subtended by
the
somewhere on the circumference
We
p.
we know the angle

chord A b towards d, we must be
evident that
if
of the circle
ae d c
b.
can easily ascertain the angle subtended by a b by

measuring the angular distance of a b with a sextant.
168
Now
suppose we can get a sextant angle between a and
another object, or between b and another object.
have another angle subtended by A and the third

or by B and the third object, and
somewhere upon the

intersection
arc of another circle.
between the two
circles
that
The
we
are
point of
must be the position
and c are three known points

land, and the angles between A and B and between B
of the observer.
of
we know
We
object,
Thus
if
A, B,
Fig. 103
and c are observed to be respectively angles equal to A D B
and B D
c,
the position of the ship must be at D, because
the angle A D B shows that you are somewhere upon the
circumference A E D
B, and the angle B D c shows that you

somewhere upon the circumference B D F c, your
position must therefore be at D.
But how are the circles to be constructed ? Why, in
are
this
way
points
is
join the
First,
when
the angle observed between two
an acute angle, that
two
points,
and lay
is,
when
off
it is
less
than
90,
with a protractor the

complement
of the angle observed
the observer
points of land
is
the centre of the
Thus, supposing the angle between two
circle required.
is
from each point towards
the point of intersection
169
A and B
be
to
55, the
complement
of 55
35.
Join A
B, lay off
the observer
from A and B angles
of 35
Their point of intersection o
of the circle required.
The
protractor will
is
towards
the centre
show that the
angle subtended from any part of the circumference of

Fig. 104
this circle
which
is
on the observer's
side of the chord
ab
is 55.
when the angle between the two points is obtuse,

when it exceeds 90. The difference between the
Next,
that
is,
angle observed and 90 must be laid off at each extremity

of the line joining
The
some
A and B
point of intersection
Thus,
part of
let
difference
in.a direction
is
from the observer.
the centre of a circle upon
whose circumference the observer must
the angle subtended by A and b be 130
between 130 and 90
is
40.
Join a
be.
the
b, lay
170
off
at
A and b, away from the observer, 40, and with

draw the arc of a circle A c B. The protractor
centre at o
Fig. 105
again will
show
that from any part of A c B the angle
subtended by A and B
somewhere on that
is
130,
and the observer must be
arc.
Fig. 105a
By
constructing, therefore,
two
of these circles, the
position of a ship can be accurately ascertained without
using the compass at
all.
ADDITIONAL CliART PROBLEMS

For
and B
instance, supposing the angle observed between
and that between B and
is 70,
the centre of the
first
circle.
you are somewhere on that

of the
171
second
somewhere on that
on the point
Describe the arc c A D B

arc.
o,
will be the centre
Describe the arc
circle.
o will be
c is 40.
You
beg.
are
and consequentlj' you must be
arc,
of intersection,
namely, at
S.
Again, supposing the angle subtended between A and
is
60,
and that between B and
is
o and Oi
120.
Fig. 105e
are the centre of the
two
on the circumference of both

possible position
is
property of circles
You
circles.
circles,
are
somewhere
and your
the point of intersection

is
also
great use, in connection
made
of
with what
use,
is
only
This
s.
and
very
of
known
as
the
danger angle.
Suppose you are turning up to windward along a
and a dangerous sunken shoal lying some way
marked upon the
chart.
By means
of the
coast,
off
is
danger angle
172
you are enabled

thus
off
to stand in with perfect security. Proceed
Let A and B be two well-defined positions on the coast

which the shoal c lies.
You
do not consider
it
prudent to approach nearer to
With your
the shoal c than a quarter of a mile.
dividers
Fig. 106
draw a small
circle
round
c,
no part
quarter of a mile from the shoal.
Join A e and E
circle.
AE, and upon

diculars
HK
g,
B.
Upon
which is within a
Let D b f be such a
of
h, the centre point in
the centre point of AB, erect the perpen-
and GK, intersecting
at m.
With m
centre and A as a radius, describe the arc of a
Now
circle
as a
ae
B.
with a protractor find out the angle subtended by a
and B from any part

angle.
of this arc,
and you have the danger
Place this angle on your sextant, and stand in
fearlessly until
measures the
you
find that the angle
angular
distance
AB
on the sextant
you
have then
approached as near as you think prudent, and you must

stand
off again.
By this means you can make sure
approaching the danger nearer than a quarter
of never
of a mile.
173
CHAPTEE XXV
{Required for Extra Master)
moment's consideration
of the fact that the
Earth
is
sphere and that charts are drawn on the assumption that
you that a direct

line drawn from point to point on a chart would appear a
curved line on the Globe, and that a direct line drawn
from point to point on the Globe would appear a curved
it is
a flat surface will suffice to convince
on the
line
The
chart.
shortest
between two places on the chart
is
distance,
therefore,
not, unless they are
both situated on the Equator or on a Meridian, represented by the length of a straight line drawn between
them on the chart, but it is represented by that of a
curved line which is in fact a direct line drawn from one
you steer a Coiirse from a

drawn from A to B on the
but, assuming a and b to be
chart, you will get there
three or four thousand miles apart, you would have to
travel a great deal further than if you sailed on the
Courses indicated by a curved line on the chart which
represented a direct line from a to b drawn on the Globe.
to the other
to
on the Globe.
B as indicated by a
If
line
;
The seemingly absurd

is
concerned, the arc
The
also
want
fact is true that, as far as the chart
is
shorter than the chord of the arc.
seemingly absurd proposition
to get to a place
you may have

or vice versa.
South
to steer for a
is true that if you

you by the nearest road,
time on Northerly Courses,
of
174
Take a chart
Light
is
is
of the
North
Atlantic.
The Fastnet
N Latitude, and Sandy Hook Light

N Latitude. Sandy Hook therefore, in
in 51 23' 18"
in 40 27' 39"
is,
round numbers, about 11 South
Take a
of the Fastnet.
and stretch it on the chart from the Fastnet

Sandy Hook, the string will give you a True Course
which will be Southerly all the way. Stretch the string
bit of string,
to
Sandy Hook on a terrestrial globe,

string shows that you roust
for
towards the North
some time.
from the Fastnet

and you
steer
to
will find that the
The Equator and

Circles
the Meridians are the only Great
on the Globe.
East and West, or
you
on the Equator due

due iSTorth and South on any
If
sail
sail
Meridian, you are sailing in a Great Circle, and the True
Course on the Chart and the Great Circle Course are

identical.
But
if
you
sail
due East and West on any
Parallel except the Equator, your
True Course on the
Chart will not be a Great Circle Course.
And
Course makes an equal angle with the
Meridians
cannot be a Great Circle Course.
knowledge
Great Circle Course from one place to another

essential to enable
you
to
is
if
of
your
it
the
therefore
find out the nearest
way
of
getting there.
The
Course
a
simplest
is
way
of ascertaining the
Great Circle
from one point to another on

as
already
globe
mentioned
note the
the points at which the string cuts as many
to stretch a string
terrestrial
Latitudes of
upon a chart the positions

thus found join them and you have the Courses you
must steer from point to point. The more positions you
plot off, the more nearly you will approach the direct line
But it is necessary for both the
between the places.
Board of Trade Examination and for practical navigation
Meridians as you please
plot
purposes to be able to calculate this curve.
175
Great Circle sailing is applicable mainly to steam ships,
which are generally able

knowledge
to
keep any Course desired; but a
Great Circle Sailing
of
may
be very useful in
sailing ships also, not only in indicating the shortest distance
between two
tack to
which
on
sail
will
but also as showing which
places,
you cannot lay your Course.
if
is
the best
The
tack
keep you nearest to the Great Circle will be
the gaining tack, and
it
may
well happen that the tack
which on the chart would appear to be the losing tack

is
in reality the gaining one.
The problem
you
Board of
what you would
have to do in practice. You will be given two positions
which may be two places, or which may be called anything I will call them A and B; and their Latitudes
as furnished to
Trade Examination
and Longitudes
find the
first
will
is
in the
in fact exactlj'
be given.
You
will be required to
Distance between them on a Great Circle, the
Course to
the Latitude and Longitude of the
steer,
Vertex or highest point of the curve, and the Course to

steer between certain positions, which will be indicated on
the curve.
It
is
needless to say that in practice
it
is
impossible to follow accurately a Great Circle curve, as
such a proceeding would necessitate a constant change of

Course.
Your ship must be steered along a number of
chords of a number of
arcs, altering
her Course at con-
venient intervals.
It
may happen
that
the Great Circle Course
may
take you into an impracticably high or low Latitude, in
which case a modification

Or
you
it
may
will
be that land
have to
unless your ship
is
sail
of the
may
system must be adopted.
which case
two Great Circles,
go on wheels. But the
intervene, in
on the arc
constructed to
of
principle can be perfectly well explained
practicable Great Circle Course between
by considering a
two
places.
We
176
may
just as well take those already
mentioned, namely, the
What we
Fastnet and Sandy Hook.
have to find out
the distance between the Fastnet and Sandy
1st,
on the arc
steer
of a
Great Circle
2nd, the
3rd, the position of the Vertex
first
is,
Hook
Course to
4th, the Courses to
between certain positions on the Great

The problem is worked by the solution
steer
Circle.
of a
of spherical triangles, as the following figure will
number
show
:
Fig. 107
Lat.
Long.
Fastnet (f)
51 23' 18"
9 36' 25"
.
Sandy Hook
Lat.
Long.
(s)
40 27' 39"
73 59' 49"
To find the Distance. Let f represent the Fastnet, s

Sandy Hook, and p the North Pole. The angle f p s
= 64 23' 24" and is the difference between the Longitudes
of
F and s.
90 -Lat. of F 51 23' 18" = Colat. pf 38 36' 42"
90 -Lat. of s 40 27' 39"
Colat. p s 49 32' 21"
We
have
angle F p
formula
is
s,
now two
and want
sides p F
to
find
and p
the
and the included

side F
tliird
Hav
Vers F s
= Hav f p s + Sin p f x Sin p

= Vers 6 + Vers (p f -^ p s).
s.
The
GKEAT CIRCLE SAILING
177
This problem has already been worked out in Double

Altitudes and in Lunars, but there
it.
F P S
P F
P B
is
no harm in repeating
178
and
very well exemplifies the theory of Great Circle
it
Sailing.
The third
Drop
where
step is to find the position of the Vertex.
a perpendicular
it
touches
it is
from p on to the Great Circle, and

the Vertex, which we will mark v.
V is the Colatitude of v. If, therefore, we find p v we

know the Latitude of the Vertex. The angle F p v is the
p
difference of
Longitude between p and
v, and, therefore, if
Fig. 107
we
find F p
already
V we can
know
find the
Longitude
of
v,
as
we
the Longitude of F.
We will find the Latitude

We have the side p F and
the same thing, the angle p F
first.
the angle p f v, or what
is
s.
We know, as has been stated in Chapter XVII., that, by

Napier's Circular Parts, the Sine of the middle part equals
the product of the Cosines of the opposite parts, and that
the complement of parts must be used

opposite to right angles.
The
when
parts are
opposite parts to p
are
p F and p F V, and as they are also opposite to the right

angle p
vF
their
179
complements must be taken and Sines
instead of Cosines used.

Sin
Therefore the formula
is
180
Before proceeding further
Sandy Hook
is
it
may be noted that
considerably to
the
although
Southward
of
Fastnet, the direct Course has been to the Korthward

this time.
the
all
Imagine a ship taking her Departure from

New York, her True Course by the
the Fastnet boxmd to

chart
would be S 80
for her to steer
But the
W.
would be
77 49' 46"
again that the wind was right ahead,
matter
indifference
of
it
proper
Course
or suppose
would appear a
upon which tack she
sailed,
but
Fig. 107
as a matter of fact the port tack
would be her gaining
and the starboard tack her losing
tack.
To
return to the
problem.
We
Circle,
have
the curve
it.
of
now
got three
we must
It will
obviously
be amply
Longitude apart.
9 26|'
positions
on the Great
namely, the two ends and the Vertex, but to draw
W., we
fix
some other positions upon

them at about 10
sufficient to plot
Our
first
known
position F being in
will plot the next position at 20
next at 30 W., and so on.
W., the
181
The angle v p c is the Difference of Longitude between

Then in the right-angled triangle v p c we have
the side p v and the angle v p c, and we want to find p c,
which is the Colatitude of c. The only difference between
finding p c and finding p V, which we have already done, is
that in the latter case the known angle was opposite to the
c and V.
side required to be found, while in this case
to
it is
adjacent
it.
To
find
yp
Long, of V = 2.5
Long, of c = 2 0
Therefore v p c
By
W
W
12" W
11'
12"
00'
00"
5 11'
Napier's Circular Parts Sine of the middle part
Tangents of the adjacent parts
equals the Product of
but the middle part v p c

as also
is
the
unknown
opposite the right angle p
is
side p c, therefore their
v c,
comple-
So we have the formula
ments must be taken.
Cos V p c = Tan p v x Cot p c
or Coti P c
90
V p c
p V
(Colat.) p c
37 42' 16"
= 52
= Cos
Tan
Cos
9-998218
26"
Tan 9-886402
37 42' 16"
Cot 10-111816
44"
Lat. 52 17' 44"
To
p V
5 11' 12"
= 37
17'
V p
35'
therefore the position of o
is
and Long. 20 W.
and
find the positions D, B, f,
G.
Proceed precisely in the same way.
It is obvious,
however, that in finding the Polar Angle v p D and the

Polar Angle of the other positions, the
to be
from
added
to the
Longitude
of
Diff.
Long,
is
instead of being taken
it.
Plot the positions

starting
c,
D, e, f,
and g on your chart, and
from the Fastnet, draw a curve through them
to
GREAT
182
Sandy Hook, and
j'ou
CffiCLE SAILI>'G
have a direct
line
from land to
land.
To find
the Course to steer from position to position.
Do
it by Mercator's Sailing, or by the Traverse Tables,

draw it on the chart. If you want to find the Course to
steer over shorter distances, you must plot down positions
nearer together. This constitutes the whole theory of
Great Circle Sailing and the construction of an arc of a
or
Great
It
Circle.
does not, of course, always happen that a per-
pendicular dropped from the Pole on to a Great Circle will
touch
it
between the two places
in the example
fall
outside of the places
Vertex also
is
was the case

The perpendicular may
specified, as
we have worked.
specified,
in
which case the
outside of them, and the
Longitude between the two places will be
Difference of
less
than the
Difference of Longitude between the Vertex and the place

furthest from
it.
Suppose you are given two positions A and B and want

to find the Great Circle
Track between them. You would
proceed to draw a figure as in the preceding case, but
when you began
to work it you would find that the Vertex

V was nearer the Pole than a or b. You would then
reconstruct your figure, and it would take the shape of
diagram on next page.
The work would then proceed

already mentioned.
You have
a
Longitude A p B wherewith
and p B and the Difference
of
to find the third side B A.
With
and p B you can
exactly on the lines
the two Colatitudes
the three sides pa, ab,
find the angle at a,
which
is
the
first
Course.
With
the angle
Circular Parts, find
a and p a you can, by Napier's

pv, which is the Colatitude of the
at

Vertex, whence you get the Latitude of the Vertex.
183
With
the same two parts, namely, the angle A and p A, you can
by Napier's Circular Parts, the angle v P A, which is

the Difference of Longitude between A and v.
Knowing
find,
Pig. 108
the relationship of these positions and parts to each other,

you can, as in the example worked above, find the Latitude
and Longitude of as many positions as you think necessary
to enable you to draw that portion of a Great Circle from
to
A which passes though
b.
184
Here
is
an example
(A)
Cape Guardafui
(B)
Swan
Lat. 11 50' N
Lat, 31 57' 24" S
Eiver, Australia
To find F AB
To find Distance a b
= 115 51' 42" - 51

= 64 35' 42"
A p B 64 35' 42"
A p 101 50' 0"
B p 58 2' 36"
16' 0"
Log.
Sin
Sin
58 16' 30"
Log.
9-374892
AP-BP
= 43 47' 24"
Vers
278038
30"
Vers
474033
124
AB = 7539'26"
Vers
752276
155
81
= 58
16'
60
4539-4 miles
To find Latitude of Vertex
To find p V
32'
2"
1"
Sin
59 43' 25"
Sin
ipAB = 26
8'
33"
9-946870
9-936314
19-906265
Cos
9-953132
2
1st
Course
PAB = S5217' 6"E
121
To find Longitude
of Vertex
the Colat. of Vertex
In Eight-angled Triangle p a v
Sin p V = Sin pax Sin p a v
p A 101 50'
PAY
Coseo -013752
Co-seo -009329
117 46'
2) 235
9-455595
9-990671
9-928626
the First Course
p A 101 50' 0"

AB 75 39' 26"
B p 58 2' 86"
AP= 90 + 11 50' = 11 50'

BP= 90-3157'24" = 582'36"
A p B
Long. 51 16' E
Long. 115 51' 42"
52 17'
In Eight-angled Triangle pay

Cos V p a = Tan p v x Cot a p

(1)
To
fitul
Position of c
(2)
To find Position of d
In Eight-angled Triangle v p n
In Eight angled Triangle c r v
Cos c p V = Tan p v
Cot p c
Cot p D
Cot
Cos
p c
c p V
Tan
p V
Fig. 108
c p V
101
1"
Cos
185
Cos V p D
Tan
p V
186
(3)
-To find Position of e
(4)
In Eight-angled Triangle v p e
Cot P E
To find Position of f
In Eight-angled Triangle v p f
Cos V p E
Cot P F
Tan:
Cos V p F
Tan p V
Fig. 108
vpe81
pv
7'
7"
50 44' 15"
Cos
-I-
9-188618
Tan
-I-
10-087566
82 48' 27"
Cot
4-
9-101052
90
0'
0"
V p F 71 7' 7"
pv 50 44' 15"
1"
0"
Cos + 9-510022
Tan-h 10-087566
504
75 11'
90 0'
452
Lat. F 14 48' 59" S V
Cot
9-422456
63
~7
Lat. E
7 11' 33"'S|
S
Long. E 75
0'
'
Long. F 85
0'
0"
E]

(5)
To find Position of o
In Eight-angled Triangle v p g
Cos V P G
n p G
Cot
i-
(6)
To find Position
187
of
In Eight-angled Triangle v p
Cos V P H
Cot p H ,
188
between A and the Vertex. That is the position of the Vertex

plot
it
that
is
down on the
chart.
Then with the Colatitude of
B,
p B, and the Colatitude of the Vertex p v,, calculate,
by Napier's Circular Parts, the angle bpv,, which is the

Difference of Longitude between b and v,, and you get the
position of the other Vertex; plot
down.
it
Vertex and a construct a Great
-the first
Then with
Circle,
and with
the second Vertex and B construct a Great Circle by the
methods already
first
fully
explained.
Great Circle from A to the
parallel
till
you
first
is
sail
along your
Vertex, then along the
strike the position of the second Vertex,
and then along the Great Circle to
Here
Now
an example worked
B,
and there you
are.
Required the Distance between Cape Sima (Japan) and
San Francisco by Composite Great
Circle Sailing, the
Latitude attained not to exceed 45 N.

(A)
(B)
Cape Sima
San Francisco
In the diagram
Lat. 34 17'
Lat. 37 48' 30"
let
0"
N
N
Long. 136 54' 0"

Long. 122 28' 42"
A be the position of Cape Sima and

Let p be the North Pole, p v
B that of San Francisco.
and PVj perpendiculars dropped on the arcs of two Great

Circles A v and PV,, and vv, a portion of the Parallel of
45 N.
::

The p V A and p Vi B
(1)
189
are, of course, right angles.
To find Angle a p v and Arc a v
In the Right-angled Spherical Triangle a p
by the use of Napier's
v,
Circular Parts
Cos A p V = Tan p y
p V (the Colat. of v)
p A (the Colat. of a)
p V
p A
A p V
=
=
90
90
1'
Got p a
45 0' 0"
34 17' 0"
Tan
0"
0"
Cot
IG"
Cos
45 0'
55 43'
= 47
45
0'
= 65
43'
0"
0"
lO'OOOOOO
9- 83361 1
9-883611
Cos p A = Cos p V
Cos A V
Therefore Cos A T
Cos p V
p A
p V
=
=
A V
55 43'
45 0'
0"
0"
Cos
Cos
9- 849485
.37 11'
34"
Cos
9'901244
9-760729
To find Position
=
=
=
Long. A
A p V
Long. V
Lat. V
of v
136 54' 0"

47 1 16"
183 55' 16"
'
= 176
4'
44"
= 45
0'
0"
To find Angle
p n
v,
and Arc
v^
In the Eight-angled Spherical Triangle v, p b, by the use of Napier's

Circular Parts
Cos V, p E = Tan p v, Cot p b
.
p V, (Colat. of V,)
P B (Colat. of B )
p
p
V, p
V,
1-.
=
=
90
90
= 45
0"
0'
52 11' 30"
Tan
=
=
Cot
43"
Cos
39
6'
Cos P E
Therefore Cos
P E
p V,
=
=
V,
'1
45 0' 0"
37 48' 30"
v,
= Cos
=
=
45 0' 0"
52 11' 30"
10-000000
9889813
9-889813
P V|
Cos
V[
Cos P B
Cos p V,
52 11' 30"
45 0' 0"
Cos
Cos
9-787476
29 53' 41"
Cos
9-937991
To find
Long,
V,
the Positimi of v,
E
p B
of
Long, of
9-8 49485
V,
122 28' 42"

_39 6' 43"
161 35' 25"
190
From
V to
v,
the ship must sail along the Parallel of 45 N. To find

is we must turn the Diff. Long, between v and v, into
what that distance

Departure.
Long. V = 176 4' 44"

Long. V, = 161 35' 25"
Difl.
Long. =
14 29' 19"
60
869-3
By
Parallel Sailing
Departure
Diff.
Then
V,
=
=
Diff.
Long, x Cos Lat.
869-3 X Cos 45
Lat. 45 0' 0" Cos

Long. 869-3
Log.
= Departure
614-7
Log.
9-849485
2-989170
2-788655
GEEAT CIRCLE SAILING

If
191
land or shoals are on the arc of a Great Circle
between two
you must
places,
Great Circles in this manner.
sail
on the arcs
two
of
Calculate one arc of a
Great Circle from yoiir point of Departure to a position

clear of the land or shoal,
and then the arc
second
of a
Great Circle from that position to your destination.
Thus, in the diagram
Fig. 110
Let A be your point
The
of departure
and b your destination.

two places is a d b,
arc of a Great Circle joining these
but you cannot
Your
the way.
Circle
Circle
sail
on
it
best plan
because a point of land c

is
is
in
to sail on the arc of a Great
A c as far as c, and then on the arc of another Great

between c and B, your destination. You will have
two arcs
an example
to calculate these
Here
is
in the ordinary
manner.
Eequired
the nearest navigable distance from C.

Yezo Island, Japan, in Latitude 44 18' N
and Longitude 145 23' E, to Eobert's Point, British
Sirotoko, in
Columbia, in Latitude 49
W,
it
to sail
0'
and Longitude 123
being necessary, in order to avoid the
on the arcs
of
two Great
W,
and from that point
30"
Islands,
Circles,
namely, from C.
and Longitude
Sirotoko to a point in Latitude 40
170
Fox
5'
to Eobert's Point.
GREAT CIECLE SAILING
192
A be the position of C. Sirotoko,

B that of Kobert's Point, and c the position through which
the arcs of the two Great Circles must pass.
In the diagram
let
To calculate a
90 - 44 18' 0"
p A the Colat. of a
90^ - 40 0' 0"
p c the Colat of o
A p c the Diff. of Long, between a and c
145 23' E and 170
^
or 190 E
J
=
=
=
=
45 42' 0"
50 0' 0"
44 37' 0"
"1
0"
0"
0"
Log.
Sin
Sin
9-158631
9-854727
9-884254
32 38' 52"
Log.
8-897612
p A
a
4 18' 0"
32 38' 52"
Vers
Vers
-002815
-157861
135
32 56' 44"
Vers
-160811
A p c 44 37'
p A 45 42'
50 0'
p
60
A c
696
= 1976-7 miles
To calculate
115
b
PC
p B the Colat. of b = 90 - 49 0' 0"
c p B the Diff. of Long, between o and b 1
170
W-
123
5'
30"
'
=50
0'
= 41
0'
.a ^., ,,
= *" ^* ^^
p B 46 54' ,30"
p c 50 0' 0"
p B 41 0' 0"
Log.
Sin
Sin
^816943
32 46' 42"
Log.
8-900997
0"
0"
9-199800
9-884254

p c
p B
0'
e 32 46'
0"
42"
Vers
Vers
193
194
the Parallel
till
from the point
you come
to the point
where the thread
touched
and thence along
of Destination
it,
the thread to the Destination.
To
facilitate
methods
the practice of
of ahbreviating the
Great Circle Sailing,
work by graphic and tabular
systems have been pubHshed by Airy, Chauvenet, Fisher,

Sigsbee,
the
and others
little
but I have reason to believe that
manual on the subject by Towson
is
more
generally adopted in the British Mercantile jNIarine, and

better kno-mi to the
other.
there
It
is
Board
work.
of
Trade Examiners, than any
a full explanation given in
cally worked.
to
Board
combines the graphic and tabular methods, and
of
It
it
of
how
would be well therefore
it
is
practi-
for the aspirant
Trade honours to purchase and read the
196
CHAPTEE XXVI
MAGNETISM AND THE CAUSES OF AND
COMPENSATION FOR DEVIATION
{Bequwed for Extra Master)
Theeb
are natural
Magnets and
Magnets. For
Magnet a Compass
Needle is an artificial Magnet. Every Magnet, however
large, or however small, consists of two Poles. One is called
the Positive and the other the Negative Pole. The Positive
Pole and the Magnetism appertaining to it is designated
instance,
Globe
the
by the colour Blue
is
artificial
a natural
the Negative Pole and its Magnetism

by the colour Bed. The North Pole of the Globe is its
Positive Pole, and the South Pole is its Negative Pole.
;
The Magnetism due to the North Pole is therefore Blue

Magnetism, and the Magnetism due to the South Pole is
therefore Eed Magnetism.
Soft iron
Magnetism.
is
easily magnetized, but
Hard
never, loses all its
iron
is
it
quickly loses
its
not easily magnetized, but
it
Magnetism.
Compass Needle
is
made
of a thin steel bar, or bars

o 2
AXD THE CAUSES OF AND
AIAGXETIS.M
196
magnetized
becomes a permanent ^lagnet.
it
It
is
magnetized either by percussion when held in the line

of
the
Dip,' hereafter
'
explained,
or
by
friction
another INIaguet, or by being placed within a
with
coil
of
copper wire through which a current of electricity
is
passed.
For the Board
how
required to describe
needle.
The
needle on a
Trade Examination you
of
magnetize a
to
ordinary method
flat
sm-f ace
Magnet and place one
is
may
steel
be
bar or
to place your steel bar or
then take an ordinary horse-shoe
ends or Poles on one end of
of its
the bar or needle to be magnetized,
and, with
some
draw
it
to the other end, taking care that the
bar or needle
is
not touched by the other Pole of the
presstu-e,
Xext place the

other Pole of the horse-shoe Magnet upon the centre of
the bar or needle, and draw it to the end of the bar or needle
the
horse-shoe jNIagnet in
operation.
from which you have originally
Do
started, that
is.
in the
and then repeat

the whole operation in exactly the same order, taming
reverse direction.
round
needle
the bar or
magnetized
it
this several times,
The Compass Xeedle

Positive or Blue, and
property of ^Magnets
each other
occasionally
sufficiently for
unlike
Xegative or Bed, Poles.
Bed Pole and
One
that their Poles attract or repel
and
atti-act,
Positive or Blue Pole of one

or
you have
has, like every other Magnet, its
its
is
till
your purpose.
like repel.
Magnet
repels the
Therefore the
attracts the Xegative
Positive or Blue Pole of
another Magnet.
Consequently the Positive Blue Pole

Globe attracts the Xegative Bed Pole of the
Compass Xeedle. The end of the Compass Xeedle which
of
the
points to the Xorth

Pole.
This
is
is
sometimes called the Xorth end or

and one calculated to create
a misnomer,
confusion of mind.
It
is
the XorfJi-setJriiig end of the

Needle, and
it is,
of course, the
197
South or Eed Pole that
points to the North.
The North-seeking Pole

due North
it
Magnetic Pole
of the
Needle does not point
The North
points to the Magnetic North.

of the
Earth
is
supposed to be situated in
about 70 North Latitude and 97
West Longitude, and
the South Magnetic Pole in 74 South Latitude and 147
The
Bast Longitude.
difference
between true North and
South, and the Northerly or Southerly direction in which

a
Compass Needle, unaffected by Deviation,
points,
the
is
Variation of the Compass.
Needle unaffected by Deviation
pended,
lie
in a Horizontal plane
will, if freely sus-
when
situated on the
Magnetic Equator.
At the Magnetic Poles
of
the Globe
assumes a
it
Vertical position, pointing straight down.
Anywhere between the
Equator and the Poles
it
assumes a certain inclination to the Horizontal dependent
upon the Latitude,

Parallel
or, to
upon which
the Horizontal
is
it
be more accurate, the Magnetic
is
called the
This inclination to
situated.
'
Dip.'
An ordinary Compass Needle is mechanically prevented

from dipping in ordinary Latitudes.
Needle perfectly
move in any direction is called a Dipping Needle.'

Such a Needle will anywhere in North Latitude point
towards the North and dovmwards in South Latitudes
the inclination will be towards the South and downwards.
free to
'
It
is
evident, therefore, that the attractive force
Blue Pole of the Globe exercises upon the

the Needle
may
it is
resolved into two
one acting Horizontally, and the other

is
call
Eed Pole
be considered a composite force
convenience sake
first
which the
and
component
Vertically.
the Horizontal component, the
Vertical component.
of
for
forces,
The
second the
198
To
resolve
single force into its
two components.
Let A B represent the direction and amount of the Earth's

Magnetic force for a certain Magnetic Latitude. From
A draw the line a c horizontal and the line A d vertical,
and of such length that on joining c B and d b the angles
at c,
B,
and d are right angles.
Ab
is
therefore a
Parallelogram, the sides A c and D B are equal, as also the
A D and c B. By the law of the Parallelogram of

A B is resolved into two forces A c and a d, both of
which combined equal ab in magnitude and direction.
sides
'
'
forces,
On the other hand, if you know the value of a c and c B,

you can convert them into a single force, A b acting in a
Fig. Ill
which makes with the horizontal the angle

the Dip CAB. If, therefore, you know the direction
direction
of
of
the Dip, and represent the force by a certain length of
you can determine the force of the Horizontal and

components by solving a right-angled plane
triangle, or by the Traverse Tables
and equally if you
represent the Horizontal and Vertical forces by lines a b
and c b, whose lengths are proportional to these forces
line,
Vertical
respectively,
you can
find the direction
and magnitude
of
the earth's Magnetic force.
On the Magnetic Equator, where the Vertical component vanishes, the Earth's Magnetic force is in a Horizontal direction; and at the Magnetic Poles, where the

Horizontal component vanishes,
Anywhere
two components bear relations

each other dependent upon the Magnetic Latitude,
tion.
to
in a Vertical direc-
is
it
199
which
else the
by the angle of the Dip.'

and Longitude 40 W, in the year
relations are indicated
In Latitude 46
1895, the Magnetic Dip
was
'
72, therefore the
component
Horizontal
component
is
of 1 to 3'1,
very nearly, or more exactly, Cot 72.
to the Vertical
you
are interested in the subject,
in the proportion
If
you
will find a chart in the
Admiralty Manual containing lines of equal Magnetic Dip.
In studying this complicated and obscure subject of
Magnetism, bear in mind that you are dealing
at
one and
the same time with three facts or phenomena, the effect
Magnetism upon the Needle, the effect of

Magnetism upon the Ship, and the effect of the
Ship's Magnetism upon the Needle.
A wooden ship, though doubtless, like all other objects,
a Magnet, exercises au amount of attractive force too
slight to be practically perceptible.
But a Ship built of
steel or iron becomes, during construction, a Magnet
of terrestrial
terrestrial
powerful enough to influence the Compass Needle con-
An
siderablJ^
stated,
iron or steel bar can, as has already been
be turned into a Magnet by percussion, and a Ship
built of iron or steel
becomes magnetized by the percussion
due to riveting and other hammering in the course of

construction.
Though some
the course of time,

does,
and
called
some
of
of this
it
for that reason this
Magnetism
is lost
in
long as the Ship
lasts as
Magnetism
in the Ship
is
Sub -permanent Magnetism.
Sub-permanent Magnetism
is,
of course, derived
the Magnetism of the Globe, and

position in a Ship depends
Head when
building.
If a
fore portion of the Ship
its
upon the
Ship
which
is
is
from
character and dis-
position of the Ship's
built
Head North,
the
towards the Blue Pole
200
of
the Globe becomes a
Eed Pole;
acquires
it
Magnetism, and the after part acquires Blue
and becomes a Blue Pole.
If she
the fore part, which faces the
is
Head
built
Eed Pole
of
Eed
Magnetism
South,
the Globe,
acquires Blue INIagnetism, and the after part
acquires
Eed Magnetism.
If a
Ship
is
built
Head East
or
West, the
side towards
the North Pole of the Globe acquires Eed, and the side
towards the South Pole of the Globe acquires Blue,
Magnetism.
If a
Ship
is built
with her Head or any intermediate
wiU acquire Magnetism Eed or

Blue corresponding to the angle that position makes with
the line of the North or South Magnetic Poles.
But
position in a Quadrant, she
remembered all this magnetizing is caused by a force

which is resolved into two components, one Horizontal,
be
it
the other Vertical, therefore the Ship
is
magnetized in
when
Head North on the Equator she would
become a Magnet with the fore-half Eed and the afterhalf Blue, and the Eed and Blue Poles would be divided
by a Vertical line. But if built Head North in, say.
Latitude 50 N, in Europe, her Eed and Blue Subaccordance with the line of Dip due to her Latitude
building.
If built
permanent Magnetism would be divided by a
line
form-
ing an angle of 25 with the Horizontal, this being at right

angles to the angle of the line of Dip in that Latitude.
In the accompanying diagrams the arrow indicates the

direction of the
at
right
Magnetic force
of the Earth,
and the lines
angles in the hulls of the Ships the lines of
demarcation between the Eed and Blue Magnetisms.

Nos. I. to IV. are Ships built in a high Northern Latitude
the Blue Pole of the Earth induces Eed Magnetism
in the half of the Ship that is nearest to
Magnetism
in the other half.
it,
and Blue
riG.ii2.
I.
Ship built Head Nobth

IN Nobth Latitude
Porf^Side
III.
Ship built
IN
V.
Stbi;I..S/de
Head East
IN
in
Port. Side
TV.
Ship built
Noma
IN
Head Noeth
VII.- -Ship built Head East

IN South Latitude
Head West
Latitude
VL-Ship built Head South
South Latitude
StbdSide
Port Side
Stt>d3ide
North Latitude
Ship buili
built Head South

NoHTH Latitude
II.- -Ship
IN
Sttd,Side
VIII.
South Latitude
PorfS/de
Ship built Head West

South Latitude
IN
Vo/.2.rofacep200.
201
Nos. V. to VIII. are Ships built in a high Southern

Latitiide
the
Eed Pole
of the
Earth induces Blue Mag-
netism in the half of the Ships nearest to
Magnetism
If a
it,
and Eed
in the other half.
Ship were built on the Equator a Vertical line
would separate the Eed and Blue Magnetism developed

during construction.
Ship having become a Magnet, she affects the
Compass Needle
Her Eed Pole
in her.
will attract
it,
and
Her bow
will be
Suppose the Ship to be sailing North, Correct
Eed.
Magnetic
the Eed, that
naturally repel
line as that in
the North-seeking Pole of the
is
Needle, will be exposed to
Eed Magnetism, which would
it
but as the Needle is lying in the same
which the Eed Magnetism is exerting itself,
;
it
cannot be deflected by
is
to
it,
and the only
weaken the North-seeking power
Now
effect
of the
Ship and the
produced
of the Needle.
suppose the Ship to be sailing East
Eed Pole
Eed Pole
then the
of the
Needle
be acting on lines at right angles to each other, and
the Ship's
Eed Magnetism
maximum
effect upon the Needle.
will deflect it to the left or
will consequently
to the left of Correct
If,
its
it,
its
and
position of
the Needle would point
Magnetic North in other words,
caused Westerly Deviation
would
produce
It will repel
Westward from
pointing to the Magnetic North
the
Eed
vice versa.
Suppose a Ship built Head North.
will
will repel the
and her Blue Pole
or North-seeking Pole of the Needle,
of
the Ship will have
when her head was
East.
on the other hand, she was sailing West, the Needle

for the
same reason be
deflected, but to the right,
and the Deviation with the Ship's
Head on
that point will
be Easterly.
If the
Course of the Ship
is
South, the North-seeking
202
Eed Pole
Needle
of the
is
exposed to the stern or Blue
Pole of the Ship, and is attracted by
same
are acting in the
and the only

If the
effect is to
all
it.
But
the Needle
strengthen
is
as both forces
not deflected,
its directive
Ship had been built with her
the above mentioned
would
line,
phenomena would
Head
energy.
South,
all
occur, but they
be reversed in their order.
Ship were built with her Head East, Eed Subpermanent Magnetism would be induced in the Port side,
which on Northerly Courses, that is on any Course between
If the
Bast and West round by North, would cause the Needle

to be deflected to the right, giving Easterly Deviation,
and the opposite

Courses, that
effect
round by South.
her
would occur when on Southerly
on any Coarse between East and West
is,
If the Ship,
Head West,
however, were built with
contrary effects would be
exactly the
produced.
But
on one
as Ships are not generally built with their

of the Cardinal Points, the
Heads
sub-permanent Mag-
netism produces a combination of two of these
As a matter of fact, the

permanent Magnetism is
when
Meridian
reversed
that
Magnetic force
cases.
line of force of the Ship's
in the direction of the
Sub-
Magnetic
the Ship was building, but with the Poles

to say, the
is
is
Eed Pole
of the
Ship's
nearest to the Blue Pole of the Earth,
and the Blue Pole
of
the Ship's Magnetic force
Eed
is
of
Thus in a Ship built

Head SE, the Magnetic Meridian would pass through
the Port Quarter and Starboard Bow, and the line of
force of the Ship's Sub-permanent Magnetism would
lie in the same direction, but its Eed Pole would be
course opposite to
its
on the Port Quarter and
Bow.
Take another
case.
Pole.
its
Blue Pole on the Starboard
Suppose the Ship's Head when
COMPENSATION FOE DEVIATION

building to be
WNW
the Magnetic
203
Meridian would
Beam to two
Beam, and the Bed Pole of the
Ship's Sub-permanent Magnetism would be two points
before the Starboard Beam, and its Blue Pole two points
abaft the Port Beam.
This Sub-permanent Magnetism of the Ship is resolved
pass from two points before the Starboard
points abaft the Port
by the Parallelogram
fore-and-aft,
of forces into
two
forces, the
one
and the other athwartships.
Fig. 113
NW
Thus
in
diagram 113 suppose the Ship's Head when
building was
NW
then the line of the Sub-permanent
204
Magnetism
Blue Pole.
end
is
E B,
of
which E
Now the Eed
is
the
Eed Pole and B
the
Pole repels the North-seeking
E D represent this force in direction and magnitude, then the lines E c and c D into which
it can be resolved by the Parallelogram of forces are
equivalent to it. Now E c is an athwartship Magnetic
of the
Needle
let
Fig. 113
NW
force, repelling the
North-seeking end of the Needle from
the Starboard side, and
is
represented by
c.
CD
is
a fore-and-aft Magnetic force repelling the North-seeking
end
by
of
B.
the Needle from the
Bow, and
is
represented
COMPENSATION
FOE,
Here follow some diagrams

permanent Magnetism and the
the Compass Needle.
Needle
is
In
all
DEVIATION
205
illustrating a Ship's
effect
it upon
Compass
produced by
these diagrams the
represented by the arrow a
Sub-
h,
of
which a
is
the
North-seeking Pole.
Fig. 114.
Sub-pekmanent Ma&netism
sw
Ship's Head when Building SW. Bed Pole of Sub-permanent Magnetism on Starboard Quarter; Blue Pole of Sub-permanent Magnetism on
Port Bow.
With Ship's Head North.
The Bed Pole of
Ship repels the Bed or North-seeking end of the Compass Needle,

causing Westerly Deviation for that position of the Ship's Head.
of the
206
Fig.
115.
Sub-peejianent Magnetism
>j
Ship's Head when Building SE. Bed Pole of Sub-permanent Magnetism on Port Quarter; Blue Pole of Sub-permanent Magnetism on Starboard
Bow.
With Ship's Head NE.

Port Quarter repels
Bed
Bed
Pole of Sub-permanent Magnetism on
or North-seeking Pole of
Compass Needle, and
gives Easterly Deviation for that Position of the Ship's Head.
Should you wish to demonstrate the
permanent Magnetism
of the
effect of
the Sub-
Ship upon the Compass
Needle with the Ship's Head in any and every direction

cut
figure
mark the
like
one of the above out
position of the
permanent jNIagnetism due
when building,
Head on to
of
cardboard,
Eed and Blue Poles
of
Sub-
to the direction of her
Head
lay the model on a
and you
Compass Card, turn
once see the

produced upon the Xeedle by the Sub-permanent
Magnetism.
its
effect
anj^ point,
will at

Fig. 116.
Sub-pebmanent
207
Magnetism
N"W
Ship's
Head when Building NW. The Bed
Magnetism
is
Pole of her Sub -permanent

on her Starboard Bow, and the Blue Pole on her Port Quarter.
With Shiifs Head North. The Ked Pole of the Sub-permanent

Magnetism of the Ship repels the Bed or North-seeking Pole of the
Compass Needle, and causes ^Yesterly Deviation in that position of the
Ship's Head.
It stands to
reason that a small force acting in a line
with and in the same direction as another and greater

force, increases it
by
force acting in a line
greater
instance,
force
its
decreases
the force
own amount, and
that a small
with but opposed to another and

of
it
the
to
the same
extent.
For
Earth's Magnetism on the
Compass Needle may be represented by that
of a
man
208
pulling on a rope,
which
made
is
fast to the
end of the
Needle, and the effect of the Sub-permanent Magnetism
by that
evident that if he
boy pulling
of the Ship
of a
is
pulls with the
on the rope.
also
man
rope will be the greater by his strength
the strain on the
or, in
It
other words,
the directive force of the Needle will be increased to that
amount
whereas
the Needle will

strain
the boy
if
is
pulling against the
man
point in the same direction, but the
still
on the rope or the directive force
of the
Needle will
be lessened by the boy's strength and if the boy grew

and became stronger than the man, the directive force
;
would disappear altogether, and the Needle would be

constrained to point the reverse way.
Now
boy
it
it
suppose the
man
to be pulling the rope and the
another rope to the end of the Needle, and pulls
fixes
in another direction to that in which the

is
man
is pulling,
some deflection of the Needle will be

more at right angles the boy pulls the
evident that
caused, and the
greater will be the deflection of the Needle.
This, I think,
requires no demonstration.
It
be seen that the
will
Magnetism
is felt
or South,
points,
it
and
If the
attains its
its
value
is
Sub-permanent
of
through the whole
If the Ship's
the Compass.
effect
of a semi-circle of
Head when building was North
maximum
Zero
at the
at the
East and West
North and South points.
Sub-permanent Magnetism causes Easterly
Deviation in the Eastern semi-circle,
it
of course causes
Westerly Deviation in the Western semi-circle, and the

Deviation will be Easterly on every point from North
round by East to South, and Westerly on every point

from North round by West to South. If the Sub-per-
manent Magnetism causes
AA'esterly
Deviation in the
Eastern semi-circle, the Deviation will be Westerly on

every point North round to South by the East, and
it
will
209
be Easterly from North round to South by the West.

This Coefficient of the Magnetism of the Ship
called semi-circular,
The whole
of
and
is,
characterised by the letter B.
is
however, not always entirely due to
Sub-permanent Magnetism.
Part of it
is
frequently to be
attributed to induction in vertical soft iron
mentioned
by the sign
If the Deviation is Easterly
Head
Western
in the
Head
Westerly
with the Ship's
+B.
If it is
B will
semi-circle,
while building was East or West,
Magnetism would
the effect of the Sub-permanent

semi-circular, but
would have
it
North and South
and
points,
its
If it is
will
it
maximum
Ship's
Magnetism
Zero
to
-l-
in
in
the
This Coefficient of
called c.
is
be
on the
Easterly or
be Westerly or
Southern semi-circle, and vice versa.
still
effect
would be reduced
it
on the East and West points.

the Northern semi-circle,
If
the deviation
Easterly in the Northern semi-circle c will be

is
be
B.
If the Ship's
the
this will
signified byithe sign-h,
is
in the Eastern semi-circle, b will be
Easterly with her
be
later on.
Easterly Deviation
Head
therefore
is
-i-
is
if it
Westerly in the Northern semi-circle c will be c.
So much
for
the
Mag-
netism which a Ship acquires in the process of building,
and a portion
to
of
remember
which she
is
for ever retains.
that Coefficient
Southerly position of the Ship's

that Coefficient o
is
Head
East and West
while building
semi-circles,
South semi-circles
semi-circle is
VOL.
II.
is
that portion of
to the Northerly or
Head
while building, and
that portion of the Sub-permanent
Magnetism due to the Easterly

Ship's
Magnetism due
the Sub-permanent
you have
All
or Westerly position of the
that B extends
and
c all
that the sign
changed to in
all
round the
round the North and
+ extending
over one
the opposite semi-circle

P

THE CAUSES OF A^B
:MAG^"ETISiI AIJD
210
that B
is
+ B when
semi-circle
and
the Deviation
is
B when
the Easterly semi-circle
that c
is
East in the Easterly
the Deviation
is 4-
AVest in
is
when the Deviation
East in the Northern semi-circle, and that c is c

when the Deviation is West in the Xorthern semiSemi-circular Deviation being due to magnetic
circle.
is
quaUties in the Ship which do not change,

practically unaltered in
all
it
remains
parts of the Globe, except the
part due to induction in vertical iron.
But there
are other causes of Deviation
which have
nothing to do with the direction of the Ship's Head when
The soft iron in the Ship becomes magnetized

by the Magnetism of the Earth. Magnetism so acquired by
building.
the component parts of the Ship or of her cargo
is
called
Induced Magnetism.
Induced Magnetism
more or less transitory, and

If you hold a soft iron bar or
of
Dip
it
v,ill become magnetized, the
rod in the Hne
upper end becoming Blue and the lower end Eed in
Eotate the rod until it assumes a
Korth Latitudes.
its Magnetism remains the same
the
vertical position
upper end will be Blue and the lower end will be Eed
but the force of the Magnetism will be somewhat diis
shifting in its character.
minished.
Eotate the rod back to a horizontal position
Magnetism remains still the same in name the end

which was the upper end will still be Blue and the other
end Eed but the strength of the Magnetism vdll be much
reduced. Turn the bar on its centre till it points East
and West instead of Xorth and South, and it will lose its
Magnetism. Induced Magnetism has therefore its maximum effect upon a soft iron bar when the bar lies in the
same direction as the line of the Magnetic Poles, and has
its
its least effect
when
the direction of the bar
angles to the Une of those Poles.

this for yourself.
is at
right
It is easy to illustrate

Get a Compass and the kitchen poker.
]pointing roughly
211
Hold the poker
towards the North and downwards some-
where about in the
line of
Dip
that
will be at
of about 68 with the Horizon in the Latitude of
an angle
London
up Induced Magnetism, the Lower end

Try it. Put the
will be Eed and the upper end Blue.
upper Blue end close to the North-seeking end of the
and
it
will take
Compass Needle, and the Needle

it.
will
it
repel
it is
till
You
Turn
it.
vertical,
will find the
strongly,
the poker in
and
test the
same
effect
towards
horizontal,
a vertical plane
Compass again with
still
of the
poker
is still
Blue.
in a vertical plane,
till it
and repeat the experiment.
results will follow, but
The same
with greatly diminished force,
showing that the end which was the upper one when
was
in a vertical position
it.
produced, but not quite so
showing the upper end
Turn the poker back again,

is
will be attracted
Apply the poker to the other end of the Needle, and
on the
line of Dip. is
still
it
Blue,
but that the Blue is much less intense.

Eotate the poker right round so that the end which
was the upper
is
the lower end, and apply the former
upper end of the Compass as before, and you will find

all
the effects reversed, showing that the Blue Pole of the
poker had become a

If
Eed
Pole, and vice versa.
you struck the poker
a couple of
smart taps with
some other hard substance

while holding it in the line of Dip, you would find that
the poker acquired more Magnetism, retained it longer,
the tongs, or your head, or
and did not change
it
so readily.
The
is
first kind of Induced Magnetism to be considered

that arising in horizontal iron.
In any Ship the
horizontal iron lying fore-and-aft or athwartships becomes
magnetized by induction, the character of the Magnetism

depending upon the position of the iron with respect to
p
212
Take the case
the Magnetic Poles of the Grlobe.
athwartship iron, such as beams,
Ship
If a
of
first.
saiHng North or South no effect will be
is
produced, because the beams will be at right angles to the

If the
line of force.
Ship
is sailing
East the Port ends
of
the beams being towards the Blue Pole of the Earth
become Red Poles, and the Starboard ends
will
Blue Poles, being towards the
Bed Pole
will
become
The
of the Earth.
effect
on the beams will be greatest when the Ship's
Head
is
of
East or West, because they are then in the line

force it will be nil when the Ship's Head is North or
;
South, because the beams are then at right angles to the
Une
of force
and
it
will bear a certain proportion to its
any position between North and East,

North and West, South and East, and South and West.
This Coefficient of the Ship's Magnetism is characterised
greatest strength on
by the
letter d.
Now
in the
consider the effect of the Induced Magnetism
beams upon the Compass.
sailing
due East or due West
Suppose a Ship
the beams will be
Induced Magnetism, but as they
lie
in the
same
to be
full of
line as
the Compass Needle, their Induced Magnetism will have
no
effect
upon
it,
except to diminish its directive force. In
the case of a ship sailing North or South, the greatest
would be produced upon its Needle by the Induced

Magnetism in the beams if there was any, but there is
not, because the beams are then at right angles to the
But if the Ship is sailing on any Quadrantal
line of force.
effect
NE, NW, SE, SW, the Deviation due

at its maximum.
Coefficient D is theremaximum upon the Quadrantal Points, and is
Point, such as
to this cause
fore at
its
is
Zero at the Cardinal Points.

sailing
will
Head
NW,
the
Suppose a Ship
to
be
Starboard ends of the beams
have acquired Bed Polarity, and will be opposed

Eed
to the
Deviation will be Westerly.
West
to
The
or North-seeking Pole of the Needle.
Needle will be repelled or deflected to the
North
213
and the
left,
be Westerly from
It will
the Deviation will have
its
NW, and a certain quantity proportionate to

on the other points in the same Quadrant.
maximum at
maximum
its
Suppose the Ship changed her Course to
SE
the
Starboard ends of the beams will acquire Blue Polarity,
and the South or Blue Pole

to
of the
Needle will be opposed
and repelled by them, and will be deflected to the
left,
and the Deviation will also be Westerly.
Supposing the Ship to

Port
ends
and will
deflect the North-seeking end
right towards the

sails
on a
sail
SW,
NB
the beams will acquire
of
Course, the
Eed
of the
Polarity,
Needle to the
bow, giving Easterly Deviation.
beam
the Port ends of the
Magnetism, and will
deflect the
If she
will acquire
Blue
South end of the Needle
to the right, giving Easterly Deviation.
Thus
is
it
of the
will be seen that in Coefficient
d the Deviation
same name. Easterly or Westerly, in opposite
Quadrants, and
is
consequently of the different
adjacent Quadrants.
It
name
in
therefore called Quadrantal
is
Deviation.
The Deviation due

Easterly in the
in
the
NW
NE
and
SB
express this Deviation

If
the
to continuous
Compass
SW
and
The
Quadrants.
is
is,
-(-
beams
is
always
Quadrants, and Westerly

Coefficient
to
d.
may
as
well
happen, between
all this takes place.

Each
beam becomes a separate magnet
acquiring a Blue and Eed Pole by induction.
In such a
case the effects described above as due to induced Magnetism in a continuous beam are reversed.
The Deviation
divided beams, the reverse of
portion of a divided
will
be Westerly in the
NB
and
SW
Quadrants, and
Sl4
NW and SB Quadrants.
Easterly in the
representing this condition of things
But
T-
from the
also
effect of
greatest
Coefficient
D.
from another cause, namely,
results
Induced Magnetism in horizontal

In this
and-aft soft iron.
Head North
The
is
fore-
with the Ship's
latter case,
or South, fore-and-aft iron will acquire the
amount
Induced Magnetism, being
of
in a line
of the Earth.
But this Induced
Magnetism will have no effect on the Compass Needle
beyond increasing or diminishing its directive quality,
because it is acting in the same line with it. If the Ship's
with the Magnetic Poles
Head were East
or West, the greatest effect would be
produced by Induced Magnetism in the fore-and-aft

if
was any Induced Magnetism
there
none, because the fore-and-aft iron

to the
is
in
it
then
iron,
but there
is
at right angles
Therefore Induced Magnetism in
Magnetic Poles.
fore-and-aft iron also produces its
maximum
the Needle on the Quadrantal points, but
Deviation of a contrary
name
upon
effect
it
produces
to that produced
by con-
tinuous athwartship iron.
Suppose the Ship to be sailing

of the fore-and-aft iron will take
will repel the

it
the forward end
up Bed
Polarity, and
North-seeking end of the Needle, deflecting
to the right,
Ship's
NW
and giving
Head were SE
it
Easterly Deviation.
Blue Polarity and repel the South-seeking end
Compass Needle,
Easterly
deflecting
Deviation.
If the
the forward end would take up
to the right,
it
NE,
Sailing
the
of the
and causing
Bed Induced
Polarity in the fore end of the iron will deflect the Needle
to the left, causing
Westerly Deviation
and
sailing
SW
the Blue Polarity taken up by the fore part of the iron

will repel the
deflecting
it
South-seeking or Blue end of the Needle,
to the left, causing
Deviation being Westerly or

rants,
and Easterly or
-|-
Westerly Deviation.
in the NE
in the
NW and
The
and
SW Quad-
SE
Quadrants,

the Coefficient representing
it is
d.
This
216
is
rarely
found in sufficient quantities to be worth considering.
We
have seen that the
effect
produced on the Needle
by continuous athwartship iron is reversed

pass lies between divided athwartship iron.
same way the
iron
is
effect
if
the
Com-
So in the
produced by continuous fore-and-aft
reversed in the case of divided fore-and-aft iron.
Here follow a few diagrams
illustrating Coefficient
-|-
Fig. 117
With the Ship's Head NW. Bed Polarity is induced by the Magnetism
Earth in the Starboard ends of the beams, which repels the Bed or
North-seeking end of the Compass Needle, causing Westerly Deviation with
of the
the Ship's
Head
in that position.
With the Ship's Head SE. Bed Polarity is induced in the Port ends
of the beams, which repels the Bed or North-seeking end of the Compass
Needle and causes Westerly Deviation with the Ship's Head in that position.
216
I think that diagrams 117, 118, and 119 are amply
suffi-
cient to illustrate the effect of induction in horizontal soft
iron on the
Compass Needle.
The thing
to
remember
is,
Fig. 118
With the Ship's Head NE.

the beams, which repels the
Red Polarity
Eed
is
induced in the Port ends of

end of the Compass
or North-seeking
Needle, causing Easterly Deviation with the Ship's
With
the Ship's
Head S IF. Eed
Head
in that position.
Polarity is induced in the Starboard
ends of the beams, which repels the Eed or North-seeking end of the
Compass Needle, causing Easterly Deviation with the Ship's Head in that
position.
that the end of the soft iron
has
Eed
Blue Polarity
beam which
points Northerly
and the end which points Southerly has

that in Northern Magnetic Latitudes the
Polarity,

upper end of vertical
soft iron
217
has Blue Polarity and the
Eed and in South Magnetic Latitudes the

upper end has Eed Polarity and the lower end Blue.
lower end
Fig. 119
With the Ship's Head North or South, the beams being at right angles
Magnetic North or South line, or, in other words, to the Magnetic force of the Earth, no Magnetism is induced in them.
to the Correct
With
the Ship's
Head East
but as they act in the
same
they produce no effect
line,
what
its
beams are strongly magnetized,

Magnetic North and South
on the Compass Needle except to weaken someor West, the
line as the Correct
directive force.
Keeping these
facts in
mind,
rough diagram, to find out the
it is
effect
Needle produced by any soft iron near

also that
by means of a
on the Compass
easy,
it,
not forgetting
each length of soft iron becomes a separate
Magnet, so that in the case of a Compass Needle placed
218
between divided beams the Magnetism induced has a

diametrically opposite effect to that which is produced by
continuous beams.
Coefficient
e represents the
unsym-
effect of soft iron
metrically disposed, such as any iron in the construction

or fittings of the Ship,
athwartships
which
is
neither fore-and-aft, nor
as, for instance, stringers,
pieces at an angle to the keel.
Compass
iron passing under the
or strengthening
Assunae a piece of
the keel from the direction of the Starboard
The
the Port Quarter.
of
Magnetism
in precisely the
With
Bow
to that
iron will
acquire Induced
same way
as fore-and-aft or
athwartship iron, but owing to

not be the same.
soft
at an angle of 45 with
its
position the results will
the Ship's
Head NE,
this iron
be at right angles to the Compass Needle, and would
will
have
its
maximum
effect
Induced Magnetism, but
upon
it
it
if
the
iron
will
had taken up any
has not, because
With
angles to the Magnetic Meridian.
NW,
it
it
is at
the Ship's
be in a line with the
right
Head
Magnetic
Meridian, and the Induced Magnetism taken up by

will
be at
its
maximum, but
will
it
have no
it
deflective
upon the Compass Needle, because it is in a line

The Induced Magnetism in this iron, therefore,
has its maximum effect upon the Compass Needle at the
Cardinal Points, and has no effect upon it at the Quadrantal
effect
with
it.
Points, and has an effect proportionate to

at the intermediate points.
We
its
maximum
have shown the
effect
NW
produced with the Ship's Head between NE and

and as needless repetition is wearisome, it is sufficient
to
say that the same effects are produced with the Ship's
Head
in the opposite Quadrant, namely,
SB, and that opposite
Head
is
effects are
in the other Quadrants.
Quadrantal.
between
SW and
produced with the Ship's
This Deviation, therefore,
COMPEiSISATION FOR DEVIATION

the Deviation
If
Basterlj^
is
219
the Northern and
in
Southern Quadrants, and consequently Westerly in the

others,
hand,
signified
it is
called Coefficient
it is
Head
Ship's
at
any point
on the other
Southern
E.
A.
constant, being
is
If,
Eastern and Western
There remains only Coefficient

This Deviation
b.
Northern and
Quadrants, and Easterly in the

Quadrants,
Coefficient
Westerly in the
is
it
by
of the
or
Compass, and
with the
it
generally
from some mechanical error in the alignment of the
arises
Compass.
A and B are so small that

notice
is
for practical
generally taken of them.
The
purposes no
principal Deviations
are
represented by Coefficients b and c plus or minus,
and
D.
Thus
it
be seen that the Deviations due to the
will
of a
Ship are semi-circular,
and are represented in the Eastern and Western semi-
by
circles
B or
-h
by
semi-circles
-|-
B,
and in the Northern and Southern
c or
that the Deviation due to
induction in athwartship and fore-and-aft iron

rantal,
and
is
expressed in the
Quadrants by Coefficient
-f-
is
Quad-
NE and SW, NW and SB

or d
that the Deviation
;
due to iron disposed in any other direction than fore-andaft or
athwartship
is
Quadrantal, and
North, South, East, and
is
expressed in the
West Quadrants by
-I-
B or
and that Deviation arising from any error in the alignment

of the
Compass
circular,
from some other similar cause
or
and under the name
has the same
of Coefficient
name and produces
-h
or
is
the same effects
all
round the Compass.

If in the
all
Eoom you get messed up with

and Quadrants, the best plan is to
Examination
these Semi-circles
draw two or three
little circles
on the selvage edge of
MAC4NETISM AKD THE CAUSES OF AND
220
your paper and write the coefficients in them as below, and

then
fill
In the following figures
in the proper signs.
the plus parts are
all
The
shaded.
semi-circular and
quadrantal character of the Deviations, and the positions

of
maximum
strength, are thus clearly indicated

Fig. 120
-B
+B
-C
4-C
So far we have assumed that the Ship is upright.

"When the Ship is heeled over, the altered position that soft
iron having Induced Magnetism, and that the whole body
of the
Ship having Sub-permanent Magnetism, assumes
in reference to the
which
is
must be the
of the
side
Compass has an
called Heeling Error.

case.
When a
effect
upon the Needle
It is easy to see that such
Ship
is
heeling over, the ends
deck beams are raised nearer to the Needle on one
and depressed further below
it
on the other than
when she was upright vertical iron, such as the funnel,

is moved out of the Vertical plane of the Needle to one
;
and the Vertical component of the

Sub-permanent Magnetism of the Ship is shifted from its
side or the other of
normal
it
position.
The only causes
of Deviation
due to heeling necessary
to consider are the shifting of the Vertical
component
of
COMPENSATION FOE DEVIATION
'221
Sub-permanent Magnetism, and the elevation and depression of the ends of athwartship iron.
as a Ship
As long
is
upright, the Vertical
component
of the Sub-permanent Magnetism has no deflecting

upon the Needle, as the pull is directly downwards.
if
this
downward
becomes inclined
pull
Vertical plane of the Needle,
by attracting
the Needle
it
at
effect
But
an angle to the
does, of course,
deflect
or repelling the North-seeking
end.
In Ships built with their heads towards the North,
and in any North Latitude that gives considerable

and the mass
of the
dip,
our islands, the forward upper part,
as is the case all over
lower part of the Ship will have
Eed
Magnetism, while the upper and after part will have Blue.
The Standard Compass is nearly always situated in the

field of this Blue Magnetism.
If the vessel is upright
no effect is produced upon the Needle, because it is
pulled by
equally in
it
all directions.
But
if
the vessel
is
heeled to port, on Northerly Courses, the bulk of the Ship
and with
it
right of the
Compass Needle, and therefore
the bulk of the Blue Magnetism
towards the weather or high
The
side,
is
to the
will attract it
causing Easterly Devia-
would be the case if she was on the

Port tack, the Needle would equally be attracted to the
weather side, but the Deviation would be Westerly. If
the Ship were on Southerly Courses, and on the Starboard
tion.
reverse
North-seeking end of the Needle would be
tack, the
attracted to the high side, but the Deviation
Westerly
while
if
would be
on the Port tack, the Deviation would
be Easterly.
The
would take place if the Ship

Head South and the Compass was placed in a
Eed Magnetism.
reverse of
all
this
were built
field of
In Ships built in South Latitudes the Sub-permanent
ilAGNBTISM AND THE CAUSES OF AND
222
Magnetism is differently distributed from what it would be

had the Ship been built in North Latitude, and consequently produces different
effects.
See diagrams facing
page 200.
The
effect
produced by the upheaval and depression
We
of athwartship iron is simple to understand.
how Induced Magnetism
already seen
athwartship iron, and have studied the
Magnetism upon the Needle.

ceases
effect of
If the iron
to be horizontal, the
have
affects horizontal
Induced
a beam say
Induced Magnetism
in
it
changes in force, and, in proportion as the beam approaches

the vertical, approximates nearer and nearer to the magnetic
On
condition of vertical iron.
a Northerly Course and
on
end of the beam
would take on Blue Polarity due to vertical iron, and
would become less Eed than it was before, or might
become entirely Blue. If changed to Blue, it will attract
the Starboard tack, the Starboard
the North-seeking end of the Needle, and draw
high side;
if
merely
Eed than
less
will not repel the
zontal,
it
before,
and the practical
an attraction
to the
high
it
Needle as
much
effect will also
side.
it
was when
as
to the
horiit
did
be equivalent to
The Needle being attracted

On the Port
to the right, the Deviation will be Easterly.
tack the effect will

side,
also
be an attraction to the high
but the Needle being drawn to the
left,
the Devia-
tion caused will be Westerly.
On
to
Southerly Courses the attraction
is also
to the high
whichever tack you are on, but the Deviation due
side,
Heeling Error on the Starboard tack on Southerly
Courses will be of the same
name
as that due to Heeling
Error on the Port tack on a Northerly Course, and

versa.
tion
is
vice
In Southern Latitudes the whole of this operareversed.
The great thing to remember is
that in respect of Heel-

ing Error caused by horizontal iron becoming
inclined to
causes of
the vertical, which
Heehng
223
more
or less
one of the principal
is
Error, the Needle
is
drawn
to the high
side
on both tacks in Northern Latitudes, and to the low
side
on both tacks in Southern Latitudes.
the Deviation in the Northern
The
signs of
Hemisphere change
in the
Southern Hemisphere.
If in either
hemisphere you change your course from
Northerly to Southerly, or vice versa, without changing

tack, the
the
sign changes
but
jôu
if
change your
tack also, the sign of the Deviation remains the same.

If
one changes the sign changes
if
both change, or
neither changes, the sign does not change.
As regards the Heeling Error caused by the SubMagnetism of the Ship, the sign of the
Deviation changes in the same way as in the case before
permanent
mentioned
of
Heeling Error due to induction in iron beams,
but
the same in both hemispheres.
The result of this is that these two causes of Heeling
Error may act together and accentuate the error, or act
in opposition and diminish or neutralise it, and of course
is
whichever they do in the Northern will be reversed in the

Southern Hemisphere.
Problems will be given you in the Examination
Eoom
on this infernal subject of Magnetism and Deviation, of

the following description
Given the position of the Ship's Head when buildand one of the Sub-permanent Magnetism Coefficients,
1st.
ing,
to
find the other Coefficient.
Proceed thus
as a
With
Course in Table
I.,
the position of the Ship's
Head
and the Coefficient given you in
224
the Difference of Latitude or Departure column, you

will find the Coefficient
you want in the corresponding
Departure or Difference of Latitude column.

given you look for
column,
if
is
it
in
If
the Difference of
given look for
the
in
it
is
Latitude
Departure
column.
The best plan is to look for the whole Coefficient, decimal and all, as a whole number, in the Difference of Latitude and Departure column, and take out the corresponding
minutes in the Departure or Difference of Latitude column
and
shift
instance,
the decimal point one place to the
you had
if
the nearest figures to
it
left.
13'2, look for
Coefficient
For
132 or
in the Difference of Latitude or
Departure column, and supposing you find 147 in the

Departure or Difference of Latitude column, the Coefficient
would be
As an
when
find
14-7.
and Coefficient
building,
is
to be
8-5
NW by W
required to
c.
Ship's
With
NW
Head
equals 5 points from North.
to call
sign to
it
c.
12-7.
in the
is
c is 127'2, and
All that remains
is
I.,
Western
it
is
will
and 85 in the
semi-circle,
12-7
be near enough
to affix the proper
always when the Ship
is built
with her
and as the Ship's Head
when building, c is and the

The diagram shows what has been
in that semi-circle
answer
Table
Latitude column, you will find 127-2 in the
Departure column
Head
by
5 points as a Course in
Difference of
was
Head
instance, suppose Ship's
done.
In the diagram on next page c o is the line of force of the

Sub-permanent Magnetism of the Ship A b, whose Head
b W, and this is resolved into the
when building was
fore-and-aft force d o repelling the North-seeking end of
NW
the Compass Needle from the Bow, and therefore represent-

ing Coefficient
225
and into the athwartship force c d

end of the Compass Needle
repelling the North-seeking
from the Starboard
=8-5 and
D=
and therefore representing
side,
c.
12-7.
Suppose Ship's Head
to
be
and that Coefficient cis + 18'2.
BSE when building,

BSE is 6 points from
Fig. 121
NWbW
South.
With
6'
Table I., and

you have 75'4 in the
points as a Course, in
182 in the Departure column,

Difference of Latitude column,
always + when a Ship
with her Head in the
is
built
is
therefore 7'5.
Southern semi-circle; therefore your b
The
is -h 7-5.
following diagram shows this.
VOL.
II.
is
226
In the diagram below o c is the line of force of the Subpermanent Magnetism of the Ship A b, whose Head when
was
o D and DC.
building
ESB
o
this is resolved into the
is
two
forces
a fore-and-aft force attracting the
North-seeking end of the Compass Needle to the Bow, and

it
therefore represents
-(-
is
an athwartship force
ES
attracting the North-seeking end of the

to the Starboard
0D=
7-5,
side,
and
it
therefore represents
-f-c.
and DC=18-2.
2nd. Given both Coefficients, required

tion of the Ship's
Look
Compass Needle
for
Head when
to
find the posi-
building.
B in the Difference of Latitude and c in the
Departure column, and the Course will be the position
of

Head from North
the Ship's
if
is
is
if
is
or
227
from South
+, towards West
+, towards East
if
instance, stippose
you have + b = 7'5, and
For
if
75 in the Difference of Latitude and 182 in
18-2, look for
The
the Departure cohimn.
and 182, which gives 6 points

towards East because c
is
Head when
the Ship's
is
nearest you can get
is
from South because b

;
the answer therefore
75'4
is
is
that
building was S 6 points B, or
ESE.
supposing you have
Again,
b 16-3 and
c 4'7,
look out 163 in the Difference of Latitude and 47 in the
The
Departure Columns.
and 49'4
being
and
nearest you can get
the Ship will
and with her Head Easterly because c

therefore
is,
points E, or
If
by
this close
Look out 163
II.
and 47 in the Departure
The answer
was
1^
enough, take the data out
in the Difference of Latitude
which
will
The
columns.
nearest
give
is
;
16 E.
You
of
is
building
you 16 as a Course
therefore have been built with her Head
163-4 and 46-9,

the Ship will
162-7
EÊ.
you don't think
of Table
Head when
the Ship's
is
you 1^ points as a Course, b

have been built Head Northerly,
this gives
Table
can, of course, in all cases use Table II. instead

I.,
and take out the position
of the Ship's
Head
in degrees, instead of in points.
To find the change in andamount of Heeling Error.

You will be given the Course the Ship is steering
3rd.
by Compass, the amount

by that amount of Heel
Error,
is
and
of
or,
Heel, the Deviation caused

in other words, the
Heeling
the direction of the wind, or the tack the Ship
on will also be given
from these data you
quired to find the Heeling Error
when
will be re-
the Ship
is
heeling
a 2
228
more
or heeling
when
she
she
on another Course, or
for
is
less,
on another tack, when
is
any combination
of these
changes.
To
find the
or less
amount
Deviation
change
of
Heel
assumed
is
Heeling Error due to a greater
of
is
a very simple matter, as the
to increase or decrease in direct pro-
portion to the increase or decrease of Heel, though goodness
only knows whether

error
it
were 8 on 10
Thus,
really does so or not.
if
the
would be 16 on 20 of
Heel, and so on. But to find what
of Heel,
Heel, and 4 on 5 of
it
some other Course, from a

what the Heeling Error is on a given
the Heeling Error will be on
knowledge
Course,
is
of
not quite so easy.
You know from what has

Heeling Error that
Head North
it is
at its
already been said about
maximum
with the Ship's
is zero with the Ship's Head

The first step is as follows from your
knowledge of the amount of Error on the Course given,
find what the amount will be with the Ship's Head North
or South, and
East or West.
or South, whichever
is
the nearest to the given Course.
The second step is from the amount so found for the

Ship's Head North or South find what the amount will be
upon the new Course. Both these operations can be done
:
with the aid of the Traverse Table.
With the
given Course as a Course in Table
I.,
and the
given Heeling Error in the Difference of Latitude column,

take out the corresponding Distance in the
column
this will be the
South points
in this
case as in former cases mentioned
look out the whole Heeling Error, decimals and
with the
new Course
Distance
Heeling Error on the North or
as a Course,
all.
Then,
and the Heeling Error
on the North or South points in the Distance column,

you will find the Heeling Error due to the new Course in
the Difference of Latitude column.

amount
If the
to
work a
amount
little
Heel on the
still
new
you
Course, so
is
is
to the
have
will
as the
amount
in the
the Heeling Error you
same Northern or Southern
the Heeling Error
or
is
semi-circle, the
remains the same.
Head
the change of Course has put your Ship's
if
of
x.
you have not changed tacks, and your Course
sign of
But
also changed,
in simple proportion, thus
Heel on the old Course
of
have just found to

If
Heel has
of
sum
229
into the opposite semi-circle the sign
changes.
If
you
change tacks in the same semi-circle the sign changes

but
you change tacks and your Ship's Head gets into
if
the other
through a
the sign does not change.
semi-circle,
shift of
You have
out altering your Course, the sign changes.
only to consider semi-circles and tacks

to
remember
is
If.
wind, you get on the other tack with-
that
if
and
all
you have
neither change, or both change,
the sign of the Deviation does not change
but
if
one
changes and the other does not change the sign does
change.
Let us take a case
NNEÊ with the wind at

and Heeling Error due to it
Suppose you are steering
NW, amount
W.
14|-
Heel
of
10,
Eequired to find the Heeling Error on a
Course, the
amount
of
Heel being
WSW
7^.
North being nearer to your Course than South, the

step
is
first
amount of error on the assumption that

Head was North. Course NNEÊ equals 2i
to find the
the Ship's
14^ Heeling Error
points.
With 2i points
as a
is
as near as can be 14-2.
Course in Table
I.,
and 142 in the
you will find 161 in the

on a North Course is there-
Difference of Latitude column,
Distance column.
fore 16-1 or 16.
With
points
The error
The new Course
as
a Course
WSW equals 6 points.
and 161 in the Distance
230
column, you will find 61-6 in the Difference of Latitude
WSW for 10 of
column the Heeling Error therefore at

Heel is 61-6 or 62 or 6-2. But the amount
;
Heel
of
is
only 7^, therefore

as 10
::
6-2
= 46-5
10 = 4-65
X 6-2
7-5
46-5
therefore 4'65
7^
-;-
the Heeling Error on the
is
new
Course.
This, of course, you will call 4-7, or 4^, or 4 39'.
name
to
The Ship has changed
it.
tacks,
and has
Now
also
changed semi-circles, therefore the sign does not change,
and the answer

Course
is
that the Heeling Error on the
is
Take another instance

with the wind at
new
SB^S
to
You
11|.
Suppose you are steering E|S
SE by
to this Heel 3^ E.
come up
new
4^ or 4^ West.
require
S, amount of Heel 15^, Error due

The wind shifts to S by W, and you
on this Course the amount of Heel is
to know the Heeling Error on the
Course.
Original Course E^S
1^ points from South. Heeling

Error as expressed in decimals 3-25. In this case Table II.
is
is
more convenient than Table
I.,
as in the latter Distances
only run to 300, and the Difference of Latitude due to
7^ points
is
not big enough to include your Heeling Error
expressed decimally.
84
Using Table
so with 84 as a Course,
and
II.,
1\ points equals
32-5 in the Difference of
Latitude column, you will find 311 in the Distance column,

that
With
is,
Heehng Error with the Ship's Head South.

new Course in degrees, namely, 39 and 311 in
31-1
the
the Distance column, you will find 241'7 in the Difference

of
Latitude column
new Course with
24-17
is
the Heeling Error on the
the original amount of Heel.
But the

amount
of
231
Heel has changed from 15^ to 11|, there-
fore
as 15-5
11-75
24-17
never worth while to work to more than one place

11-8 :: 24-2 x
of decimals, so we will say as 15-5
It is
X 24-2
11-8
285-56
therefore the answer

is
4-
15-5
=
=
285-56
18-4
Heeling Error on the new Course
is,
18-4, or 18 24', or 18^ very nearly.
As the Ship's Head remains

and the tack
Therefore the Heeling Error

If
in the
same
semi-circle
unchanged, the sign remains unchanged.
is
is
18^, or 18i E.
the wind had not shifted, and in beating to wind-
ward the Ship had changed tacks, the amount of Error

would
of course
have been the same, but the sign would
have changed, and the Error on the

have been
1%\, or 181
new Course would
w.
In case you should make any mistake about the sign,

let
me
impress
it
neither change,
change
but
You
upon you that you have only
to consider
you are on and the semi-circle you are
the tack
if
or
if
in
if
both change, the sign does not
one changes the sign does change.
by the examiners to conduct

which taxes
the patience grievously, namely
will also be required
the following exceedingly laborious operation,

:
Given
all
the Coefficients, to find the Deviations for
every point of the Compass.
You must make

top,
a form with the Coefficients at the
the points of the
Compass on the
left-hand side, as
MAGMETISM AND THE CAUSES OF AND
232
per under, and write
down
the amount and character of
the Coefficients as given you.
Ship's
Head
by Standard
A
-24'
+ 5 18'
1
North
NbE
NNB
NE bN
NE
NEbE
ENE
EbN
East
Eb
ESE
SE bE
SE
SEbS
SSE
SbE
South
Sb
SSW
SWbS
SW
SWb W
WSW
WbS
West
WbN
WNW
NWb W
NW
NWbN
NNW
Nb W
233
you will remember, is Quadrantal, and its

maximum is on the Quadrantal points therefore write
down the amount of d given you on the Quadrantal
points NB, SE, SW, and NW, and write a zero on
North, South, East, and West. As
the Cardinal points
as
D,
you already know, D has the same

Quadrants, and changes
sign in adjacent Quadrants.
its
Prefix therefore the proper signs to the

in accordance
with this
given
but
you are given
if
D, it will
fact,
+ in
D it
be
opposite
in
sign
maximum amounts
remembering that
the
NE
will
be
and
SW
in the
if
you are
Quadrants,
NE
and
SW
Quadrants.
is
points,
also Quadrantal, its
and
minimum
its
maximum
is
at the Cardinal
at the Quadrantal points.
It
has the same sign in opposite Quadrants, and
changes
Write down e
as given
sign in adjacent Quadrants.
its
you on the Cardinal points, with

zeros
the
at
you have
points, while
proper sign, and put
its
Quadrantal points, remembering that

it
if
will
be
you have
+ on
the North
will
it
be
if
and South
on those
points.
its
maximum on the East and West points, and

maximum at the North and South points and being,
as
you are aware, semi-circular,
B has
its
it
carries the
same sign
from North to South round by East, and changes
North to South round by West.

the
maximum
points,
the
if
from
up the column with
B on the East and West
with the proper signs attached, and place zero at
North and South points,
you have
have
Fill
of the Coefficient
it
b,
but
+ on
East and
on East and
on West
+ on West
if
you
B.
maximum on North and South, and its minion East and West, and being also semi-circular,
c has its
mum
carries the
same sign from East
to
West round by North,
234
and the opposite sign from West to East round by South.
column with the amount of the Coefficient

you on the North and South points, and with
Fill in the c
as given
zero on the East and
West
points with the proper sign
attached,
on North and
c,
on North and
c.
will present the
appearance as below
but
The form
Ship's
Head by
on South
on South
if
you have
if
you have

for
this
As,
all.
the
in
Deviation
points,
CoefScient as a Distance,
purpose, taking the
decimals and
Quadrantal
will, in
Deviations,
from zero
increases
you
235
to its
the
amount
maximum
of
four
in
using the table which contains
eiglit
points, skip a point every time.
The maximum of d
is
at the
Quadrantal points.
Start
from the Quadrantal points and consider them to be zero

in the Traverse
Coefficient
Table
then, in order to find the value of
on each
for the point
point, enter the Traverse Table
and the
and
Coefficient, decimals
side of the
Quadrantal
with 2 points as a Course,

all,
as a Distance
the
corresponding Difference of Latitude will be the value of

the Coefficient on the points on each side of the Quadrantal points.
Thus
if
you have
1\, the
Deviation will be
NW
and
7i on NB and SW, and it will be + 1\ on
SB. With 2 points as a Course and 75 in the Distance
column, you will find 69-3 in the Difference of Latitude
column
call this 6'9
that
is
quite near enough.
There-
fore
on the points next to the Quadrantal points, namely,
NB
by
Deviation
NB by E, SW by S and SW by W, the
And on NW by W and NW
will be - 6-9.
and
by N, and on
be
-1-
SB by B and SB by
and the same Distance

of Latitude
and
BNB,
S the Deviation
will
Skip a point, and with 4 points as a Course
6-9.
column.
for
Deviation for
will be +5-3.
SSW
NNW
75,
you will
The
find 53 in the Difference
Deviation, therefore, for
WSW
and
will be
and WNW, and for
5-3,
NNE
and the
SSE and ESB
Skip yet another point, and you will find
same Distance 75
gives you 28-7 in the Difference of Latitude column
call
The Deviation therefore on N by B, and B by
this 2-9.
by S is - 2-9. And the Deviation
N, S by W, and
that with 6 points as a Course, the
236
on
Now
W by
W,
by
you have your
by S is + 2-9.
column filled for every
N, S by E, and
t>
Coefficient
point of the Compass.
Proceed in precisely the same manner with Coefficient

B.
It
for
all
impossible to
is
you have to do
make
is
a mistake in the
signs,
use the sign you have
to
maximums
already got in the form, working from the

to zero.
The only
difference in filling
up B and
columns
is
that you use every point in the Traverse Table, because
the Coefficient changes from
its
maximum
to
zero
in
eight points.
The next
the column
This
result.
little
step
left
is
is
to tot
up
A, D,
and e
Coefficients in
blank for the purpose, and enter the

troublesome, as
it
numerous
requires
addition and subtraction operations, but
it
has to be
This gives you the total result of Constant and
done.
Quadrantal Deviation.
Then enter the combined b and

column
left
columns in the
blank for the purpose, and you have the
total result of Semi-circular Deviation.
Finally combine the Quadrantal and Constant with
the Semi-circular Deviation, enter the result in the right-
hand column, and you have the Deviation due

Coefficients for every point of the
Compass.
to all the
The whole
up complete is appended below.

a long and laborious operation, but mercifully
the Board of Trade examiners will probably only ask you
to find the Deviations for half the Compass Card not
form
filled
This
is
from any laudable ambition

because obviously
you can
find
them
if
make
things easy, but
you can find the Deviations for half
for the whole.
only three Coefficients
shorten the agony.
to
may
It is also possible that
be given, which will help to

The whole Deviation
Table, of which the skeleton
given on pages 232 and 234,
Ship's
237
filled
up
is
as follows
is
MAGNETISM
238
.\KD
THE CAUSES OF AND
Compass
For example
opposite the points of the
there
is
no confusion.
in the form,
Suppose you have a Coefficient + d 7 30'.

would fill in your NE and
points under d with
SW
NW and SE points with 7-5 W.
and your
Table
for 7 30' in the right-hand
I.
Now
You
7-5
or
7 30'
is
which
on
NE
is
b N,
column, and missing
b E,
SE b
S 4 you
and
due to
+ d
and
XW
NW
b AV,
B.
will
for the
S and
b N,
SE b S,
For the next points on each side under
find 5 18', which is the Deviation you want,
the Deviation Westerly on
and
SW b
56',
SW b W,
the Deviation Easterly
NE
look in
one column in the table under S 6 you will find 6

6-9,
and
remaining points under S 2 the Deviation
is
2 52'.
In B and c every point must be taken out, as when

using the Traverse Table.
You must
you must
bear in mind that in using this table
start
from the right when
filling
up your
form.
The next
operation will be to find the value of the
Coefficients from the Deviation on certain points, which

you ascertain by swinging the Ship.
As it is impossible to swing a Ship in the Examination
Eoom, you will have to imitate the process with a toy
called a Deviascope.
The Deviascope
This instrument consists of a movable stand upon a
pedestal
when
the instrument
is
being used the stand
North and South Correct Magnetic by means of a

painted Compass upon the stand and a real Compass
is
fixed
upon the model of the deck of a Ship, which is mounted

upon the stand by a metal arm with a socket, which
239
works on a centre pin, thus allowing the model to be

swung in any direction.
The Compass is placed on
the deck, exactly over the socket.
Two
metal pointers in
a direct fore-and-aft line are fixed on the model immediately over the painted
Compass, in order to indicate the

head in any position to which
direction of the model's

it
may
be revolved by reference to the painted Compass.
The model can be fixed in any position by a clamp screw.

There is also a clamp screw on a semi-circle of brass under
When it is
the deck, which keeps the model upright.
desired to heel the model this screw is slackened, and
tightened up again when the amount of heel required is
given by canting the deck.
Thirty-two radial grooves are cut on the deck of the

model, indicating the various points
of
the
Compass.
Into these grooves Magnets are inserted to deflect the
Needle and represent the Sub-permanent Magnetism due

to the position of the Ship's
if
the Ship's
with
its
Head when
Head when
building was
red pole towards the
building.
NNE,
Thus
one Magnet
Compass would be placed
in
the second radial groove from right ahead on the Starboard
Bow, and another Magnet with

Compass
its
blue pole toward the
in the second radial groove
from right astern on
the Port Quarter.
The
and athwartship radial grooves are

Magnets.
compensating
used for placing the
Soft iron bars, representing athwartship beams, and
producing Quadrantal Deviation -|- d or d, can be introfore-and-aft
duced under the deck.
brass tube
is
fixed
beneath the deck directly under
the centre of the Compass, in which a
Magnet can be
placed to represent the Vertical component of the Ship's
Sub-permanent Magnetism, which is one of the causes of

Above the deck, and directly under the
Heeling Error.
240
Compass,
for
is
another brass tube, in which a smaller Magnet
The amount
it
may
compensating Heeling Error
is
upright,
is
Heel
be inserted.
of the model, or the fact that
by means
registered
Compass.
the
abaft
of
This
of
instrument
a
is
pendulum
called
Clinometer.
Cast-iron globes for compensating Quadrantal Deviation can be adjusted to a brass
Compass bowl.
Abaft the Compass
is
Pelorus, on a stand;
fitted
it is
movable ring round the
Dumb
Compass Card
called a
with sight vanes. This Dumb
Card can be fixed in any position by a clamp screw

side,
at the
and the sight vanes can be secured by a screw
at
the top.
to
It will thus
be seen that the Deviascope can be made
assume any
position, to represent a Ship in all her
magnetic conditions, and to show
how
these magnetic
conditions are to be neutralised by compensation.
As every operation that is carried on in a Ship is

conducted in precisely the same way with the Deviascope,
I will explain
how it
is all
done with the
only asking you to bear in
mind
with the Deviascope on shore

Ship at
The
is
latter instrument,
that everything you do
equally applicable to a
sea.
first
step in the
Examination
Eoom
is
to find the
Correct Magnetic Bearing of a distant object, which will
be some point in the room, or out of the window, which
we
will call a.
Put the Deviascope's Head East by its Compass, take the

bearing of
a,
and
-write it
down
then put the Deviascope's
Head West by its Compass, take another bearing of

The mean of these two bearings
it down.
write
Correct
enough.
A,
and
is
the
of A very nearly, and near

Or you can take the first bearing with the
Magnetic Bearing
COMPENSATION FOK DEVIATION

the second bearing with
Deviascope's
Head West, and
Head
matters not which.
East,
it
241
its
Fix the sight vanes on the Dumb Card to the Correct

Magnetic Bearing of A, as shown on the face of the
and do not move
card,
again during the whole of the
it
To
succeeding operations.
find Coefficient B
maximum on East and West,

Card
till its
East point
on
its
therefore turn the
lubber
and
line,
sight vanes
on the
Deviascope's
Head
Dumb
fix it
there
is
now Bast
Correct Magnetic, and the
between that and the point indicated by a
Deviascope's
Compass
is
the Deviation
it
is
Easterly
the Needle has been drawn to the right, Westerly
has been drawn to the

so found
its
Next turn the Deviascope's Head till the

Dumb Card are on with a. The
by the screw.
difference
is
B has
is
The amount
left.
Coefficient B, provided there is
of
if
if
it
Deviation
no A or e to
To make sure on that point turn the Dumb

interfere.
Card till its West Point is on with its lubber line and
then turn the Deviascope's Head till A comes on
fix it
with the sight vanes on the Dumb Card. The Deviascope's Head is then West Correct Magnetic, and the
difference between West and the point West on the
:
Deviascope's Compass Card

Deviascope's Head West.
Head East and Head West
but
if
between them
is
Head
West, you can find
it
it
If the Deviation is the

it is
same
due entirely to Coefficient
to be accounted for by
ing the Deviation
the Deviation with the
the Deviations are dissimilar the difference
combination of the two.
East
is
or e or
by some
Instead of commencing by findEast, and then finding
for the
West
first
and then
does not matter which you take
it
Head
for the
first.
To find the value of B and its proper sign. B is the

mean of the Deviations on the East and West Points.
The easiest way to find this mean is to add the Deviations
VOL.
II.
242
together, changing the sign of that
divide
by
on the West Point, and
2.
Thus
Head East
West
Deviation
19-2
21-4
= E = -
19-2
21-4
40-6
= -
20-3
2
B
Again
Deviation
Head East
West
17-1
16-2
E =
In each case the sign

Point
Dumb
scope's
The
33-3
= +
16-6
West
Deviation on the
manner.
find c proceed in a precisely similar
as Coefficient c has
the
16-2'>
2) +
changed before adding the two together.
is
To
of the
+ 17-1
= +
maximum on North and
its
Card must be fixed on North, and the Devia-
Head turned
difference
till
A comes on with the sight vanes
between North and the point North on the
Deviascope's Compass Card
Next
But
South,
find in the
is
the Deviation
Head North.
same way the Deviation Head South,
being very careful never to move the position of the sight
vanes on the
Dumb
Card.
To
ascertain the value and
sign of Coefficient c add together the Deviations on the
North and South Points, changing the sign

the
latter,
and divide by
of that
2.
Thus
Deviation Ship's
Head North
12-6"
South 13-8
E = +
13-8
26-4
= +
13-2
E = = -
10-8
22-4
= -
11-4
2
c
Again
12-6'=
= +
)
Deviation Ship's
Head South
10-8
North 11-6
2
c
11-6'^
on
which Deviation you find first, you

first North and then South, or vice
It is immaterial
may swing your
243
Ship
versa.
To
find the Quadrantal Coefficients
D and
e.
But
For D proceed in precisely the same way.

D has
maximum on
its
the Quadrantal Points the
as
Dumb
Card must be fixed to the Quadrantal Points, and the

Deviascope's
Head turned until in. each case A comes on

Write down the amount of Deviation
the- sight vanes.
on each Quadrantal Point and attach the proper
To find the value and sign of the

mean of the Deviations on the
Points.
The easiest way of doing this
the
sign
the
of
or
result
is
To
NW
Deviations on the
may
in order that the Deviations
all
signs.
Coefiicient
to
is
change the
and SB Points
have the same
then add them together and divide by 4
Coefficient D,
or
find Coefficient B.
way
proceed in the same
is
take
Quadrantal
four
as the case
may
sign,
;
the
be.
also Quadrantal, therefore
as in finding D.
But
as
B has
Dumb Card
must
be fixed on the Cardinal Points, and the Deviascope's
Head
The
its
maximum on the
Cardinal Points, the
turned until A comes on with the sight vanes.
between each Cardinal Point on the Dumb Card

and the same Point on the Deviascope's Compass is the
Deviation. Write them down, and prefix the proper
difference
Then change
signs.
the signs on East and West, add
the Deviations together, and divide by 4;

B,
or
To
as the case
find A.
may
You have
by 8
all
the
will
is
be.
all
the
Deviations together
Deviations together,
the difference divided
be A with the sign of that difference.
You have now

you can,
all
the Deviations on the Cardinal
and Quadrantal Points. Add

and
the result
if
you
got
all
are
so
the Coefficients, and from
them
minded, construct a table of
244
Deviations for every Point of the Compass by the method

already described.
All this can be done on board ship with the help of a
Dumb
Card, by
finding the Correct Magnetic Bearing
first
on shore, or
of a distant object
of a
Heavenly Body, and
in fact, by proceeding in precisely the

same manner as though you were using a Deviascope
and taking the bearings of a gas-jet in the room, or of
swinging the Ship
the cornice of a house across the street.
In actual practice
it
be found exceedingly
will often
useful to do a small portion of this
work
your Deviation on one or two Courses.

entering the Channel
to
make
sure
of
it
might be
to
make
For
sure of
instance,
on
of the greatest service
your Deviation on your up-Channel
Course by bearings
of,
Let us
Bishop Light.
say, the
suppose that you wish to make sure of your Deviation
BJN
on an
Dumb
Correct Magnetic Course with the help of the
Card.
Put the Ship's Head East by Compass, take the Bearing

by Compass similarly take the Bearing
of the lighthouse
with the Ship's Head West
the
netic Bearing of the lighthouse.
mean
is
the Correct
Mag-
Fix the sight vanes on the
Dumb Card to this Correct Magnetic Bearing, and fix

the Dumb Card to EiN. Turn the Ship till the sight
vanes are on with the lighthouse
now
Correct Magnetic
E^N, and
your Ship's Head
is
the Compass points to
the Course you have got to steer in order to
make
that
Course good, remembering, however, that you must make

allowances for change in Variation as you proceed up
Channel.
This can
all
be done without a
Dumb
Card
but as
the difficulties attending the operation are diminished by
means
of the card,
to say that
it is
advisable to use
it.
It
is
needless
the greater the distance of the distant object

from you the
better.
It
245
should never be nearer than 5 or
6 miles.
Having shown how
to
ascertain Deviations,
resolve Deviations into their Coefficients,
and
bow
to
to dissolve
Coefficients into their Deviations, the next thing to consider

is
how
Deviations are to be compensated.
Compensation
Deviation being largely caused by Magnetic disturb-
ance due to Magnetism acquired by the

construction,
it is
Ship during
advisable before attempting to compen-
sate that she should be laid for a time with her
Head
in
the opposite direction to that in which she was built, in
much Sub-permanent Magnetism
order to get rid of as

possible.
The remaining Magnetism, and
a large remainder,
Magnets acting
it
is
compensated by the application
is
as
probably
of
in lines contrary to the lines of the dis-
turbing forces.
Compensating Magnets must not be placed nearer to

the Needle than twice their length, otherwise their action
will not be
uniform on the Compass Needle.
To compensate B. Coefficient B represents a fore-andMagnetic force, either attracting the Needle

or repelling it from the Bow.
B being at its maximum at
aft disturbing
to
East or West, the Ship's Head must be put East or West

to
compensate it.
Compensation
is
made by
placing
Mag-
nets in a fore-and-aft line parallel to the line of the keel,
with their centres on the athwartship
line of the
passes under the centre of the Needle.
the North-seeking or
Bed end
of the
If
Ship that
you have
Needle
is
-I-
attracted
towards the Bow, and the Magnets must be placed with

their
tion.
Bed ends forward in order to counteract this attracBring them closer to or move them further from
246
the Needle
+ B
is
till
it
brought to
is
its
proper position, and
compensated.
you have b, the Eed Pole of the Needle is

repelled from the Bow, and the compensating Magnets
must be placed with their Blue ends forward in order to
If
The whole
counteract this repulsion.
pensated on the assumption that
nent Magnetism
it is all
but a portion of
of
is
thus com-
due to Sub-perma-
may
it
be due to
Induction in Vertical soft iron.
This portion of B
Flinders'
Bar
that
is
compensated by means
is
the fore-and-aft line of the Ship in front oi the
the disturbing force
quality and quantity be the

soft iron,
culty
is
Compass
and abaft the Compass
is aft,
The Induction
forward.
of a
to say, a bar of soft iron, placed in
Flinders'
in the
same
Bar
if
it is
if
will in
as that in the Vertical
and
will consequently counteract
to
ascertain
what portion
of
The
it.
is
diffi-
due
to
Induction.
It is practically impossible to find this out unless the
Ship is on the Magnetic Equator. In that situation there

would be no Induction in Vertical iron, and the whole of b
would be due to Sub-permanent Magnetism. Assuming the
disturbance caused by Sub-permanent Magnetism to be
counterbalanced, any error arising after the Ship had
left
the Magnetic Equator would be due to Induction, and
But you cannot

make your compensa-
could be compensated by a Flinders' Bar.
take a Ship out to the Equator to

tions,
and practically
all
that you can do
is
to calculate the
disturbance caused by Vertical soft iron and compensate

it
by a Flinders' Bar.
b and c bear a certain proportion
the generality of Ships.
portion to
If
to each other in
your b and c bear this pro-
each other they are normal, and you
make your compensation
for
may

But
only.
if
your B and C are not normal, you
conclude that some of B
Compensate B
iron.
circular
accurate, but
neutralise
all
will
normal amount
of
Semi-
have got as near to the correct
The compensation
possible.
none
due to Induction in Vertical
for the
and you
compensation as
is
may
and compensate the balance by a
Deviation,
Flinders' Bar,
247
them
of
are.
If
it
will not be
were possible to
the disturbing Magnetic forces in a Ship for
Compass would have no

Deviation, and mariners would be relieved of an immense
amount of anxiety and bother.
all
Latitudes and
To compensate
turbing
time, your
all
c.
represents an athwartship dis-
force, attracting or repelling the
from the Starboard
It has its
side.
Needle to or
maximum on
the
Put the Ship's Head North

or South Correct Magnetic, and compensate by Magnets
placed athwartship on the fore-and-aft line of the Ship
passing under the centre of the Needle. If you have
c,
North and South Points.
-|-
which
is an attraction towards the Starboard side, the

Magnets must be placed with their Eed Poles towards
the Starboard side. If you have c, their Blue Poles
must be turned towards the Starboard side. Move them
closer to or further from the Needle till the compensa-
tion
is
made.
D represents a disturbing Magnetic force due to Induced

Magnetism in Horizontal fore-and-aft and athwartship
soft iron.
Being due
tion in soft iron,
it is
to a transitory cause, namely, Induc-
corrected by a transitory correction,
namely. Induction in other soft iron.
Two
soft iron globes
attached to the binnacle, having their centres in the same
Horizontal plane as the centre of the Compass Needle, are
They should not be nearer
used for this compensation.

the Needle than 1| times
its
length, otherwise they
be magnetised by the Needle.
might
2i8
In the two diagrams below a Ship

different positions
In one her Head
Red
with regard
is
NW,
repel
its
Port end.
Starboard end and Blue
its
The
side,
would be to
the Needle from the
effect of this
the North-seeking end of
Starboard
represented in two
Magnetic Meridian.
and we see that the beam d f has
Polarity induced in
Polarity in
is
to the
thus causing "Westerly Deviation.
compensation introduce the
soft iron globes
To effect
on either side
Fig. 123
NW
Compass bowl, represented in the diagram by E

and G. These globes are affected by the Magnetism of the
Earth, and Red Polarity is induced in that half of them
which is turned towards the Magnetic North, and Blue
of the
Polarity
in
The Blue
the
other half.
Polarity
Polarity of the
of
the
Beam, and
Now
Ball
observe the
effect.
counteracts the
so neutralises the effect
Eed
on the
Needle.
These Balls exert a contrary effect
to that
produced by
Beams
continuous iron
Head.
In
this
any position
for
249
the Ship's
of
I give another diagram with the Ship's
Head SW.
both the Magnetisms are reversed, but they
counteract one another in
the effect
still
on the Compass
Needle, as a glance will show.
+ D
causes a deflection of the Needle towards the right
with the Ship's Head in the

is
at its
maximum
at
NB
NB
and
SW
and
SW.
Quadrants, and
It causes a deflection
NW
and SB
and SB. The
compensating globes must in this case be placed on the
athwartship line of the Ship with the Ship's Head on a
Quadrantal Point, and brought nearer to the Compass
bowl or further from it till the compensation is made.
to the left
with the Ship's Head in the
Quadrants and in
In the case
of
its
maximum
D,
at
NW
which causes
deflection of the
Needle in opposite directions to that caused by
D, the
compensating globes must be placed in the fore-and-aft

line of the
Ship
but this condition of
affairs is of
very
rare occurrence.
This compensation once
made
is
good in
all
Latitudes,
because as the Inductive force of the Barth acts equally on

the soft iron of the Ship and on the soft iron globes, the
disturbing and correcting forces remain always relatively
the same.
is
very rarely found in sufficient amount to be com-
pensated, and
may
be passed over, and the same
may
be
said of A.
To compensate for Heeling Error. Place the Ship's

Head North or South where the Error is at its maximum,
and list the Ship over to, say, about 10. If the Northseeking end of the Needle
is
drawn
to the
high
side,
Magnet must be placed directly under the centre of the

Compass Card, in a line between the keel and the centre
of the Compass Card, with its Bed Pole up. If the Needle
250
is
drawn
with
its
to the
low
side,
Blue Pole up.
Magnet must be placed

Bring the Magnet closer to
the
or further from the Needle until the necessary correction

is
made.
In diagrams Fig. 124, ab
downward
pull of the
is
the vertical
line,
de
in this case supposed to be Blue, c the Compass,
the Compass Needle, the barbed end of ^^-hich
North-seeking end.
when
the Ship
is
the
Ship's Sub-permanent Magnetism,
is
the
and N
Eed or
A glance at these diagrams shows that
upright the
downward
pull
de
simply
tends to depress the North-seeking end of the Needle.
But when the Ship
horizontal,
heels
over the Compass remains
and the downward pull, now no longer
but inclined towards the high
towards that
side.
If
side, deflects
vertical,
the Needle
the Sub-permanent Magnetism of the
Ship were Eed exactly the opposite
effects
would be pro-
duced.
This has nothing whatever to do with Heeling Error
due to athwartship Beams, for which no special compensation has been devised.
Heeling
Error can be
found without listing
Ship by means of a Dipping Needle.

is
Magnet
like
the
Dipping Needle
an ordinary Compass Needle, so mounted

as to be free to
centre
move
Attached to
in a Vertical plane.
In some place which
a sliding weight.
is
251
its
free
is
from any disturbing Magnetic influence except that
of
the Earth, adjust the weight until the Needle assumes a
Horizontal position
effect of
in
other words, counterbalance the
the Vertical component of the Earth's Magnetism,
setting the Needle approximately
North and South during
the operation.
Remove your Compass,

and in
its
pivot and
all,
from the bowl,
place ship the Dipping Needle.
Then
if
with
your Ship's Head North the Dipping Needle dips to the

North, place the Magnet directly under the Compass
with
its
Bed end
horizontally.
If
Magnet must be
is
up, and adjust
it
until the
Needle
lies
the Needle dips towards the South, the
The reason
reversed.
of this operation
that the Needle being by the weight attached to
compensated as
were
it
for
the Vertical pull
Earth, any dip that the Needle shows
when placed
it
of
the
in
your
Compass bowl must be due to a Vertical pull in the Ship,

and one of the principal causes of Heeling Error is the
Vertical
component
of the
of
the Ship, and this you compensate by the application of
Magnets as above described.
But there
will
remain
Heeling Error due, as has been already mentioned, to

Horizontal transverse Beams becoming more or less
Vertical.
have
of
at
This will remain uncompensated. But you

any rate compensated the one constant cause
Heeling Error that
exists,
and you must
find out the
On the other hand, if you discover

and compensate Heeling Error by listing the Ship over,
you will have corrected Heeling Error due to two causes
but one of them, namely. Induced Magnetism, in
other by experiment.
tranverse iron, will be constantly changing as you change
your Magnetic Latitude, and, as you don't know
how
MAGNETISM AND COMPENSATION FOR DEVIATION
262
much
of
your Error
is
due to this one cause, the com-
pensation will be faulty.
On
Dipping Needle
means
is
the best
the whole, therefore, the

to employ.
In describing these compensations, Magnets have been
They need not be
spoken of as placed upon the deck.
may
placed upon the deck, but
be put in any convenient
and aligned
place, provided that they are properly situated

in respect to the
As
Compass Needle.
a fact, they are
generally inserted in the Binnacle.
In making the compensations on the Deviascope, you

will find the
Compass
by Magnets placed
of the
Deviascope already deflected
for the purpose.
On
the deck of the
Deviascope are grooves in the direction of every point of

the Compass, and you will be given
little
Magnets
Their ends
constructed as to slide along the grooves.

are
marked Eed and Blue
respectively, the
so
Eed
of course
being the Negative or North-seeking end of the Needle,
and the Blue the Positive or South-seeking Pole. A bar

of soft iron is used to create Error from Induction in
vertical iron,
and
is
placed by the examiner before or abaft
the Compass as he thinks
fit
you
will
be
given
make the compensation with. You will

be given two soft iron globes made to fit on either side of
the Binnacle, wherewith to compensate D and a small
Magnet with which to correct Heeling Error, if any
exists.
With these implements you will have to make
Flinders'
Bar
to
all
the ' compensations.
That
is
can give of the Deviascope and
the best description I

its
uses
it
is
scarcely
necessary to say that a candidate ought, before going up

for
an examination, to make himself quite familiar with
the use of the instrument.
253
CHAPTBE XXVII
THE LAW OF STORMS
(Beqiiired for First Mate)
That somewhat
neglected science, Meteorology,
interesting branch of knowledge,
by the seaman, as he
information,
will thereby acquire
respecting
storms
in
of
much
useful
general and
But
spherical disturbances of all kinds.
Law
a very
is
which should be studied

atmo-
in speaking of the
Storms in a navigational sense, the expression
is
generally limited to the law of Circular Storms, or Cyclones,
and
it
is
the utmost importance that every mariner
of
should, for the safe-conduct of a foreign-going ship, have

a
very good idea of
the nature of those phenoinena.
Moreover, he will be cross-questioned on that subject in the
Board
of
Trade Examination.
The Earth
is
surrounded by an envelope of
air,
which,
to a height of
according to different
authorities, exists
from 45 to 200 miles.
The atmosphere may be considered
minute
to consist of
particles,
each of which
dently attracted to the Earth by gravitation

say, each particle has weight.
means that it
general rule
is
Air
is
an
is
indepen-
that
elastic body,
is
to
which
capable of expansion and contraction. As a
it is
expanded by heat and contracted by cold.
254
THE LAW OF STORMS
This property of
air enables it to drive
Hot Air Engines.

The Mercurial Barometer.
body,
it is
to the
air
what
-Now air
quite clear that that portion of
are
known
being an elastic
it
which
is
nearest
Earth must be compressed by the immense mass
above
it,
and
as
of
consequently denser and heavier than any
is
other portion of the atmosphere.
A very ingenious Italian
scientist,
named
1643
took a tube about 36 inches long, hermetically
A.D.
sealed at one end,
Torricelli, a pupil of Galileo, in the year
it
into a
bowl
of
He then placed
and filled it with mercury.
his finger over the
open end, inverted the tube, and plunged
mercury.
Having removed
from
his finger
the open end, he found that the mercury in the tube, instead
running out, only sank to a height
of
about 30 inches
above the level of the mercury in the bowl.
Why did it not
of
run out
Because there was a vacuum above the mercury
in the tube,
and therefore no pressure upon
its
surface,
while upon the surface of the mercury in the bowl was the
Now
pressure of the Earth's atmosphere.
a column of
mercury 30 inches long and 1 inch in diameter, that

mercury, weighing 15
lb.,
and
of
is,
30 cubic inches of
1 square inch sectional area, contains

this
is
evidently the
weight at the level of the sea of a column of the atmosphere
having
the
same
two columns balance each
sectional
other.
area,
If
because
water,
the
which
is
13^ times lighter than mercury, be used, then the tube

must be 30 inches multiplied by 13^, or 33| feet in
length.
The ordinary mercurial barometer

less
is
nothing more nor
than an instrument constructed on this principle for
weighing the atmosphere.
The
mercurial column
falls
when the atmosphere becomes thinner and lighter by

when it becomes denser and heavier
"When the atmosphere is abnormally
expansion, and rises
by compression.
THE LAW OF STORMS

the tendency
light,
restore
the surrounding atmosphere to
is for
normal conditions by rushing
falling glass indicates
255
in,
consequently a
bad weather, whereas a
rising glass
indicates a restoration to natural equilibrium, and generally
shows
fine weather.
The aneroid or dry barometer
The Aneroid Barometer.
consists of a corrugated metal

air
box from which most of the

is kept from collapsing by
The box
has been pumped.
an internal spring, which naturally expands when the atmospheric pressure decreases, and
is
atmosphere becomes heavier.
By
ment the hand on the
dial is
made
forced inwards
amount of
For many purposes
to register the
compression or expansion of this box.

instrument
this
is
of
is
when the
a mechanical arrange-
superior to the mercurial barometer.
It
more easily carried about, and indicates change

pressure more rapidly.
But its weakness is that it
lighter,
does not record absolute pressure, nor does
may become
accm'acy, as the spring
may
get rusty.
Therefore
it
preserve
weaker, or the parts
necessary that
it is
its
it
should
be compared periodically with a mercurial barometer.
To
the seaman, however, the variation in pressure of the
atmosphere
is
of
much
greater
importance
absolute weight, and in this regard the aneroid
than
is
its
most
useful, instrument.
The
scale of
a barometer
is
divided into inches, and
tenths and hundredths of an inch.
In a
first-class instru-
ment the readings are taken by means of a Vernier.

The Thermometer. The thermometer is an instrument
which measures heat, and is in no way affected by the
changes
of pressure in the
atmosphere.
It consists of a glass tube, of very small bore,
bulb at one end which

to expel the air.
open end
is
is filled
"When
quite full of
hermetically sealed.
with a
with mercury, and heated
warm mercury
As the mercury
the
cools
it
THE LAW OF STOEMS
256
and leaves an empty space
contracts,
tube.
It
at the top
then placed in a mixture of
is
which the mercury
marked on the
falls is
called Freezing Point.
It
is
marked, and
is
is
called
is
parts,
which
is
it
rises in
In
and Boiling
is 32,
degrees
are
Below Freezing Point the
and
Boiling Point.
The space between them
212.
180 equal
which
to
English thermometers Freezing Point

Point
tube,
then put into boiling water.
The mercury expands, and the point

the tube
for
The point
melting ice has always the same temperature.

to
the
of
and water,
ice
divided into
is
temperature.
of
scale is continued, but, except
in specially constructed instruments, readings of extreme
temperatures are very unreliable.

cools the
mercury in the bulb
in the tube
falls,
effect of heat,
it
As a
cold temperature
contracts,
and the column
and as the mercury expands under the
warmer tempera-
the column rises for a
ture.
England, France, and Germany use thermometers cut

to different scales.
England, Fahrenheit
Freezing Point 32 degrees.
Boiling Point 212 degrees, difference 180 degrees.
France, Centigrade
Freezing Point
degrees, Boiling
Point 100 degrees, difference 100 degrees.
Germany, Eeaumur
Freezing point
degrees, Boil-
ing Point 80 degrees, difference 80 degrees.

The Hygrometer is an instrument for recording the
amount
of
moisture in the
thermometers in a frame
four inches
apart.
exposed to the
air.
It
consists
whose bulbs should be
One
of
these bulbs
but not to the wind
is
of
two
at least
left freely
the other
is
covered with some cotton or woollen material which
is
air,
kept constantly wet.
The
depends upon the more or
action
less rapid
of
the
instrument
evaporation of the
moisture round the covered bulb, which varies with the
LAW
THE
amount
OF STORMS
of moisture in the air.
moisture,
there will be
257
If the air is saturated
or no
little
with
in the
difference
readings of the two thermometers, because there will be

little
But
no evaporation.
or
the air
if
dry the
is
evaporation from the wet bulb will be the more rapid, and
naturally
its
temperature will
fall
heat caused by this evaporation

will
owing
to the loss of
and, consequently, there
be a considerable difference between the readings of
Hence the
the two thermometers.
drier the
atmosphere
the greater will be the difference of temperature recorded
by the instrument
but
when
the air
is
saturated with
moisture the readings will be the same.
Wind
is air
How
in motion.
but the most
difficult to say,
Unequal expansion
1st.
it is
common
of the
set in
motion
causes are
it
is
atmosphere, and the
natural tendency of fluid to flow towards places where the

pressure
is less,
and restore equilibrium, and
The magnetic
2nd.
Sun, about which very
The wind
is
condition of the Earth and the

little is
known.
named according
Compass from which
it
to
the point of the
blows, and of course
considerably in rapidity of motion.
it
varies very
Beaufort's scale of
wind pressure, as generally adopted in England,

follows
Hourly Velocity
Scale
Number
is
as
THE LAW OF STORMS
258
Currents of
and
force,
tolerably constant both in direction
air,
such as the Trade Winds, the Westerly Winds
in high Latitude, &c., prevail
over certain
But the
the surface of the Globe.
subject
portions of
which I
am
here dealing with has nothing to do with such regular
winds, for though
it
quite possible
is
that a prevailing
wind may rise to the velocity or strength of a gale, the

most furious winds are in nearly all cases portions of
those meteorological phenomena known as Cyclones, or
Circular Storms.
They
generally
make
commencement somewhere
the neighbourhood of the Equator.
rushing
violently
more and more
is
air to itself,
originally
as
more
this
gathers
a snowball sent
till
whirlwind
was not more than perhaps 100 yards
in diameter becomes, before
or
much
small area of wind
and
formed,
gathers more and more snow,
rolling
which
round
in
in diameter.
It is
of these cyclones that I
it
is
dissipated,
upon the
500 miles
chief characteristics
have to speak.
In the North Atlantic cyclones commence usually
at
They travel to the

to 8 degrees North Latitude.
Westward and North- Westward, till they arrive in the
neighbourhood of the West Indies, where they curve to
the North and then to the North-Eastward, moving
from 6
across the Atlantic almost along the path of the Gulf
Stream, increasing in diameter, and gradually diminishing

in energy,
till
they at last blow themselves out in the
vicinity of the British
In
the
Isles.
Southern Hemisphere
the
originates near the Equator, travels to the
South- Westward,
cyclonic
storm
Westward and
and recurves to the Southward and
South-Eastward.
One
great peculiarity of these storms, worthy of most
THE LAW OF STORMS

particular attention,
is
259
that in the Southern Hemisphere
they rotate in the same direction as the hands of a watch,

whilst in the Northern Hemisphere they revolve in the
opposite direction.
Another
blow
in
incurves
greater
round the centre
circle
considerably,
and
storm, but
the
of
the nearer the
Owing
the incurvation.
is
wind does not
fact to be noted is that the
the
centre
the direction in
to
which the storm rotates, and to the incurvation of the

wind towards the centre, the following most important
fact
When
established.
is
wind
facing the
about 10 points to the

wind, while
of
left
the Northern
in
will
the direction
Hemisphere
it
the
in
Southern Hemisphere the centre of the storm
lie
the
of
will
lie
about 10 points to the right of the direction of the

wind.
When
business
a cyclone
is
to get
is
encountered the mariner's principal
away from the
In the centre there
sible.
is
centre as fast as pos-
an awful sea and a
calm, alternating with most furious gusts

centre he will be a lucky
serious damage,
if
man who
once in the
gets out of
indeed he gets out at
all.
terrific
it
without
Therefore
keep clear of the centre, and to do so you must find out
where the centre
is.
There are two means by which a

fairly accurate
judgment
to the centre
and as
gression
of
the
falls
recedes.
in
the
it
direction
as to his position
with regard
storm.
and
as
can form a
to the direction
which invariably
rises
sailor
of
The
as the
the
first
and rate
is
the
of
pro-
barometer,
storm centre approaches,
The second
wind,
position of the ship with regard
which
to
the
is
the
change
indicates
the
centre of the
storm.
s 2
THE LAW OF STORMS
260
The
figure
represents
Hemisphere which
is
cyclone
in
the
Northern
travelling to the North-Eastward.
Tn speaking of a circular storm, the right-hand semicircle is that half of it
direction in
which
it
is
which
lies
travelling
to the right of the
the left-hand semi-
circle is of course the other.
//
THE LAW OF STORMS

approaching.
The progression
ship's position to b
shifts to the left to
ENE,
These
that
show that the ship
facts
the storm shifts the
of
the glass
still
is
261
and the wind
falls,
wind backs.
to say the
in the left-hand semi-
is
She must therefore be hove to on the port tack,

because as the wind will be freeing her all the time she
circle.
run the risk
will not
NE,
the wind at
inference
is
of being
glass very
that the centre of the storm
barometer,
falling
storm centre
is
wind, and
weather, she
may make
changing
its
probability,
is
the
Finally,
when
and the wind increases

direction,
NNW,
and
and keep her course.
in the second
and with
amounting almost
The
improving
she gets the wind
Suppose, however,
as in the position
falls rapidly,
weather
sail
having
passing clear
is
with the wind
F,
c,
falling.
position d, with a rising
evidently passing away.
the storm leaves her at

fine
low but not
Then she will assume the
of her.
As the storm
taken aback.
the ship will assume the position
progresses,
at
first
diagram
ESB,
the glass
in violence without
terrific
squalls.
to a certainty,
is
The
that she
right in the path of the storm, and to avoid the centre

it would do if she hove to, she must
wind aft, till the barometer begins to
and the wind to shift, when she may be hove to on
passing over her, as

run, keeping the
rise,
recommend keeping the

wind on the Starboard quarter, so as to make more sure
The sea-going man will probably
of escaping the centre.
the practicability of this advice.
opinion
on
own
have his
If a vessel is in the right-hand semi-circle, as at K in
the
Port
tack.
Theorists
the third diagram, the advance of the cyclone will cause

the wind to shift to the right.
Thus
at
it
is
SSE,
at
M SSW, at N WSW, and at p West. In this

must be hove to on the Starboard tack.
The universal rule for heaving to in any circular
L SE,
at
case she
THE LAW OF STORMS
262
storm in
all
parts of the world
wind
circle the
is
shifts to the left
In the left-hand semiheave to on the Port
In the right-hand semi-circle the wind
tack.
the right
It
faster
may
happen, however, that a ship
is
left in
Then
the right-hand semi-circle,
to the right in the left-hand semi-circle.
case
travelling
than the cyclone, and in the same direction.
the wind shifts to the
and
shifts to
heave to on the Starboard tack.
the
barometer
will
indicate
In such a
whether you
are
approaching or receding from the centre.
Here
is
diagram of a cyclone in the Southern
Hemisphere, progressing to the North-Westward
Fig. 126
ship at
M}
will get the
'[
wind
f r
at
about
WN'^S
at
THE LAW OF STORMS
NW,
as the storm centre passes her at
and
at
NE.
at
She
NNE,
at c at
therefore in the right-hand
is
or navigable semi-circle.
263
The barometer will fall till

when it will begin to rise.
she gets to between b and d,

If
she
gets the
wind
at
WSW,
as
at
and
p,
it
continues to blow with increasing violence, while the
barometer
falls,
and should run

If,
she must be in the track of the storm,

for safety.
on the other hand, she gets the wind
as at H,
and
as at L, she
it
is
shifts to South, as at k,
in the left-hand or
In the Board
of
SSW,
first at
and then to SE,
dangerous semi-circle.
Trade examinations the following
questions will be put to you on the subject of the
Law
of
Storms
1.
The
direction of the
wind
in a cyclone being
state the probable bearing of its centre
from the ship in
Hemisphere.
the
2.
And suppose
that the wind during the passage of
the same cyclone were found to change towards the
what would be the
ship's position
with reference to the
line of progression of the centre of the cyclone,
and what
action would j'ou take ?
Under what conditions would the change

direction of the wind in the cyclone be the reverse
3.
above
4.
in the
of the
What
are the usual indications of a ship being on
the line of progression of the centre of a cj'clone ?

5.
What
are the usual indications that a ship
approaching the centre of a cyclone

6.
(b)
is
receding from
(a)
it ?
Describe the track usually taken by a cyclone in
the
and
state the seasons of the year in
which
they most frequently occur in that region.
These are the

didates.
six questions
The blanks
which are put to canby the Examiner. In
are filled in
THE LAW OF STORMS
264
the
question he will give you any direction of the
first
wind he thinks proper

either
and write
in the first blank space,
Northern or Southern
in the second.
In the second question he
will write either right or
left.
And
it is
in the sixth the locality will be entered
one of the four following parts of the
North
Bay
Atlantic,
sea,
usually
namely.
Bengal, China Seas, or South
of
Indian Ocean.
Here
1
(A).
NNE,
some questions with their proper answers

The direction of the wind in a cyclone being
are
state the probable bearing of the centre
from the
ship in the Northern Hemisphere.
The answer
that
1
is,
SE.
(B).
were
about ten points to the right of the wind,
is
in
wind was SE, and you

Southern Hemisphere, what would the
If the direction of the
the
bearing of the centre be
The answer
that
is
All
about ten points to the left of the wind,
is
NNE.
you have
to
remember
is,
that
when
facing the
wind, in the Northern Hemisphere the centre will bear
about ten points to the right, in the Southern Hemisphere

ten points to the
(a).
left.
Suppose in the case
of
(a)
that the
wind
changes in direction towards the Eastward, what would

be the ship's position with reference to the line of pro-
what action would you take ?

wind is shifting to the right,
the right-hand semi-circle, and must heave to
gression of the cyclone, and
The answer
is
that as the
you are in
on the Starboard tack. Observe in this case wind shifts
you are in the right-h.&ndi semi-circle, and
to the 7-iglit
;
you heave to on the Starboard

have to remember
is
{right) tack.
Eight, Eight, Eight.
What you
THE LAW OP STOBMS

2
Suppose, as in the case of
(B).
The answer
in
B,
Eastward, &c., &c., as in 2
shifts to the
265
that the wind
(a).
wind shifts to the left, you are

the ?e/^-hand semi-circle, and must heave to on the
as the
is,
Port tack. Left, Left, Left.

3.
Under what conditions would the change

wind in the cyclone be the reverse
direction of the
above
in the
of the
The answer
the ship
is, if
is
travelling faster than the
wind in the right-hand semi-circle

will be to the left, and in the left-hand semi-circle they
will be to the right.
It also might happen that a second
cyclone were following the first, in which case similar
phenomena might occur.
But your barometer would
indicate this it would rise as the first storm centre receded
from it, but would fall again as the second storm centre
cyclone, the shifts of
approached.
What
4.
on the
are the usual indications
The answer
and more
is hardly any
which becomes more
the sea becomes heavier and more
confused,
violent,
of the wind,
and the barometer
falls
rapidly,
banks of clouds appear in the direction
(a)
What
are
the usual
it
indications
that a ship
;
(6)
is
receding
The answer
centre of
shifts
while ugly
of the centre.
approaching the centre of a cyclone
from
ship being
that in that case there
is,
change in the direction
5.
of
line of progression of the centre of a cyclone ?
you are approaching the

a cyclone the barometer falls quickly, the wind
more
to (a)
rapidly,
seas momentarily
The answer
The barometer
velocity,
and
to
that
if
and blows in furious gusts, while the
become more dangerous.

(b) is
rises,
its
is
precisely the reverse of that to
sea smoothes, and
(a).
wind decreases
direction shifts less rapidly.
in
LAW
THE
5266
OF STORMS
Describe the track usually taken by a c5'clone

North Atlantic Ocean, and state the seasons of the
year in which they most frequently occur in that region.
6
(a).
in the
The answer is, that these cyclones commence near the

Equator in Latitude 8 to 18 N, and are at first of small
dimensions,
but of tremendous energy; they generally
travel to the
WNW,
gradually curving to the Northward
they have passed the Northern Tropic,
till
recurve to the North-Eastward.
They most
when they
frequenth"
occur in August and September, and less often in June,
and October.
Julj',
In the Bay
(b).
of Bengal.
These cyclones occur about the times of the change of

the monsoons, that is to say, in April and May, and in
October and November. They generally commence at
the East side or middle of the Baj^, and travel from
to
West
N b W.
6
(c).
In the China Seas.
There appear to be two
distinct species of cyclones in
One species, which occur between July and

November, but are most frequent in August and September,
these Seas.
first
travel
The
West and then North towards Japan.

which travel West and then South
other,
may
the China Sea,
across
occur at any time, but are most
frequently experienced at the beginning and end of the

regular
Typhoon
season.
6 (d). In the South Indian Ocean.
These cyclones occm- between November and May,

but most frequently in January, February, and March.
They
generally
commence
in Latitude 6 to 18 S, travel
South- Westerly, recurve near the Southern Tropic, and
then go to the South-Eastward.

This
is
all
the information that the Board of Trade
Examiners require you
to give.
The answers must be
in
THE LAW OF STORMS

and you must be prepared
writing,
267
also to reply to
any
verbal questions on the subject.
For
information on this very interesting subject
full
consult
'
Storms,'
Piddington Sailors' Horn Book for the Tiaw of

Eedfield's
'
Observations on Hurricanes
and
Storms,' and Eosser's work on the 'Law of

any seaman, whether in the Foreign or Home Trade,
Storms'
cannot
of
fail to
derive enjoyment and profit from a perusal
Maury's Physical Geography

'
of the Sea.'
Though these North Atlantic cyclones lose their very

strongly marked cyclonic character before reaching the
neighbourhood of the British Islands, their circular nature
is
still
clearly indicated,
heavy gales
Westward and Southward
being
of
wind from the
frequently
followed
by a harder blow from the Northward and Westward,

after
calm.
storm
an interval
The
may
of partial
and sometimes
of
complete
period of calm indicating the centre of the

last
many
hours, showing that a cyclone of
perhaps not more than ten miles in diameter, originating

thousands of miles to the Westward, has, in
its
passage
across the ocean, expanded itself to a diameter of perhaps
three hundred or more.
The worst weatherin the Channel
very frequently sets in with the wind
Soixth-Easterly,
and finishes with the wind North-Westerly, having veered

by South.
right round
DEDUCTION OF THE FORMULAS
268
CHAPTEE XXVIII
DEDUCTION OF THE FORMULAS USED IN NAUTICAL
ASTRONOMY
No
practical advantage
is
to be derived, either at sea or in
the examination, from knowing
formulas are obtained

stand for themselves
instead of accepting
explanation
The
may
how
but as some
how
the various working
may
prefer to under-
the formulas are arrived at
them on the word
of others, a short
not be out of place.
simpler problems of Nautical Astronomy consist in
the determination of some side or angle of a spherical
when certain other sides or angles are known.

The determination of time from an Observed Altitude
Compass Correction by Altitude Azimuths or Time
triangle
Azimuths
Latitude by an Ex-Meridian or Reduction to
the Meridian
Pole Star, are
and Latitude from an observation

all
examples
of this.
In the more
of the
difficult
problems of Lunars and Double Altitudes, the solution of
more triangles is involved. The various working

formulas which have been given are merely easy methods
two
or
of finding the required part of the triangle
from the kiiown
parts adapted to each particular case.
Let A B c be a Spherical Triangle

are a,
b,
c;
and
for convenience let s
of
which the
.
sides
USED IN NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY

The
269
various formulas of Spherical Trigonometry are
derived from the fundamental formula
Cos
Cos a Cos
Sin a Sin b Cos
c.
Fig. 127
For the proof
of this
formulas derived from
formula and the deduction of the

reference should be
it,
made
to
any
book on Spherical Trigonometry. Among the derived

formulas are the three given in Chap. XVII., namely
/Sin
(1)
Cos;
X Sin (s a)
Sin h X Sin c
s
/sin^-+i + -"Sin
(ii)
Sin b Sin
= Sin h x Sin c x Hav

= Vers (6 ~ c) + Vers 6
Tani (6 + c) = J^fli^H^J x
Hav
Cos i
Tani(Z>-c)
^
and to these
may
,
(iv)
Sm^
(B
a.
,
Vers a
(iii)
^+f-^
T;an-
C)
|^li^xTan
Sm i (B +
2
c)
be added
_
Sin
{s
b)
X Sin
(s
Sin b X Sin
Sm
c)
Sm
Sin b X Sin

270
or
what
is
the same thing
HavA = '^Hav
(V)
(a
x \/Hav {a
c)
Sin b X Sin
(vi)
Vers a
Vers
(6
Vers a
Vers
(b
-c)
c)
= - 2 Cos^
= +
2 Sin^
f-
Taking the problems in the order
I.
draw a
First
what
in
is
Sin i Sin
Sin i Sin c
which they occur
we have
Longitude by Sun and Chronometer
in the book,
'^
(Chap. XIII.).
show clearly what is known and

Diagram No. 128 is drawn on the plane
figure to
required.
Fig. 128
of the
Horizon
is
the Zenith
is
the Pole
w m E is
is
the
Sun N w E s E
Then x R is the Altitude, and subtracting from 90, we get
x m is the Declination, and
z X the Zenith Distance,
90
we get p x the Polar Distance p z is
subtracting from
the Colatitude. Thus the three sides of the triangle p x z
;
is
the Horizon
and
the Equator.
271
x being derived from observation, px

from the Nautical Almanac, and p z by Dead Reckoning.
We require to find the angle x p z, the Sun's Hour
Angle, or Apparent Time at Ship.
z X = 90 - Alt.
p z = 90 - Lat.
p X = P. D.
Comparing the triangle xpz with the triangle ABC,
we see that
are
all
known,
Fig. 129
A corresponds
to
H. A.
90
90
P.
Let us substitute these values
Sin^
(1)
Sin ^
+b
+b
_c
(a
90
Alt.
(Alt.
QQo
90
Alt.
90
Alt.
Alt.
c)
- P. D.
Lat.
+ Lat. + P. D.)
Alt.
+ L at. +P.
(90
90
D.
Lat.)
D.
Cos 5 Sum.
P. D.
Lat. + P. D.
= Lat. + P. D. + Alt. - 2 Alt.

_ Lat. + P. D. + Alt. Alt. = Eem.
2
90
+ Lat. +P.
90
_ Alt. + Lat. + P. D.
2'
Sin
Cos
x Sin ^ (
Sin b X Sin c
180
Sin
D.
in the formula
c)
a-b+ =
a
.-.
==
(2)
- Alt.
- Lat.
Sin
Eem.
DEDUCTION- OF THE FORMULAS
272
(3)
(4)
90
Lat.
273
This time take the formula

-rx
^'^
SirTi
\/Hav
Sin (90
Sh^ ^
^"^
(a
x \/Hav {a
Sin b X Sin c
Lat.)
Slir790-Dec.)
c)
"
"
Cos Lat.
"
CosDe^c."
c)
^^'^ '^^*-
^^"^
^^''
= Z.D. - (90 - Lat.) + 90 - Dec.

= Z. D. - 90 + Lat. + 90 - Dec.
= Z. D. + Lat. - Dec.
Hav(a-Z) + c)= Hav (Z. D. + Lat. - Dec.)
(iv) a + & - c = Z. D. + 90 - Lat. - (90 - Dec.)
= Z. D. + 90 - Lat. - 90 + Dec.
= Z. D. - (Lat. - Dec.)
Therefore HavH. A. = VHavl Z. D. - (Lat. - Dec.)
X \/Hav Z. D. + Lat. Dec. x Sec Lat. x Sec Dec.
Therefore Log. Hav H. A. = Log. Sec. Lat. + Log.
Sec. Dec. + i Log. Hav{ Z. D. - (Lat. - Dec.) + ^ Log.
Hav{ Z. D. + (Lat. - Dec.)
(iii)
a-6
.-.
The formula
and Dec. are
names p x
is
same name. If they are of different

be 90 + Dec, instead of 90 Dec, and
of the
will
therefore wherever
have
we have
Dec. in the other
are of different
II.
proved for the case in which the Lat.
Dec. in one case,
so that
when
names the sum must be
Amplitude.
^Draw
we
shall
Lat. and Dec.
taken.
a figure on the plane of the
As usual z is the Zenith, p is the Pole, and

let X be a Heavenly Body rising or setting.
First let us consider the case where the P. D. is less
than 90, the Amplitude will be North of Bast or West.
Then w z x is the Amplitude, and therefore p z x =
Horizon.
90
- Amp.
VOL.
II.
274
The angle p z x
sides we know, viz
zx
in
90, z p
is
found from the triangle p z
x,
whose
= 90
-- Lat.,
px
P.D.
90
Dec.
Compare this triangle with the quadrantal triangle a b c

which A B (= c) is the quadrant. The formulas for the
solution of quadrantal triangles are given in Vol. II. p. 34
Fig. 132
we want is one which will enable us to find

A when we know the sides a, b. The fifth
the formula
the angle
formula on
p.
34
is
USED IX NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY

Cos a
Sin b x Cos a
Cos a
^,
275
'
Cos a X Cosec
Amp.
= Sin Amp.
90
Instead of a we have
Dec.
and Cos (90 - Dec.) = Sin Dec.
Instead of b we have 90 Lat.
and Cosec (90 Lat.) Sec Lat.
Instead of a
we have
Therefore Sin
90
(90
Amp.)
Amp.
Sin Dec. x Sec. Lat.
and Cos
or using Logs.
Log. Sin Amp.
= Log. Sin Dec. +
Log. Sec Lat.
Next consider the case where the P. D. is greater

than 90, the Amphtude will then be South of East or
West. Let y be the position of the Heavenly Body.
Fig. 133
Then p y
before, let us
triangle
AB
c,
90
Dec. and p z y
compare
where
this triangle
c is
90
+ Amp.
the quadrant.
we have
90 + Amp.
+ Amp.) = Sin Amp.
Instead of a we have 90 + Dec.
and Cos (90 + Dec.) = - Sin Dec.
Instead of A
and Cos
As
with the quadrantal
(90
T 2
276
we have
Instead of b
and Cosec
Therefore
Since
Lat.
Lat.)
Amp.
Sin Dec. x Sec Lat.
(90
Sin
90
occurs on both sides of the equation, this
the same formula as before, viz.
Sin
Amp.
III. Altitude
Vol.
I.,
As
is
Sin Dec. x Sec Lat.
Azimuth.
As
this is very like the
problem.
Sec Lat.
explained on pp. 332-3,
Longitude by Chronometer
before, dravs^ a figure
Horizon and the triangle A B c
on the plane
for comparison,
of the
corre-
sponds to the angle p z x or the Azimuth measured from the

Fig. 134
North, but
as,
according to the rule on
p. 330,
the formula
Azimuth from the South (the fig. corresponding

is the Azimuth and pzx is 180 Az.
c corresponds to the side p z, which is 90 Lat.
6 to z x,
90
Alt. and a to p x, which is the P. D.
which is
gives the
to
N Lat.), szx

Take the formula
^ 2 A _ Sin ^
(a
-*-
}:
Sin (90
+ c a)
(b
Cmt: = ^'' ^^^^
Sin (90^- Lat.)
Sine
x S in^
X Sin c
c)
Sin
S^b =
Also
^"^
277
Cos
Alt.)
Qpf. Aif
Alt.
- Lat. + 90 - Alt. - P.
= 180 (Lat. + Alt. + P. D.)
+ c a _ QQo _ Lat. + Alt. + P. D.
+
Z)
;,b
and
-a =
90
90
+
^
D.
^
"
- Lat. +
Alt.
P. P.
_^
^-
-p
A
.:
Sm
^1^^ = Sin
(^90
- ^"*- +
^^^-
Cos
Alt.
Lat.
P. D.
and Sin
Sin
Cos
90
(
Lat.
(L^t.
&
+ Alt,_+T^. _
+ Al^t.^ P^.
p.
D.)l
_p ^
^PZX ^ 180 X Z
-OiunA
Further Cos = Cos ^ = Cos
^
^j
=
Making these
Az
find Sin^
.
2
Cos
(90
- \ kz.) =
Sin i Az.
substitutions in the Trig, formula,
we
= Cos i Sum x Cos Rem. x Sec Lat. x Sec Alt.

^
Az
Log. Sin -^
or using Logs.
Li
^ {Log. Sec Lat.
Log. Sec
Alt.
Log Cos Eem.
+ Log. Cos
Sum +
278
IV. Reduction
to the
Meridian.
Draw
a diagram on
the plane of the Horizon like the previous ones in this

z x is the observed Z. T).
X is the B. D. of the Sun or Star
and X p z is the Hour Angle or Polar Angle. These three
parts of the triangle are known, and we have to find p z.
chapter.
90
In the triangle p z x
Alt.
One way
of finding this is indicated
to obtain the fornaula of the skeleton
draw X M perpendicular
to
Np
s.
on p. 351, Vol. I.
form on that page
:
Then both p m x and
z M X are right-angled spherical triangles, and to find their

unknown parts from the known ones it is only necessary
These give
to use Napier's rules of circular parts.
Tan p M
Sin
From
the
Arc
on
I.
first
p.
MX =
Tan
x x Cos x
of these
we
find p m, or
351, and from the second
Knowing
Sin p x x Sin x p
x and x m we
find
xm
M
M
what
is
called
or Arc II.
m by
the formula
USED
M=
Cos z
pz
NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY
Cos z X X Sec z
The
p. 351.
difference of
Arc
I.
this is called
Arc
p M z M=
is
Arc
accurate and not
proximate method explained on
p.
clear that z x, the observed Z. D,
The Mer.
the Mer. Z. D.
Mer. Z. D.
Z. D.
279
III. is
III.
on
the Colatitude.
This method
for
P. D.
Z. D.
Colat.
difficult,
346
is
little
is
shorter.
It is
greater than
equal to p
is
The amount
greater than the Mer. Z. D.
is
but the ap-
the observed
zx
therefore
is
pz
It is evident that p z +
(p X p z) = p z + z X p X.
z X p X is a very small quantity vs^hen x is near the
Meridian.
To
find the value of p z
om a
ot
formula
o-
2 /i
aX bin
p x, let us take the
a,
for a, p z for
c,
and p x
for
b,
Sin^ - X Sin p z x Sin p
i(pz-f-zx PX)
and h for
px) X Sin | (px
Sin p z X Sin p
.'.
b
-;
_ Sin i(pz-|-zx
Sin
Sin 6 X Sin
Write z X
-\-
X Sin ^
(p
A.
+ zx
z)
x
x
x + zx
z).
X
Dividing by Sin
|(px + zx pz) and
bringing the
280
quantity
equation,
Sin
we wish
we find
(p
to find to the left-hand side
+ zx
Cosec ^(px
This formula
is
Sin^
may
for the
p z
is
be taken
Sin p
x Sin p
the
x x
pz).
is
small,
when x
but
strictly accurate,
the Meridian the correction
good enough
A-x
of
is
near
and a rough value
term Cosec ^(px
is
+ zx pz).
the Mer. Z. D., and z x, the observed Z. D.,
Mer. Z. D., so that
i(PX-l-zx-PZ)=i{Mer.Z.D. + Mer.Z.D.}=Mer.Z.D.
Fig. 136
The formula
therefore becomes
- Lat.)
Eed.)
Sin^
x Sin (90
Dec.) x Cosec Mer. Z. D.
Sin
(i
= HavH. A.
J x Sin
(90
X Cos Lat. x Cos Dec. x Cosec Mer. Z. D.,
and using Logs, we get

Log. Sin (^ Eed.) = Log. H. A. + Log. Cos Lat.
Cos Dec.
To
find the second Reduction,
very small error
Log.
Log. Cosec Mer. Z. D.
made by
we have
to allow for the
taking Mer. Z. D. instead of the
px+ zx pzin the above formula,
px + zx pz = 2px 2PZ + ZX px + pz
= 2 Mer. Z. D. + 1st Eed.
exact expression
We
have neglected the small
281
Eeduction in the
first
above formula, and the second Eeduction allows for this

neglect.
more knowledge of Trigonothis book to prove the formula
It requires a little
metry than
is
assumed
in
for the second Eeduction,
and as the second Eeduction
generally of slight importance, the proof
V.
The determination
of the Pole Star
triangle
is
not given.
of Latitude
which has to be solved
is
by an Ex-Meridian
another instance where the spherical
approximate solution
triangle p z
is
is
is
of such a shape that
possible.
in the rigorous way,
a knowledge of z x, p
an
Instead of solving the

i.e.,
x and the angle
deducing z p from
m p x,
it is
easier to
use the tables in the Nautical Almanac to correct the

observed value z x, which, from the figure,
is
evidently
not far from the mark.
VI. Latitude by Double Altitudes.

this
method
Chapter XX.
of
The
determining Latitude
is
Geometry
of
given fully in
DEDUCTION OF THE FOEMULA.S
282
Repeating the figure of

quantities z x, z Y, p x, p
quired
(1)
105,
we have
the
Find X Y by the formula
Vers x Y
known
y and x p y, and the quantity
is PZ.
Hav^ = HavxPY
and
p.
= Vers 6 +
(ii)
of p. 269.
Sinpx
Vers
(p
x SinPY')
x~p
Y)
re-
VII.'
283
The Lunar Problem.^-The problem
of clearing
the distance
is
is
The
figure
repeated here.
We have
z
explained on p. 142 of Vol
II.
to find
m, the true distance,
knowing
z M,
z X,, z Ml and m, x,.
Referring to formula vi of p. 270 we find

Vers X M Vers (z h + z x) = 2 Cos'''f M z x Sin z m
Also Vers x, mJ Vers (z, m, + z, x,) = - 2 Cos'-' Jh, z x, Sin z m,
.
Sin z x
Sin z
x,
Fig. 139
Dividing one by the other,
VersxM
Vers X, M,
Now
does not
Vers (zM + z x)
Vers (z^ m^ + z, x,)
the right-hand side of

differ
much from
difference
between
difference
between
z
z
and
x and
X Sin z x
equation evidently
this
(= 2 Cos
z Mj
Sin z Mj x Sin z x.
is
because the
60),
and
small,
z x, is small.
can be conveniently tabulated

the angle
Sin z
Sin
it
Norie accordingly tabulates
defined by the equation

2 Cos
also the
Consequently
Sin z x
Sin z M, X Sin z x,
DEDUCTION or FORMULAS
284
and when
this is
done the equation becomes
Vers X M Vers (zM+zx)

Vers X, M, Vers (z, Ml + z,Xi)
.".
Vers X M
.".
Vers X
With
of
Vers
(z ii
M = Vers
(z
m +
z x)
z x)
2 Cos
+2 Cos A
_ori
Vers
x, m,
{Vers
x, m,
Vers (z, m, +
Vers (z, +
ji,
z, x,)
z, x,)
the aid of Trigonometry, the working formula
Lunars
is
deduced, namely
Vers Tr. Dist.
+ App. Alt.
+ A} + VersfApp.
])
Vers (Tr. Z. D.
Dist.
Tr. Z. D. 5)
+ App.
Alt.
+ A} + Vers
+ Vers {App. Alt.

5 -A} + Vers{App.
Alt.
App. Dist.
A.}
This short sketch of the method by which the formulas

are derived
is
about them.
only given to show that there

It is
angles or sides
known
cally,
all
of
is
no mystery
simply a question of finding certain

spherical
triangles
when
others are
the same quantities could be obtained graphi-
though not very accurately, by careful measures on

which the triangles could be drawn.
a globe on
EXBECISES
EXERCISES
288
Find the Natural Numbers of the following Logs.

Log.
EXERCISES
10.
Multiply f by 18'2 by
289
common
Logs.
11-375.
Ansiuer.
11.
common
Multiply ^0 by 17859 by
Logs.
Answer.
12.
Multiply
3125-32.
^ by 1-0909 by common Logs

-82908.
Ansioer.
1.
Division
by Logs.
Divide 651714 by 826 by
common
Logs.
Answer.
2.
Divide 79-660545 by 7-895 by
common
Logs.
Answer.
3.
Divide 70-4028 by 9-026 by
common
10-09.
Logs.
Ansiuer.
4.
Divide 6-5254 by 82-6 by
common
Divide -0344692 by -00629 by
common
Divide -030168 by 41-9 by
common
Divide | by
Divide \i by {^ by
common
Divide 4480 by 1% by
common
11.
Divide
|-[^
-99264.
Logs.
Ansiuer.
10.
1-875.
Logs.
Answer,
9.
-00072.
by common Logs.
Answer.
8.
5-48.
Logs.
Answer.
7.
-079.
Logs.
Answer.
6.
7-8.
Logs.
Ansiver.
5.
789.
by -0062 by common Logs.

Answer.
-4715-8.
84'7458.
Divide 1 by -000825.
Answer.
VOL.
II.
1212-12.
SN
S
EXERCISES
290
Middle Latitude Sailing
1.
B by Middle
Esquired the Course and Distance from A to
Latitude Sailing.
.
jLat.
Answer.
Long. 968.
2.
50 30'
iLong. 17 18'
Mid. Lat. 44
(Lat.
-o
24',
Diff. Lat. 732,
Course S 43 22' 30"
W,
38 18'
Long. 33
26'
Dep. 691-6,
Diff.
Dist. 1007.
Required the Course and Distance from
A to B by Middle
Latitude Sailing.
(Lat.
1849'S
(Long. 11 20'
Answer.
Dep.
3.
872-8.
(Lat.
-o
Mid. Lat. 25
Course S 49
50"
W,
4 44'
Lat. 757, Diff. Long. 964,
7\', Diff.
3'
31 26'
iLong.
Dist. 1155-5.
Eequired the Course and Distance from
to
B by Middle
Latitude Sailing.
,
(Lat.
Answer.
Dep. 696-7.
4.
1027'N
(Long. 173 18'
Mid. Lat. 29
Course
(Lat.
I
49 26'
Long. 173
18'
56^', Diff. Lat. 2339, Diff.
16 35' 12"
W,
Long. 804,
Dist. 2440-5.
Eequired the Course and Distance from A
to
B by Middle
Latitude Sailing.
.
^^
(Lat.
2128'N
ILong. 168 12'
Answer.
Dep. 999-9.
Mid. Lat. 5
Course S 27
-o
12', Diff.
7'
(Lat.
11
4'
(Long. 151 28'
Lat. 1952, Diff. Long. 1004,
22"E, Dist. 2193-2.
EXERCISES
Day's
No
WoFk
1
291
292
EXERCISES
Day's
Work
No. 2
EXERCISES
298
294
EXEECISES
Day's
Work
No. 4
EXERCISES
Day's
Work
No. 5
Course
295
296
EXERCISES
Day's
Work
No. 6
EXEECISES
297
298
EXEECISES
EXERCISES
Day's
Work
No. 9
299
EXERCISES
300
Day's
Work
No. 10
Course
i
EXERCISES
301
EXERCISES
302
Day's
Course
S 49
S 48
3
4
5
6
7
S47E
S46E
EXERCISES
303
Latitude by Meridian Altitude of Sun

1.
Alt. of
of
W,
1898, January 11th, in Longitude 47

was 39 14' 20", bearing South, I.
Bye 16
the Ohs. Mer.
-1'
10",
Height
feet.
Deo. 21 44' 12-8" S

A. T. G. 11th B^ 8 0'
28
51'
39
24'
30".
17" N.
Latitude
Tr. Alt.
Answer.
of
March
was 49 18'
1898,
2.
Alt.
Bye 22
19th, in Longitude 175 B, the Obs. Mer.
40", bearing North,
I.
B.
2'
20", Height
feet.
Ansioer.
Deo. 0 37' 13-6" S

A. T. G. 18th 12^ 20' 0^
Latitude 41 5' 28" S.
;
Tr. Alt. 49 31' 46".

3.
1898,
May
was 66
Alt.
Bye 28
A. T. G. 31st 6" 40'" 0
Latitude 1
Tr. Alt. 66 57' 36".

4.
Alt.
A. T. G. 21st
Tr. Alt. 54 39' 21" S.
of
0'
7-7"
Dec. 20 25' 39-6"

Latitude 55 46' 19" N.
0*'
45-" 12^
1898, September 20th, in Longitude 165 W, the Obs.

was 71 35' 30" .bearing North, I. E. -2 35', Height
Alt.
Bye 19
feet.
A7iswer.
1898,
0 0=
Dec. 0 48' 23-8"
A. T. G. 20th 11"
Tr. Alt. 71 44' 22".

6.
Dec. 22
16" S.
feet.
Answer.
5.
2'
1898, July 21st, in Longitude 11 18' W, the Obs. Mer.

was 54 23' 40", bearing South, I. B. +4' 10", Height of
Eye 14
Mer.
I.
feet.
Ansiver.
W, the Obs. Mer.

B. -0' 50", Height of
in Longitude 100
31st,
48' 10", bearing North,
November
4th, in
Answer.
'A. T.
G. 3rd 17" 56-" 0^
Tr. Alt. 75 51' 34".
Longitude 91 B, the Obs. Mer.

I. B.
40", Height of
was 75 42' 10", bearing South,

Bye 25 feet. Eequired the Latitude.
Alt.
-V
Dec. 15" 23' 56-5" S

;
EXERCISES
304
Parallel Sailing
1.
to
by
Parallel Sailing.
,
^
2.
fLat. 51 26'
(Lat. 51 26'
-o
JLong. 17 0'
Answer.
West
JLong. 37 18'
759'33 miles.
A to B by Parallel
Sailing.
,
Lat. 42 41' N
(Long. 178 22'
Long. 165
14'
to
West 724-35
Answer.
3.
(Lat. 42 41'
-r
miles.
Required the Course and Distance from
by
by
by
by
Parallel Sailing.
,
^
4.
(Lat.
.u 8'
u X,
i^û. 50
-o J508'N
^ 14 26'
E
iLong. 1 30' I
Answer. West 228-197 miles.
:.
to
Parallel Sailing.
.
^
5.
(Lat. 61 18'
.1
Long. 174 12'

Answer.
(Lat. 61 18'
-p.
Long. 139
15'
to
Bast 1007-03 miles.
Parallel Sailing.
,
jLat. 27 26' S
[Long. 47 18'
Answer.
6.
-p,"'
Lat. -27 26' S
JLong. 63
19'
Bast 852-93 miles.
to
Parallel SaiUng.
^4
jLat. 15 22'
iLong. 126 52'
Answer.
7.
Answer.
-o
(Lat. 15 22'
[Long. 164 18'

1587*16
miles
West
ship in Lat. 71 18' N, Long. 155 27' B, sails East
(true) 944-5 miles.
8.
What
is
her position
Lat. 71 18' N, Long. 155 27' 6"
ship in Lat. 81 12' S, Long. 2 16'
1495-9 miles.
Answer.
What
her position ?
Lat. 81 12' S, Long. 165 14'
W,
is
W.
W.
sails
West
(true)
SS
EXERCISES
9.
ship in Lat. 29 26' N, Long. 164 20' E, sails East
What
(true) 860'48 miles.
W.
W,
East
ship in Lat. 55 26' S, Long. 11 27' E, sails
West
What
is
her position
W.
Lat. 5 27' N, Long. 39 46'
What
(true) 723-39 miles.
is
her position
Lat. 55 26' S, Long. 9 48'
Ansiuer.
sails
Aimver.
12.
her position
ship in Lat. 5 27' N, Long. 47 29'
(true) 460'9 miles.
11.
is
Lat. 29 26' N, Long. 179 12'
Ansiuer.
10.
305
W.
W,
ship in Lat. 88 31' N, Long. 91 26'
What
(true) 2714-2 miles.
is
her position
sails
West
Lat. 88 31' N, Long. 93 49' B.
Ansiver.
Mereatop's Sailing-
Find the Course and Distance from
1.
A to B
by Mercator's
Sailing.
.
(Lat.
Course 8 12
10'
5 18'
(Long. 25 20'
3404, Mer. Diff. Lat. 3928, Diff. Long. 848.
W,
57"
jLat.
12'
Diff. Lat.
Ansiver.
2.
5126'N
JLong. 11
Dist. 3482-43 miles.
Find the Course and Distance from A
to
by Mercator's
Sailing.
(Lat.
I
3.
p,
31 27'
(Lat.
74
9'
34"
W,
(Long. 115 40'
Mer. Diff. Lat. 656,

Dist. 1945-33 miles.
Diff. Lat. 531,
Ansiver.
Course
40 18'
Long. -154 12'
Diff.
A to B
Long. 2312.
by Mercator's
Sailing.
,
^
-
(Lat.
Answer.
Course
4.
27 24'
(Long. 156 26'
-p.
48 19'
(Long. 171 22'
(Lat.

Dist. 1961 miles.
Diff. Lat. 1265,
50 12' 43"
W,
Diff.
A to B by
Long. 1932.
Mercator's
Sailing.
.
(Lat.
Ansiver.
Course
VOL.
53 14' S
(Long. 14 28'
Diff. Lat. 182,
76 18' 38"
II.
W,
-r,
B
Mer.
(Lat.
(Long.
50 12' S
5 39'
Diff. Lat. 294, Diff.
Long. 1207.
Dist. 769-04 miles.
NSS
EXERCISES
306
5.
A to B by
Mercator's
Sailing.
,
2527'N
(Lat.
25 27'
(Lat.
-n,
^ ILong. 141 28' B

ILong. 148 18' E
Answer. Diff. Lat. 3054, Mer. Diff. Lat. 3160, Diff. Long. 410.
Course S 7 23' 34" W, Dist. 3079-6 miles.
6.
to
by Mercator's
Sailing.
.
"^
7 49'
ILong.
-p.
33 29'
(Lat.
{Long.
1 14'

59" E, Dist. 2973-6 miles.
Diff. Lat. 2928,
Ansiver.
Course S 10
7.
1519'N
(Lat.
2'
Find the Cou'-se and Distance
fr-om
Diff.
A to B
Long. 543.
by Mercator's
SaUing.
26 15' N
18 51' S
- (Lat.
^ (Long. 179 54'
JLong. 121 14' E
Answer. Diff. Lat. 2706, Mer. Diff. Lat. 2785, Diff. Long. 3532.
Course S 51 44' 39" E, Dist. 43703 miles.
.
8.
jLat.
Find the Course and Distance
fr-om
A to B
by Mercator's
Sailing.
.
6120'N
(Lat.
1 24'
(Long.
Answer.
Diff. Lat. 412,
Course S 73
6'
W,
52"
-r
E
Mer.
54 28'
(Lat.
(Long. 41 19'
Diff. Lat. 778, Diff.
Long. 2563.
Dist. 1418-4 miles.
To find Time of High Water

1. 1898, February 18th. Find the Time
Portsmouth, a.m. and p.m.
Answer. 9'^ 32'" a.m., 10'^ 4>" p.m.
2.
1898, April
22nd. Find the Time
of
of
High Water
High Water
at
at
Portland Breakwater, a.m. and p.m.

Ansioer.
3.
A.M.
36
a.m.,
7''
54
p.m.
1898, June 15th. Find the
and
Time
of
High Water at Oban,
p.m.
Ansioer.
4.
7'>
l'>
43"" a.m.,
2''
14'" p.m.
1898, August 26th. Find the
Calais, a.m.
Ansiver.
and
p.m.
5" 28'" a.m.
6''
5'" p.m.
Time
of
High Water
at
EXERCISES
1898, October
5.
Alcaroa Harbour,
1898,
6.
7th. Find the Time of High Water

Zealand, a.m. and p.m.
7'^
at
New
0^
Constant on Brest
Ansiver.
7^ 13 A.M.,
307
45
23", Corr. for Long.
25.
P.M.
December 14th. Find the Time
High Water
of
at
Cerros Island, California, a.m. and p.m.
Constant on Brest
Answer.
9'^
+ 5'^ 23, Corr. for Long. + IQj.
35i A.M., IQh Oi P.M.
Correetion for Soundings
On January
1.
17th, 1898, at 2.30 a.m., being off
sounding before comparing
to the
S.
it
with the chart.
Falmouth H. W. 16th 10'^ 30 p.m.. Height 13
Ansiver.
H. M.
Falmouth,
Eequired the correction to be applied
took a cast of the lead.
R.
S'''
4^",
Correction to subtract from sounding
0'".
2. On May 26th, 1898, at 10.45 p.m., being off Weston-superMare, took a cast of the lead. Eequired the correction to be
applied to the sounding before comparing it with the chart.
Weston H. W.
H. M. S. E. 18*'' 6*",
Answer.
29ft 10'",
sounding 29"
26th
10^
22
Correction to
Height
p.m.,
subtract from
0'".
On
July 4th, 1898, being off Ballycastle Bay, at 1.30 a.m.,

Eequired the correction to be applied
to the sounding before comparing it with the chart.
3.
took a cast of the lead.
Ansiver.
H. M.
4.
Bay
to
S.
On
E.
Ballycastle
1'' 6'".
H. W.
24
6'^
Height 3^
a.m.,
3*",
Correction to subtract from sounding H*".
October 21st, 1898, at 4.20
a.m.,
being off Haute
Isle,
Fundy, took a cast of the lead. Eequired the correction

be applied to the soimding before comparing it with the
of
chart.
Answer.
Constants on Brest
40
H. M.
H. W.
subtract from soundings 25
Isle
2"
a.m.,
S.
-f 7*'
34,
E. 16"
+13"
6"'.
6'",
Haute
Correction to
feet.
X 2
EXERCISES
308
5.
On November
10th, 1898, at 11 a.m., being off
Chusan
Tinghae, China, took a cast of the lead. Eequired the correction to be applied to the sounding before comparing it with the
chart.
Answer. Constants on Brest +8^ 47, 7''

H. W. S" 58 A.M., H. M. S. E. 6f' 0>". Correction
from sounding 6^' 9'".
6.
On December 24th, 1898, at 4.20 p.m.,

SE coast of South America, took a
Cruz Eiver,
6'",
Chusan
to subtract
being off Santa

cast of the lead.
Eequired the correction to be applied to the sounding before

comparing it with the chart.
Constants on Brest +5'^ 43, +20" 6"\ Santa
Anstver.
Cruz H. W. 7h 11 P.M., H. M. S. E. 20ft 0'". Correction to
subtract from sounding 21"'
5'".
Amplitudes
A. T. S., in Lat.
1. 1898, January 12th, at 7" 31 a.m.
45 20' N, Long. 19 40' W, the Sun rose, bearing by Compass
S 44 E. Eequired the True Amplitude and the Error of the
Compass, and supposing the Variation
Compass
the Deviation of the
to
be 18
W,
required
for the direction of the Ship's
Head.
True Amplitude
Declination 21 36' 59" S
Deviation
Error of Compass 14 23' 47"
Answer.
31 36' 13" S
3 36'
2.
13" E.
1898,
March
23 14' N, Long.
24th,
at
165 26'
W,
6''
the
Sun
p.m.
set,
A.
T.
S.,
in
Lat.
bearing by Compass
WNW.
Eequired the True Amplitude and the Error of the

Compass, and supposing the Variation to be 29 "W, required
Compass
Head.
Ans.
Error
3.
of
Dec. 1 49' 25" N

30' 56"
Compass 20
1898,
May
7th, at G"
True Amphtude
1 59'
4''
Deviation 8 29' 4" E.
19 a.m. A. T.
S.,
in Lat. 14 55' S,
Long. 182 20' E, the Sun rose, bearing by Compass N 50 E.

Eequired the True Amplitude and the Error of the Compass,
EXERCISES
309
and supposing the Variation to be 11 E, required the Deviation

of the Compass for the direction of the Ship's Head.
Ansiucr.
Dechnation 16 43' 51" N
True Amplitude
;
17 19' 57"
Error of Compass 22 40' 3"
Deviation
11 40' 3" E.
4. 1898, July 2nd, at 3'^ 37'" a.m. A. T. S., in Lat. 54 15' N,
Long. 176 19' W, the Sun rose, bearing by Compass N 47 EEequired the True Amplitude and the Error of the Compass,
and supposing the Variation to be 18 E, required the Deviation
Compass
for the direction of the Ship's Head.

Dec. 23 1' 17" N True Amplitude E 42 1' 6"
Error of the Compass 0 58' 55" E Deviation 17 1' 5" W.
of the
Ans.
5.
1898, Sept. 19th, at 6^
Long. 40
W,
Sun
0"^ p.m.
A. T.
S., in
Lat. 49 20' S,
bearing by Compass
17 N.
Eequired the True Amplitude and the Error of the Compass,
and supposing the Variation to be 17 W, required the Deviation of the Compass for the direction of the Ship's Head.
Ansiver.
Deo. 1 13' 58-2" N; True Amplitude
1 53' 31" N
Error of the Compass 15 6' 29"
Devia-
the
set,
tion 1 53' 31" E.

6.
1898,
November
30th, at 6" 50'" a.m. A. T.
37 52' N, Long. 14 20'
W,
the
Sun
rose, bearing
S.,
in Lat.
by Compass
S 62 E. Eequired the True Amplitude and the Error of the

Compass, and the Variation being 19 W, required the Deviation of the Compass for the direction of the Ship's Head.
Ans.
Deo. 21 40' 59" S True AmpUtude B 27 54' 20" S
Error of the Compass 0 5' 40"
Deviation 18 54' 20" E.
;
Sun Time Azimuths (by Tables)

1.
1898, January 28th, at 4" 18 24= p.m. A. T. S., in LatiS, and" Longitude 114 15' W, the Sun bore by
tude 49 28'
Compass N 80 W. Eequired the True Azimuth, and Error of

Compass by the Time Azimuth Tables and supposing the
Variation to be 11 E, required the Deviation of the Compass
the
Ansiver.
Error
of
Head.
Dec. 17 58' 27" S
Compass
2^
True Azimuth
W Deviation 13^ W
82^
EXERCISES
310
2. 1898, March 11th, at 7" 34" 20^ a.m. A. T. S., in Latitude

39 44' N, and Longitude 41 26' W, the Sun bore by Compass
Eequired the True Azimuth, and Error of the Compass

by the Time Azimuth Tables and supposing the Variation to
be 28 E, required the Deviation of the Compass for the direction
of the Ship's Head.
True Azimuth S 72 E
Answer.
Dec. 3 36' 41" S
East.
Error
of
Compass
18
Deviation 10
W.
9i^ 10^ 40^ a.m. A. T.

S., in Latitude
3. 1898, May 17th, at
49 28' S, and Longitude 169 18' B, the Sun bore by Compass
25 E.
Eequired the True Azimuth and Error of the
Compass by the Time Azimuth Tables and supposing the

;
Answer.
EiTor
of
Head.
Dec. 19 15' 59"
Compass 15|
True Azimuth
N 40^ E
Deviation ^ E.
4. 1898, July 19th a.m. at Ship, in Latitude 51 24' N, Longitude 134 25' E, when M. T. G. by Chronometer was on the 18th
12h 18'" 40^ the Sun bore by Compass S 50 E. Eequired the
True Azimuth and Error of the Compass by the Time Azimuth
Tables
and supposing the Variation to be
7 E, required the
Deviation of the Compass for the direction of the Ship's Head.

Answer.
Dec. 20 54' 9" N A. T. S. 9^ IG^^ a.m.
Tree
;
Azimuth S 63i
Error
of
Compass
13 20'
Deviation
20 20' ^Y.
5. 1898, September 5th, p.m. at Ship, in Latitude 32 18' S,
Longitude 110 W, when M. T. G. by Chronometer was on the
5th 11^ 40 20^ the
Sun bore by Compass West. Eequhed the

True Azimuth and Error of the Compass by the Time Azimuth
Tables and supposing the Variation to be 18 E, required the
Deviation of the Compass for the direction of the Ship's Head.
Answer.
Dec. 6 32' 8" N A. T. S. 4" 22"> p.m.
True
Azimuth N 71
Error of Compass 19 B Deviation 1 E.
;
6. 1898, November 17th a m. at Ship, in Latitude 54 40' N,

Longitude 177 53' E, when M. T. G. by Chronometer was on
the 16th 10" 22" 30^ the Sun bore by Compass S 10 E. Ee-
quired the True Azimuth and Error of the
Time Azimuth Tables
Compass by the
and supposing the Variation to be
EXERCISES
24
W,
18 56' 15" S
Dec.
Azimuth
True
for the direction
Head.
'
Ansiver.
311
Compass
required the Deviation of the
of the Ship's
22
A. T. S.
lO'^ Qg-" a.m.
Error of Compass 12
Deviation 12 E.
Moon, Star, and Planet Time Azimuths (by Tables)

1.
1898, February 4th, at 3^ 30" a.m. A. T.
W,
54 58' N, Longitude 29 15'
W.
86
S.,
in Latitude
bore by
Compass
Variation to be 25
W,
Ansiver.
21h ll-" 43^

of
Moon
Eequired the True Azimuth and the Error of the

by Time Azimuth Tables
and supposing the
Compass
Error
the
])
))
E. A.
Compass
April
5'^
12'" 29"
7''
H. A.
Compass
Head.
29
!)
14
Dec. 23 21' 13"

;
N E. A.
N 82 W;
;
True Azimuth
Deviation 29 E.
49
2^
a.m. A. T. S. in Latitude
E, Jupiter bore by Compass
N 83 W. Eequired the True Azimuth and the Error of Compass by Time Azimutli Tables; and supposing the Variation
to be 6 B, required the Deviation of the Compass for the direc2.
1898,
5th, at
44 40' S, Longitude
tion of the Ship's
38'
Head.
E. A. 12^ 17 40^
Jupiter's Dec.
E. A. Oh 55 50^ Jupiter's H. A. 3" 27 10'
Jupiter's
Ansiver.
0 10' 34" S
67
True Azimuth
61 20'
Error of Compass 21 40'
Deviation 15 40' E.
3. 1898, June 14, at 4'' 28 a.m., A. T. S., in Latitude
34 28' S, Longitude 147 40 W, the Star Achernar bore by
Compass S 40 E. Eequhed the True Azimuth and the Error
Compass; and supposing the Variation to be 5 E,

Compass for the direction of the
Ship's Head.
Answer.
* E. A. 1*- 33 56" * Dec. 57 44' 46" S E. A.
5h 3111 37s ^ H. A. 3'^ 34
B True Azimuth S 39-1 g gj-roj.
of Compass 0 30' E
Deviation 4 30' W.
of
the
August 23rd, in Latitude 49 50' S, Longitude

156 W, when M. T. G. by a Chronometer was on the 23rd
2ih 44m Qs, the Moon bore by Compass S 85 W. Eequired the
True Azimuth and the Error of the Compass lay Time
4.
1898,
EXERCISES
312
Azimuth Tables
W,
and supposing the Variation to be 9
Compass
quired the Deviation of the
re-
for the direction of the
Ship's Head.
Answer.
IQi' 10-"
Error of
E. A. 15^ 28"' 50^
H. A. 6" 21'
Compass 14 20'
49'
59'
29" S E. A. M.
True Azimuth S 70 40'
Dec. 23
Deviation 5 20'
W.
5. 1898, October 1st, in Latitude 42 30' N, Longitude

144 B, when M. T. G. by a Chronometer was on the 1st
2" 14' 0', Mars bore by Compass N 80 E.

Eequired the True
Azimuth and the Error of the Compass, and supposing the
Answer.
M.
Azimuth N
E. A.
14 45'
Head.
Mars' Dec. 23 4' 10" N

True
Mars' H. A. 6" 40' 8' (E)
Mars' E. A. 7" 11"" 28'

121'
4im
66 15'
20'
;
Error
18 45'
Compass
of
Deviation
W.
December 18th, in Lat. 35 15' S, Long. 19 E,

M. T. G. by a Chronometer was on the 17th 17'' 42 0',
the Star Procyon bore by Compass N 50 W. Eequired the
True Azimuth and the Error of the Compass and supposing
6.
when
1898,
the
the Variation to be 24
Compass
W, requhed
Head.
* E. A. 7" 34' 3' * Dec. 5 29' 0" N E. A. M.

47"
17"
27'; * H. A. 5" 11' 24' (W) True Azimuth N 78 30 W;
Error of Compass 28 30' W Deviation 4 30' W.
Ansiver.
Longitude by Chronometer and Altitude Azimuth

1898, January 3rd, at about 8'' 50 A.ii., in Latitude
40 18' N, Longitude D. E. 44 19' W, when the Time by a
Chronometer was on the 3rd 0" 5 45', whose Error on
1.
M. T. G. on November 10th, 1897, was fast 14' 28', and on

was 12 58' 0",
December 2, 1897, fast 13' 44', the Obs. Alt.
I. E. + 1' 20", Height of Eye 20 feet. Sun bore by Compass SSE,
W. Eequired the Longitude, the Error of the

Compass, and the Deviation for the position of the Ship's Head.
Anstoer. M. T. G. 2nd, 23'' 53' 5'
Dec. 22 47' 551" S
E. T. 4" 50-88' + to A. T.;
Tr. Alt. 13 7' 18"; J Sum 83 6' 36";
A. T. S. 2nd 20" 51" 10'
Long. 44 16'
Tr. Az.
Variation 19
S 43 69' 48" E; Comp. Error 21
29' 48"
W;
Dev. 2
29'
48"
;;
;
EXERCISES
313
2. 1898, February 18th, at about 6 p.m., in Lat. 54 16' S,

Long. D. E. 179 21' E, when a Chronometer showed 6'' 9 P,
whose Error on M. T. G. on February 1st, 1898, was slow
was 8 57' 20",

18^ and daily rate 3 losing, the Obs. Alt.
E. nil, Height of Eye 12 feet, Sun bore by Compass
S 56 W, Variation 30 E.
Eequired the Longitude, the
9^
I.
Compass Error, and Deviation
for the position of the Ship's
Head.
Answer. M. T. G. 17th 18'^ 19"^ 9'
Dec. 11 35' 54-9" S
7-24^ + to A. T.
E. T.
Tr. Alt. 9 4' 27"
^ Sum
70 52' 16" A. T. S. 18th 6i> 2" 12^* Long. 179 17' 30" E
Tr. Az. S 82 43' 29"
Comp. Error, 26 43' 29" B
;
W^
W.
Dev. 3 16' 31"
March 17, in Lat. 17 25' N, Long. D. E. 140 44' W,

Time by a Chronometer was on 17th 5^ 29 26S
whose Error on M. T. G. was, on January 2nd, 1898, fast
1 28^ and on March 1st fast 1^; the Obs. Alt. '^ was
27 33' 50", L E. -1' 20", Height of Eye 22 feet, Sun bore
by Compass East, Variation 11 W. Eequired the Longitude,
the Compass Error, and Deviation for the position of the
3.
when
1898,
the
Ship's Head.
M.
Answer.
8'
E. T.
68 7' 32"
20'76^
;
T. G. 17th 5" 29"> 49-3'
to A. T.
Deo. 1
48" S
i Sum
7'
Tr. Alt. 27 42' 16"
A. T. S. 16th 19^ 58'" 17-5^ ; Long. 140 47' 45"

9' 36" B
Comp. Error, 10 50' 24" E Dev.
S 79
Tr. Az.
21 50' 24" E.
4.
Long.
1898, April 5th, at about
D. E.
157
20'
7''
30"
when
E,
a.m., in Lat. 33 18'
Chronometer
N,
showed
whose Error on M. T. G. on March 1st was 14' 28'

and whose daily rate was 3' gaining, Obs. Alt.
was
21 32' 40", I. E. -1' 10", Height of Eye 30 feet. Sun bore
by Compass S 50 B, Variation 31 W. Eequired the Longitude, and the Compass Error and Deviation for the position
of the Ship's Head.
M. T. G. 4th 9'' 1" 38' Dec. 5 57' 13" N
Ansiuer.
E. T. 2 51-88' + to A. T.
Tr. Alt. 21 39' 48"; i Sum
69 30' 18" A. T. S. 4th 19" 28 14' Long. 157 22' B Tr.
Comp. Error, 32 40' 52"
Az. S 82 40' 52" E
Dev.
8^ 48"" 53',
slow,
1 40' 52"
W.
;;
EXERCISES
314
5. 1898, May 10th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 34 12' S, Long.

D. E. 81 16' E, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the
9th 22h 20" 36, whose Error on M. T. G. on February 4th,
was 0
22 fast, and on April 10th, 1898, l-" 9^* slow,

was 14 18' 40", I. E. -1' 20", Height of Eye
16 feet. Sun bore by Compass N 50 W, Variation 5 W.
Eequired the Longitude, and the Compass Error, and Deviation
for the position of the Ship's Head.
Answer. M. T. G. 9th, 22^ 22" 27^ Dec. 17 41' 0" N
1898,
Obs. Alt
d,
E. T.
78
3-"
9'
46-56^
21"
Tr. Az.
1 21'
6.
10"
- from A.
T.
A. T. S. 10th, 3" 51' 12^
56 21' 10"
Tr. Alt. 14 25' 41"
Sum
Long. 81 14' 36"
Comp. Error,
6 21' 10"
Dev.
W.
June
1898,
20th, in Lat. 0=
when
Long. D. E. 0
0',
3'
at
showed 7'^ 28" 49',

whose Error on M. T. G. on June 1st was fast 17" 10^ and
whose daily rate was 2^ losing, Obs. Alt. Q was 16 4' 40",
I. B. +2' 50", Height of Eye 28 feet, Sun bore by Compass
East, Variation 2 E.
Eequired the Longitude and the
Compass Error and Deviation for the position of the Ship's
about T^ 10
A.M.,
a Chronometer
Head.
M.
Anstver.
E. T. 1"
41 24' 0"
Az.
15'=
7.
45" 4'
T. G. 19th 19" 12" 17^

to A. T.
Tr.
29'
10"
Dec.
16
Alt.
A. T. S. 19th, 19^ 11" 2^
S 114
26 29' 10"
14'
Long. 0
Comp. Error 24
23 26' 55"
54"
0'
29' 10"
0"
Tr.
Sum
Dev.
W.
1898, July 7th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. 45 0' N, Long. D. E.
W, when
the Time by a Chronometer was on the 6th

whose Error on M. T. G. was on May 1st, 1898,
0" 28^ slow, and on July 2nd, 1898, 2" 7'' fast, Obs. Alt. Q
was 20 46' 10", I. E. + 0' 30", Height of Eye 17 feet, Sun
Eequired the
bore by Compass E i^ S, Variation 11 W.
Longitude, and the Compass Error, and Deviation for that
position of the Ship's Head.
Answer. M. T. G. 6th 21" 34" 50' (1 Dec. 22 34' 57-4" N
i Sum,
E. T. 4" 37-7' + to A. T.
Tr. Alt. 20 55' 58"
66 40' 30" A. T. S. 6th 18" 30" 11=
Long. 45 0' 15"
Tr. Az. S 101 28' 30" E
Comp. Error, 17 6' 0"
Dev.
2ih 37m
9s_
6 6' 0"
W.
EXERCISES
8. 1898, August
Long. D. E. 149 15'
21st, at
315
a.m., in Lat. 49 20' S,
about S^ 30-"
W, when
Chronometer showed 6'^ 14' 15^

17 16^ Obs. Alt. lL was
slow
whose Error on M. T. G. was
1' 10", Height of Eye 24 feet,
13 26' 0", I. B.
Sun bore
by Compass N 84 B, Variation 21 W.
Esquired the
Longitude and the Compass Error and Deviation for that
a
M.
T. G. 21st 6" Sl-n 31^
53=*
to A. T.
Tr. Alt. 13 32' 3"
A. T. S. 20th, 20h 31 18
52
9.
E; Compass
26"
38'
10 21' 34"
Dec. 11 56' 38"

B. T.
^ Sum 82 24' 19"
Long. 149
'20'
31
Error,
21'
Tr. Az.
34"
W;
Dev.
W.
1898, September 22nd, p.m. at ship, in Lat. 21 23' N,
W, when the Time by a Chronometer was

on the 22nd 12" 36 43^ whose Error on M. T. G. on June 1st
was slow 1 29^ and on July 31st fast 0 19^ Obs. Alt.
was
22 49' 46", I. B. + 1' 50", Height of Eye 16 feet. Sun bore
by Compass West, Variation 24 W. Eequired the Longitude,
and the Compass Error and Deviation for the position of the
Ship's Head.
Ansiver.
M. T. G. 22nd 12" 34 9^;
Dec. 0 0' 0" B. T.
7m 32-5S _ from A. T.
Tr. Alt. 23 1' 29" ^ Sum 67 12' 15"
Long. D. E. 125 18'
22nd 4" 20 39^ Long. 125 15' 37"

S 80 25' 14"
Comp. Error 9 34' 46" W; Dev. 14
A. T. S.
10.
Tr. Az.
14" B.
25'
1898, October 28th, at about 8 a.m., in Lat. 61 19' S,
Long. D. E. 179 56' B, when a Chronometer showed B^^ 3 37^

whose Error on M. T. G. on October 1st, 1898, was fast 16 10^
and daily rate was 3 gaining, Obs. Alt. Q was 25 39' 45", I. E.
-1' 20", Height of Eye 26 feet. Sun bore by Compass N 50 E,
Variation 25 E.
Eequired the Longitude and the Compass
_Error and Deviation for the position of the Ship's Head.

Answer. M. T. G. 27th 7" 46 8^
Dec. 13 0' 21-5" S
from A. T.
Tr. Alt. 25 47' 40"
E. T. 16 4-43=
h Sum
;
82
3'
Az.
9"
A. T. S. 27th 20" 2 12'
68
6 15' 33"
44'
27"
Long. 180 O'O"

44' 27"
Comp. Error, 18
B ^0 Tr.
B Dev.
;
W.
11. 1898,
November 5th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 51 18' N,

when the Time by a Chronometer was on
Long. D. E. 0 15' E,
EXERCISES
316
2'> 44'" 33^ whose Error on M. T. G. was nil, Obs. Alt.

v2was 11 51' 10", I. E. + 2' 40", Height of Eye 12 feet, Sun
bore by Cornpass S 23 W, Variation 20 W. Eequired the
Longitude, and the Compass Error and Deviation for that
Atmt'cr.
M. T. G. 5th 2^ 44 33^ 3 Dec. 15= 49' 13-6" S
E. T. 16 17^- from A. T.
Tr. Alt. 12= 2' 18"; h Sum
the 5th,
84 34' 46"
Az. S
44. 36'
A. T. S. oth 3" 2'- 10^
Comp.
Long. 0^ 20'
Ei-ror, 21 36'
E fc
Tr.
Dev. 41 36' E.
12. 1898, December 21st, at about 7 .\.ji.,

Lat. 55 22' S,
Long. D. E. 148 W, when a Chronometer showed 4'' 55 55 2*,
whose Error on M. T. G. was on July 18th fast 1 10',
and on November 2nd slow 156^ Obs. Alt.

was 28= 12' 50",
E.
r 10", Height of Eye 32 feet, Sun bore by Corapass
N 80 E, Variation 10= W. Eequired the Longitude and the
Compass Error and Deviation for that position of the Ship's
Head.
Ansifei:
M. T. G. 21st 4 56 50^ T Dec. 23= 27' 6" S,
1
30^
E. T.
from A. T.
Tr. Alt. 28= 20' 48"
h Sum
75 7' 48"
A. T. S. 20th 19"^ 5 39' Long. 148 10' 15"
Tr. Az. N 90= 50' 21" E
Comp. Error 10= 50' 21" E Dev.
I.
20 50' 21" E.
Latitude by Meridian Altitude of Stars and Planets

1. 1898,
January 11th, the Obs. Mer. Alt. of the Star
Castor was 62 14' 20" (bearing South), I. E. + 1' 40", Height of
Eye 20

62 11' 7";
Alt.
feet.
Ansicer.
32=
Dec.
Tr.
2. 1898,
April 10th, the Obs. Mer. Alt.
Arcturus was 51 28' 10" (bearing North), I. E.
6'
of
- 3'
of
Bye 16
feet.
Ajistcci:
1898,
Eye 28
July
feet.
Answer.
Tr.
51
Alt.
Pomalhautwas67=
of
the
Star
Height
20",
Tr.
Latitude 18 57' 22"

3.
42" N;
20'
10";
19=
Dec.
42'
28"
N;
S.
21st,
44'
the
Obs.
Mer.
Alt.
30" (bearing South), I.E.
the
of
2' 15",
30
9'
Star
Height

Alt.
Latitude 7= 50' 29" S.
67
41'
11";
Dec.
18"
S;
EXERCISES
4.
Sirius
1898,
October 26th, the Obs. Mer. Alt. of the Star

4' 20", Height of
14' 40" (bearing North), I. E.
was 56
Bye 12
feet.
Answer.
Tr.
Alt.
Latitude 50 28' 7"

5.
317
1898,
56
6'
18"
N;
Dec.
16
February 9th, in Long. 17 W, the Obs. Mer.

0' 50",
was 48 27' 20" (bearing South), I. E.
Alt. of Jupiter

Ansiuer.
M. T. G. 8th 16" 25-6"; Dec.
Height
25" S;
34'
S.
of
Tr. Alt. 48 21' 30"
Latitude 39
5'
33'
20"
S;
10" N.
6. 1898, May 12th, in Long. 140 E, the Obs. Mer. Alt. of

Saturn was 68 14' 30" (bearing North), I. E. + 1' 30", Height of
Eye 18
feet.
M. T. G. 11th 3'' 56-9'"; Dec.

68 ir 36"
Ans2ver.
Tr. Alt.
7.
20
6'
21-2" S;
1898, August 24th, in Long. 156 B, the Obs. Mer. Alt. of
Mars was 31 26' 40" (bearing North), I. E. 2' 40", Height of

Answer. M. T. G. 23rd 9'^ 0-"; Dec. 23 10' 9" N;
Tr. Alt. 31 17' 29"
Latitude 35 32' 22"
S.
To find the Time when a Star will cross the Meridian

1.
1898, January 6th, in Lat. 41 N, Long. 29
the approximate A. T. S.
when
Meridian.
2.
1898,
W,
required
the Star Eigel would be on the

Answer. 9^ 57"" p.m.
March 20th, in Lat. 18 S, Long. 150 E, required

M. T. S. when the Star Aroturus would be on
the approximate
3.
1898, June 18th, in Lat. 51 S, Long. 140
when
the Meridian.
4.
11" 35"" p.m.
Ansioer.
M.
T. S.
when
3"
1898, October 2nd, in Lat. 51 N, Long. 4
the Meridian.
when
W. Eequired
the Star Achernar would be on
Answer.
the Meridian.
;
required
the Star A Scorpii would be on
1898, August 16th, in Lat. 38 S, Long. 34
the approximate
5.
2^ 22" a.m.
Answer.
the Meridian.
the Star
54
a.m.
W. Eequired
Markab would be on
Aîsiver.
10" 24" p.m.
EXERCISES
318
6.
December
1898,
20th, in Lafc. 10 S, Long. 30 E. Eequii-ed
the approximate M. T. S.
when
the Star Capella
Answer.
the Meridian.
would be on
11 p.m.
ll'>
To find approximately the Position of Stars with

regard to the Meridian at a given Time
1.
Find the names, from the Nautical Almanac,
of the stars
not less bright than the 2nd magnitude that will be within two
hours East of your Meridian, above the Pole and above the
M.
T. S. on January 6th, 1898, in

and their H. A., and whether they
pass the Meridian North or South of the Zenith.
Horizon, at about 10
p.m.,
Lat. 41 N, Long. 29 W.,

will
Atiswer.
H. A. East
0'^
Capella
Eigel
Tam-i
13
Orionis
25
43
a Orionis
Canis Majoris
12
Geminorum
25
Sirius
34
Canis Magnis
48
Canis Magnis
58
/3
2. At 2 A.M. M. T.
Long. 150 E.
Answer.
Centauri
fl
6 Centauri
Arctmnis
S.,
on March 20th, 1898 Lat. 18
....0"
.
3.
At 11
P.M.
M. T.
7
11
22
43
a Centauri
140
North
South
13
V Orionis
/3
Position in respect
to the Zenith.
S.,
South
,,
North
South
June 18th, 1898, Lat. 51
S,
W.
Answer.
X Scorpii
0'^
36
North
Long.
EXERCISES
4.
At 3
Long. 3i
A.M.
M.
T.
S.,
319
on August 16th, 1898, Lat. 38
S,
W.
Ansiver.
Achernar
aAi-ietis
5.
At 10
Long. 4
P.M.
M.
T.
S.,
.0'' 64
.
22
South
North
on October 2nd, 1898, Lat. 51 N,
W.
Ansiuer.
Fomalhaut
Markab
6.
At 11
P.M.
M.
...
T.
S.,
0^
6"
South
13
on December 20th, 1898, Lat. 10
Long. 30 B.
Answer.
North
S,
;;;;
EXERCISES
320
4. 1898, August 16th, in Lat. D. E. 38 2' S, Long. 34 9' W,

compute the Observed Meridian Altitude of Aehernar, as a
guide to setting the sextant
Height of Bye 17 feet, and
;
I.
E.
2' 10".
October 2nd, in Lat. D. E.
1898,
5.
4 25'
W, compute the Observed
- 1' 40".
B.
51 12'
Meridian Altitude
as a guide to setting the sextant

I.
70 19' 30".
Answer.
of
N, Long.
Fomalhaut,
Height of Bye 28 feet, and

Answer. 8 51' 30".
6. 1898, December 20th, in Lat. 10 S, Long. 30 B, compute the Observed Meridian Altitude of Canopus, as a guide to
setting the sextant
Height
of
Bye 14
feet,
and
Answer.
I.
E.
2'
50".
47 23' 20".
Star Chronometer
1898, January 21st, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 50 12' N, after
1.
Markab had passed the Meridian its Obs. Alt.

Eye 22 feet, and a Chronometer
indicated M. T. G. on the 21st 9^ 54" 28^
Eequired
the
Star
was
19 49' 55", Height of
(corrected)
the Longitude.
20'^
Answer. E. A. M.
Longitude 28 18' 50" W.
2.
1898,
March
5"> 6-81^
* H.
A. 5^ 6-" 38-7=
19th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. 35 28' S,
when
Chronometer (corrected) indicated M. T. G. on the 18th

7h 28'"
22s the Obs. Alt. of Eegulus (W of Meridian) was
17 28' 20", Height of Bye 30 feet.
Eequired the Longitude.
23i> 45 29-88^
Ansiver.
E. A. M.
* H. A. 3>' 51" 25-4^
Longitude 100 8' 12" E.
3.
1898,
May
27th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 50 48' S,
when

llh 47m 50s_ the Obs. Alt. of Antares (E of Meridian) was
30 31' 0", Height of Eye 26 feet.
Eequired the Longiiude.
4^ 22" 11-33^ * H. A. 19'> 7" 11-5^
E. A. M.
A7isiuer.
;
Longitude 69 54' 9" W.

4. 1898, July 16th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 14 40' N, when a
411 12"
8S the Obs. Alt. of Arcturus (W of Meridian) was
Eequired the Longitude.
7*'
Ansioer.
E. A.
38" 4-4'
* H. A. 5^ 16" 21^
Longitude 114 17' 57" B.
EXERCISES
3^1
Moon Chronometer
1898, September lOfch, a.m. at Ship, in Latitude 49 35' N,
6.
when

Qh 45m 54s_ the Obs. Alt. of the Moon's L.
L. was 9 33' 30"
(E
of Meridian),
Height
of
Eye 24
Eequired the Longi-
feet.
tude.
Answer.
54' 8"
174 23' 6"

1898,
6.
when
M.
IP
8" 35-2''
;
H.-P.
S. D. 14' 51"
Deo. 22 31' 24" N
Longitude
IS-" 17-6
2^,
W.
November
19th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 39 29' 0" S,
a Chronometer (corrected) indicated
6h 28-
(W
E. A.
J E. A. 7"
M.
of Meridian),
Height
of
Bye 26
on the 19th
T. G.
the Obs. Alt. of the Moon's L. L.
was 10
54'
40"
Eequired the Longi-
feet.
tude.
15^ SS-" 12-56^ S. D. 16' 13" H.-P.

E. A. M.
2]h
7m
11.4B
E.
A.
Longitude
5 Dec. 13 21' 50" S
D
Answer.
59' 8"
66 20' 57" E.
Ex-Meridians of the Sun

1.
1898, Jan. 27th, in Lat. D. E. 49 50' N, Long. 1 18'
W,
watch showed 0"^ 38 16^, whose error on A. T. S. had

been found to be 49^ fast, since when the Ship had run
(true) 21 miles, Obs. Alt. i) was 21 0' 30" (bearing South),
I. B. nil. Height of Eye 20 feet.
Eequired the Latitude by
when
W8W
Reduction
to the Meridian.
Ansiver.
A. T. S. 27th O^ 35 27"
Dec. 18 21' 45-4" S

-1-27' 4"
2nd Eeduction
;
A. T. G. 0^
Tr. Alt. 21 10' 5"
-3"
Lat. 50
1'
40"
39"
1st Eeduction
9" N.
2. 1898, February 18th, in Lat. D. E. 51 12' S, Long.

111 15' E, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the 17th
16" SI 44", which was 1" 18" fast on M. T. G., Obs.

was 49 56' 30" (bearing North), I. E. -1' 15", Height
Alt. jj
of
Eye

M. T. G. 17th 16" 30"^ 26"
Deo. 11 37' 30" S
Ansiver.
from M. T. A. T. S. 17th 23i> 41'" 18-4"
E. T. 14'n 7-63"
1st Eeduction -f 11' 0"; 2nd Eeduction
Tr. Alt. 50 6' 33"
-1" Lat. 51 19' 58" S.
18
feet.
VOL.
II.
;;;
EXERCISES
322
March 20th, inLat. D.
E. 46 12' S, Long. 38 4' W,

by Chronometer was on the 20th 2" 6^ 4?,
was 42 48' 50" (bearing North), I. B. +0 40',
Eye 17 feet. Eequired the Latitude by Seduction to
1898,
3.
when M.
Obs. Alt.
Height
T. G.
of
the Meridian.
Answer.
A. T.
19th
S.
23i^
26' 18^
Dec. 0
Tr. Alt. 43 0' 34";

E. T. 7 30^ - from M. T.;
11"
35'
34"
Lat. 46 24' 3"
2nd Eeduction
+
;
0"
Eeduction
S.
1898, April 15th, in Lat. D. E. 21 32' S, Long. 48 31' B,

the Time by a watch was on the 14th 23'' 47 l^ whose
4.
when
error
1st
0'
S. had been found to be 1 28= fast,

(true) 22 miles, Obs.
had run N 55
on A. T.
the Ship
when
since
Alt.
2 was
3' 30", Height of Bye

I. E.
Answer. A. T. S. 14th 23'' 44 15=; A. T. G. 14th
20'' 30"" 11=
Dec. 9 49' 237" N E. T. 0 0=
Tr. Alt.
58 35' 51"
3"
2nd Eeduction
1st Eeduction + 14' 18"
68 29' 20" (bearing North),
30
feet.
Lat. 21 20' 30" S.
1898,
5.
May 22nd, in Lat.
D. E. 55 28' N, Long. 172 14' W,
was on the 22nd 0'' 19" 46=, whose

error on A. T. S had been found to be slow 4 18=, since when
the Ship ran S 72 B (true) 28', Obs. Alt. Q (bearing South)
54 26' 10", I. E. -2' 10", Height of Eye 24 feet.
Eequired
when
the
Time by
a watch
the Latitude by Eeduction to the Meridian.
A. T. S. 22nd 0" 27 12= A. T. G. 22nd 11" 56 8=

34-4"
32'
20
Tr. Alt. 54 34' 23" ; 1st Eeduction
Dec.
6"
22' 26"
Lat. 55 35' 51" N.
2nd Eeduction
Answer.
6.
1898, June 20th, in Lat. D. E. 39 28' S, Long. 78 48'
W, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the
20th
4''
44
41=,
Error of Chronometer on M. T. G. fast

27=, Obs. Alt. in
26 31' 30" (bearing North), I. B. -1' 40", Height of Eye
26 feet. Eequired the Latitude by Eeduction to the Meridian.
M.
G. 20th 4'' 40' 14"; A. T. S. 19th

Dec. 23 27' 5" N
E. T. 1 20-09=
from
Tr. Alt. 26 38' 46"
1st Eeduction + 34' 14" 2nd
M. T.
5" Lat. 39 20' 0" S.
Eeduction
Answer.
23''
23 42=
T.
7.
1898, July 4th, in Lat. D. E. 52 12' N. Long. 17 18'
when a watch showed
11'' 47'" 35=,
whose error on A. T.
S.
W,
had
;;;
EXERCISES
been found to be
WbN
fast
16^,
when
since
60
Obs. Alt.
39',
(true)
323
5'
the Ship had run

10" (bearing South),
I. E. +1' 10", Height of Eye 20 feet.

Eequired the Lat. by
Eeduction to the Meridian.
Answer. A. T. S. 3rd 28^ 40" 11^ A. T. a. 4th 0^ 49"' 23^
Dec. 22 51' 53" N
Tr. Alt. 60 17' 12"
1st Eeduction
+ 14' 48" 2nd Eeduction 3" Lat. 52 19' 56" N.
;
8. 1898, August 24th, in

Lat. D. E. 49 16' S, Long.
100 12' B, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the 23rd
18h ym 26s, whose error on M. T. G. was slow 6-" 19^ the Obs.
Alt.
was 28 12' 0" (bearing North), I. B. -1' 20", Height
of
Eye 14
feet.
Eequired the Latitude by Eeduction to the
Meridian.
Ansiver.
M. T. G. 23rd 18" 13 45>' A. T. S. 24th 0" 52" 18^
Dec. 11 6' 4"N B. T. 2 15-11'
from M. T.
Tr. Alt.
28 21' 10" 1st Eedaction + 1 5' 40"
21"
2nd Eeduction
;
Lat. 49 27' 27".

9. 1898, September 20th, in Lat. D. E. 41 40' S, Long.
17''
Alt.
38" 24^ whose error on M. T. G. was slow 1" 26^ the Obs.
was 46 49' 0" (bearing North), I. E. +1' 30", Height of
Eye 26
feet.
Meridian.
T. G. 19th 17" 39" 50
A. T. S. 19th
Dec. 1 5' 7-4" N E. T. 6" 34-13^ + to M. T.
47 0' 41" 1st Eeduction +36' 30" 2nd Eeduction
M.
Answer.
23" 28" 8'
Tr. Alt.
-13";
Lat. 41 17'55"S.
10. 1898,
October 9th, in Lat. D. E. 47 58' N., Long. 48 15'
Time by a watch was on the 9th 0" 44" 44', whose

error on A. T. S. had been found to be fast 7" 10', since when
the Ship had run N 79 E (true) 38', the Obs. Alt. Q was
34 27' 10" (bearing South), I. E. +40", Height of Eye 16 feet.
when
the

Ansiver.
A. T. S. 9th 0" 41" 18' A. T. G. 9th 3" 54" 18'
Tr. Alt. 34 38' 42"
Dec. 6 26' 22" S
1st Eeduction
+ 45' 32" 2nd Eeduction -13" Lat. 48 9' 37" N.
;
11. 1898,
46
8'
November 5th, in Lat. D. E. 51 18' N, Long.

the Time by a Chronometer was on the 5th
W, when
Y 2
;;;
EXERCISES
324
15" 50^ whose error on M. T. G. was fast 8" 19^ the Obs.
was 22 18' 0" (bearing South), I. E. -1' 20", Height of
Eye 22 feet. Eequired the Latitude by Eeduotion to the
2'^
Alt. 32
Meridian.
Ansiver.
M. T. G. 5th 2^ 7"" 31' A. T. S. 4th 2S^ 19"^ 16^
Tr. Alt.
Dec. 15 48' 44-13" S E. T. IG-" 17-26^ + to M. T.
5"
22 26' 5"
2nd Reduction
1st Eeduction + 35' 22"
;
Lat. 51 9' 54" N.

12. 1898, December 8th, in Lat. D. E. 28 10' N, Long
178 49' W, when the Time by a watch was on the 8th 0^ 51" 30^
error on A. T. S. had been found to be fast 6 24S since

the Ship had made 18' Diff. Long, to the Eastward, the
1' 25",
Obs. Alt. -^ was 37 21' 0" (bearing South), I. E.
whose
when
Height
of
Eye
15
Eequired the Latitude by Eeduction to
feet.
the Meridian.
A. T. S. 8th 0^ 46" 18' ; A. T. G. 8th 12^ 41" 34'
3-4" S
22
49'
Dec.
T. A. 37 30' 56"
1st Eeduction +
Answer.
1 13' 8"
2nd Eeduction
- 37"
Lat. 28 27' 30" N.
Ex-Meridians of Moon, Stars, and Planets

1898, January
1.
1st, in
Lat. D. E. 46 30' N, Long. 164 11'
W, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the Isc

M.
T. G., Obs. Alt. Sirius
B. nil. Height of Eye 18

Eeduction to the Meridian.
I.
Eed.
33";
-5"
45',
South),
Eequired the Latitude by
feet.
E. A. Mer. &^
4'
12"
18h 48"
M. T. S. 1st, ll^ 16" 1' E. A. M.
4" 17-9' * H. A. 0^ 36" 23-6' (E) M.
A7iswer.
63
22'^
41' 30" (bearing
was 26
16-9'
Z. D.
+32' 0"; 2nd
;
Tr. Alt. 26 35' 28"; 1st Eed.
Lat. 46 18' 4" N.
2. 1898,
February 18th, in Lat. D. E. 0 12' S, Long.
5"
whose error on M. T. G. was slow 21', Obs. Alt.

was 27 21' 15" (bearing South), I. E. nil. Height of Eye
20 feet. Eequired the Latitude by Eeduction to the Meridian.
Answer. M. T. G. 17th, S* 5" 29' M. T. S. 17th 14^ 58" 9'
21h 50" 26-63' E. A. ^ler. 12h 48> 35-6' * H. A.
E. A. M.
0 27' 37"
M. Z. D. 62 19' 51" * Tr. Alt. 27 15' 2"
2nd Eed. -1" Lat. 0 0' 5" S.
1st Eed. +13' 0"
3''
8',
a Crucis
EXERCISES
325
March 9th, in Lat. D. E. 45 21' N, Long. 11 15' W,

Time by a Chronometer was on the 8th 13'^ 53 46^
whose error on M. T. G. was fast 1" 28% Obs. Alt. ^ was
3.
when
1898,
the
I. E. +20"
Height of Eye 16
40 23' 10" (bearing South)
M.
Answer.
23h
E. A. M.
J E. A.
T. G. 8th, 13^ 52"- 18
7-" 7-39^
llh 42" 9-22=
12h 14" 25-39^
])
H.
J S.
D.
M.
15' 56-16"
T. S. 8th, 13"
;
])
H. P.
7"
feet.
18=
57' 40-15"
E. A. Mer.
J Dec. 2 57' 12-5" S
A. 0'^ 32" 16-17=
M. Z. D. 48 18' 13" ;
;
Tr. Alt. 41 18' 12";
1st
Eed. +32' 0"; 2nd Eed.
-8";
Lat. 45 12' 43" N.
4.
1898, April 10th, in Lat. D. E. 49 35' S, Long. 80 26' E,
when
the Time by a Chronometer was on the 10th 6'^ 6 4=,

whose error on M. T. G. was slow 1" 44% Obs. Alt. Jupiter's
L. L. was 40 12' 0" (bearing North), I. B. -1' 20", Height of
Eye 18 feet. Eequired the Latitude by Eeduction to the
Meridian.
T. G. 10th 6" 7" 48= M. T. S. 10th 11^ 29" 32%
15" 57-34= * E. A. 12h 15" 3-19= * Dec.
0 6' 0-8" N E. A. Mer. 12^ 45" 29-34= * H. A. 0^ 30" 26-15=
M. Z. D. 49 41' 1" * Tr. Alt. 40 5' 44" 1st Eed. +25' 44"
M.
Ansiver.
E. A. M.
1"^
2nd Eed.
5.
when
-5"
1898,
Lat. 49 22' 36" S.
May
14th, in Lat. D. E. 25 24' S, Long. 114 4' E,
Time by a Chronometer was on the 14th 3^ 21" 18=

whose error on M. T. G. was slow 4" 44=, Obs. Alt.
Arcturus was 44 54' 40" (bearing North), I. E. + l' 45", Height
of Eye 26 feet.
the
Meridian.
Answer. M. T. G. 14th 3" 26" 2= M. T. S. 14th ll^ 2" 18=

E. A. Mer. 14^ 31" 51-65=
M. Z. D.
* H. A. 0^ 20" 48=
45 6' 33"
* Tr. Alt. 44 50' 28" 1st Eed. +16' 58" 2nd
Eed. -3" Lat. 25 10' 4" S.
;
6.
when
1898, June 22nd, in Lat. D. E. 50 21' S, Long. 92 32'
W,
Time by a Chronometer was on the 21st 19^ 26" 10=,

whose error on M. T. G. was fast 8" 1=, Obs. Alt. of
Canopus, near the Meridian under the South Pole, was
the
;;
EXERCISES
326
13 24' 50",
I.
E. +1' 45", Height of
Eye 14
Eequired the
feet.
Latitude by Eeduotion to the Meridian.
M. T. G. 21st ig^^ 18-" 9^ M. T. S. 21st ISh 8 1^

10^ 0-23^
19^
M. Z. D.
* H. A. 12" 48-" 20=
E. A. Mer.
16"
13
18'
58"
2nd
Eed.-30'
102 59' 25"
Alt.
1st
Tr.
*
Ansioer.
+2"
Eed.
7.
P. D. 37 21' 35"
Lat. 50 10' 19" S.
1898, July 12th, in Lat. D. E. 39 12' S, Long. 151 18' E,
Time by a Chronometer was on the 11th 9*^ 10 26=,

whose error on M. T. G. was slow 8 37=, Obs. Alt. JL was
31 11' 10" (bearing North), I. E. -1' 55", Height of Eye
when
the
Eequired the Latitude by Eeduotion to the Meridian.

M. T. G. 11th 9^- ig-" 3= M. T. S. 11th ig^ 24" 15=
7h 19-^ 11-98=
15' 15-68"
]) S. D.
E. A. M.
J H. P. 55' 21"
E. A. Mer.
J Dec. 17 26' 26" N
J E. A. V' 57' 21-52=
2h 43m 27=
M. Z. D. 56 38' 26"
J H. A. 0'' 46"' 5-5=
2nd Eed -21"
1st Eed. +1 V 20"
J Tr. Alt. 32 5' 4"
28
feet.
Answer.
Lat. 39 27' 31" S.
8.
1898, August 6th, in Lat. D. E. 49 31' S, Long. 95 18'
W,
Time by a Chronometer was on the 6th 14'' 2"" 20=,

whose error on M. T. G. was fast 1"" 28=, Obs. Alt. Saturn's
L. L. was 59 53' 10" (bearing North), I. E. 1' 50", Height
Eequired the Latitude by Eeduotion to the
of Eye 19 feet.
when
the
Meridian.
A7iswer.
M. T. G. 6th 14" 0' 52= ;M. T. S. 6th 7" 39" 40=
M. Z. D.
* H. A. 0'' 25'" 51-44=
E. A. Mer. 16*' 42-" 8-74=
29 57' 27"
* Tr. Alt. 59 46' 39" ; 1st Eed. +26' 46" 2nd
;
Eed.
9.
-11"
Lat. 49 20' 19" S.
1898, September 21st, in Lat. D. E. 36 57' N, Long.
28 17'
13''
2'
W, when
28=,
Obs. Alt. of
the Time by a Chronometer was on the 21st

whose error on M. T. G. was slow 13-" 50=,
Fomalhaut (bearing South), was 22 15' 10", I. E.
+ 2' 20", Height of Eye 16 feet. Eequired the Latitude by

Eeduotion to the Meridian.
Answer. M. T G. 21st 13" 16-" 18=; M. T. S. 21st
11" 23'" 10=; E. A. Mer. 23" 26'" 52-9=; * H. A. 0" 34'" 47-1 W;
M. Z. D. 67 6' 22"; * Tr.Alt. 22 11' 16"; 1st Eed. +29' 39";
2nd Eed. -3" Lat. 37 9' 46" N.
;
;
;
EXEECISES
10. 1898, Oct. 25th, in Lat.
327
D. E. 45 28'
8,
Long. 53
Time by a Chronometer was on the 26th

whose error on M. T. G. was slow 3 9", Obs.
when
42 44' 30" (bearing North),
I.
48'
W,
42 18%
11*'
the
was
Bye 22 feet.
Alt. JL
E. +3' 40", Height of
Kequired the Latitude by Eeduction to the Meridian.

Answer. M. T. G. 25th llh 45 27^; M. T. S. 25th
8h iQm 15s E. A. Mer. 22h 27 45-82^
J S.-D. 16' 1-36"
0' 0-7" N
]) Dec. 0
D H. P. 57' 55-98"
J E. A. 23^ 12 44-13
.
H. A. Qh 44 58-31^ (E) M. Z. D. 45 28' 0"

J Tr. Alt.
43 40' 46"; 1st Eed. +1 4' 55"; 2nd Eed. -36"; Lat.
J
45 14' 54" S.
November 19th, in Lat. D. E. 52 30' N, Long.

when the Time by a Chronometer was on the 18th
11. 1898,
154 14' E,
6h 10 12%
whose error on M. T. G. was fast 2 38%- Obs.

Mars L. L. was 58 18' 20" (bearing South), I. B. -1' 32",
Height of Eye 29 feet. Eequired the Latitude by Eeduction to
Alt.
the Meridian.
Anstver.
M. T. G. 18th 6'^ 7 34^ ; M. T. S. 18th 16" 24 30'
15" 51 12-64^
E. A. M.
* E. A. 8^ 35 40'45^ * Dec.
20 47' 15-4" N
E. A. Mer. 8" 15 42-64'
* H.A.
0 19' 58" (B)
M. Z. D. 31 42' 45" ; * Tr. Alt. 68 11' 7"
-
1st
Eed. +14' 7"

12. 1898,
2nd Eed.
-3"
Lat. 52 22' 4" N.
Dee. 18th, a.m. at ship, in Lat. D. E. 60 22'
Long. 64 8' E, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the

17th 9'' 28 10% whose error on M. T. G. was fast 1 30%
Obs. Alt. of Vega near the Meridian under the North Pole was
9 39' 0", I. B. +2' 0", Height of Eye 17 feet.
Eequired the
Latitude by Eeduction to the Meridian.
M. T. G. 17th 9^ 26 40'; M. T. S. 17th

17^^ 46 5-53'
E. A. Mer. 7^ 29 17-53'
E. A. M.
* H. A. 12h 55 47-55' M. Z. D. 80 56' 34" * Tr. Alt.
9 31' 31"
1st Eed. -0 39' 37"
2nd Eed. + 3" ; Lat.
Answer.
13'>
43
12'
60 10' 25" N.
to
Taking into consideration Planets' Semi-Diameters, working

Second Differences and wiore than one decimal place are all
useless in actual
work ; but in
exercises it is as well to
make
use of them. No one can observe with a sextant to such accuracy

as to distinguish the Upper or Loiuer Limb, or the near or far
EXEKCISES
328
of a Planet; but the Semi-Diameter of a Planet may

to 30", and should always be applied in correcting the
Limb
amount
it viay make difference enough to throw

your answer outside tlie limits allowed by the Board of Trade
Examiners, as may also possibly happen through neglecting
Second Differences.
Distance in a Lunar, as
Sumner Problems
and uncertain of
M. T. G.
19" and again p.m.
1898, January 10th, a.m. at Ship, at sea
1.
my position, when
on the 9th 22h 15^ 48^ Obs. Alt. 5 37'

when the same Chronometer (corrected) indicated
M. T. G. on the 10th 2h 44-" 8S Obs. Alt. i 14 45' 33" Height
1' 25"
of Eye at each Observation 28 feet, and I. E.
the
Ship made 28 miles on a True S 22
Course during the
interval between the Observations.
Eequired the Line of Position when the 1st Altitude was observed, and the True Bearing
of the Sun and the position of the Ship when the 2nd Altitude
was observed by Sumner's method by projection on the Chart,
assuming Latitudes 51 40' and 51 10' N.
Answer. At 1st Observation
Dec. 21 55' 30" S E. T.
7m 49-83 + to A. T.
Tr. Alt. 5 38' 13"
A. T. S. (usmg Lat.
51 40') 9th 20h 51" 18^ (using Lat. 51 10') 9th, 20" 47"' 55^2nd Observation
Dec. 21 53' 47" S E. T. 7 54-3= + to
;
the same day,
A. T.
1"
Tr. Alt. 14 51' 49"
9 445^ (using Lat. 51
A. T. S. (using Lat. 51 40') 10th
10')
10th l^ 19" 40^
Positions of
.
(5140'0"N
,5110' 0"
I1910'0"W 120 0' 45"
,5]40'
0"
^12137'22"W
j5110' 0"
-^119
8'30"W
True Position of Ship at time

51 13' 30" X
Lat.
of 2nd Observation
\ Long. 19 27' 30"
Line of Position at time of 1st Observation N 47 E and
(
S 47
W.
-.
Sun's True Azimuth at time of 2nd Observation S 18

2.
of
W.
1898, February 16th, a.m. at Ship, at sea and uncertain
my position, when a Chronometer (corrected) indicated M. T. G.
on the 16th 21' 54' 32^ Obs. Alt.

was 21 53' 21" and again
same day, when the same Chronometer (corrected) in;
A.M. the
EXERCISES
329
was
on the 16th 6^ Si"" 8^ Obs. Alt.
Height of Eye at each Observation was 25 feet,
the Ship made 34 miles on
and the I. E. + 1' 15"
62
in
the
interval between the ObservaCourse
E
a True N
Eequired the Line of Position when the 1st Altitude
tions.
was observed, and the True Bearing of the Sun and the
place of the Ship when the 2nd Altitude was observed by
Sumner's method by projection on the Chart, assuming LatiM.
dicated
51 29' 29"
T. G.
tudes 49 and 48 20'
S.
Dec. 12 10' 28" S E. T.

At 1st Observation
Ansiuer.
14m 15s + to A. T.
Tr. Alt. 22 3' 42"
A. T. S. (using Lat.
49) 15th 19h 18"' 54^ (using Lat. 48 20') 15th 19" IS-" 25-6.
:
At 2nd Observation
A. T.
231^ 9'
Dec. 12
Tr. Alt. 51 41' 22"
55^ (using Lat. 48
20')
20" S
7'
E. T. 14'" 14=
to
A. T. S. (using Lat. 49) 15th
15th 22" 59-"
57.
Positions of
.1 49 0' 0"S
1110 20' 45"
4820' 0" S
1110 27' 51"
T,|
-^
True Position of Ship

of 2nd Observation
at
pj 49" 0' 0" S

^ 1 10729' 45"
time
at time of 1st
Line of Position
0" S
Long. 109 39' 30"
Lat.
4820' 0" S
(109 69' 15"
^j
48= 25'
Observation
W and
6^
S 6i E.
Tme
Bearing
of
the
Sun
at
2nd Observation
time of
22 E.
3.
March 19th, p.m. at Ship, at sea and uncertain

when a Chronometer (corrected) indicated M.
1898,
position,
of
my
T. G.
was 37 9' 47" and

same Chronometer (corrected)
indicated M. T. G. on the 19th 17" 1"" ll^ Obs. Alt. _ was
10 43' 30"
Height of Eye at each Observation was
the Ship made 24 miles
22 feet, and the I. B. 1' 25"
on the 19th, 13"
19"' 475^ Obs. Alt.
when
again p.m. at Ship,
the
Course in the interval between the Observaon a True S 73

Eequired the Line of Position when the 1st Altitude
tions.
was observed, and the True Bearing of the Sun and the place of
the Ship when the 2nd Altitude was observed by Sumner's
method by projection on the Chart, assuming Latitudes 49 40'
and 50
10'
Answer.
7-"
N.
At
1st Observation
39-5= 4- to A. T.
Dec. 0 12' 37" S
Tr. Alt. 37 18' 42"
E. T.
A. T. S. (using
;
)
EXERCISES
330
49 40') 19th Ih IQm 13^, (using Lat. 50 10') 19th

Ih 12m 16s. At 2nd Observation ODec. 0 8' 58" S E.T. T^ 36-7^
Lat.
A. T. S. (using Lat. 49 40')

19th 4h SI"! 52^ (using Lat. 50 10') 19th 4^ 51' 7-5^
to A. T.
Tr. Alt. 10 48' 48"
Positions of
,j 49 40'
0"N
178 13' 47"
-p.
5010'0"N
"U7958'0"W
49 40' 0"
179 34' 27"
N (
E
-^
50
True Position of Ship at time j Lat.
of 2nd Observation
t Long. 179
Line of Position at time of 1st Observation
.
S 66 E.
True Bearing
S 77 W.
the
of
Sun
30"
26' 0"
3'
66
N
E
W and
2nd Observation
time of
at
50 10' 0"
179 23' 24"
and uncertain of my
M. T. G. on
the 25th 22i> 12"! 32% Obs. Alt. Q was 20 38' 26"
and
again p.m. at Ship, when the same Chronometer (corrected) indicated on the 26th 4" 15' 22-5% Obs. Alt. Q was 4 14' 25"
Height of Eye at each Observation was 34 feet, and the
I. E. -4' 10"; the Ship made 29 miles on a True N 49 E
Course, in the interval between the Observations. Eequired
the Line of Position when the 1st Altitude was observed, and
the True Bearing of the Sun and the place of the Ship when the
2nd Altitude was observed by Sumner's method by projection
on the Chart, assuming Latitudes^51 30' and 52 S.
Answer. At 1st Observation :' Dec. 13 35' 20" N E. T.
2m 18s _ A. T. Tr. Alt. 20 42' 5" A. T. S. (using Lat. 51 30
4.
1898, April 26th, a.m. at Ship, at sea
position,
when
Chronometer
(corrected) indicated
22"
25th
32%
At 2nd Observation
(using
lO-"
52)
Lat.
22" 16'" 40-5'.
25th
Dec. 13 40' 11"
E. T.
2- 20-5^
;
-A. T.
4" 19'" 20% (using Lat. 52) 26th 4" 17"" 35-5^
;
,(51
^1
30'
4'
Tr. Alt. 4 8' 41"
0" S
28"
p.
52
0'
A. T. S. (using Lat. 51 30') 26th
Positions of
0"S p(5130'
027'37"E
0" S
0 24' 16"
ni^^"*''
1
1'
"" ^
52"
True Position of Ship at time j Lat. 51 29' 0" S

0 25' 0" E
of 2nd Observation
\ Long.
and
Line of Position at time of 1st Observation N 62
.
S 62 E.
True Bearing
61
W.
of
the
Sun
at
time
of
2nd Observation
EXERCISES
5.
1898,
position,
May
when
1st, a. m. at
3.31
Ship, at sea
and uncertain
my
of
a Chronometer (corrected) indicated on the 30th
gh iQm io-5s^ Obs. Alt.
was 12 52' 30" and again a.m at

when the same Chronometer (corrected) indicated on the
30th 10" 55"> 32^ Obs. Alt. Li was 54 44' 50"
Height of
Eye at each Observation was 16 feet, and the I. E. + 2' 30" the
;
Ship,
Ship made 36 miles on a True N 82 E Course in the interval

between the Observations. Eequired the Line of Position when
the 1st Altitude was observed, and the True Bearing of the
Sun and the
when
place of the Ship
the 2nd Altitude was
observed by Sumner's method by projection on the Chart, assuming Latitudes 47 30' and 48 N.
Answer. 1st Observation
Dec. 14 56' 39" N E. T.
;
2-n
56-5^
- A.
T.
Tr. Alt. 13
6"
3'
A. T. S. (using Lat.
47 30') 30th 18^ 12'" 32-5', (using Lat. 48) 30th
18'^ 12'"
Dec. 15 0' 16" N E. T. 2 SB-*

Tr. Alt. 54 68' 44"; A. T. S. (using Lat. 47
22h 57 l^ (using Lat. 48) 30th 23^ 3 10^
2nd Observation
- A.
30')
7-5^
T.
30th
Positions of
,
47 30' 0"N
ll79.'^l'22"E
r
48
0'
0"

of 2nd Observation
Line
of Position
S Ih" E.
True Bearing
S 26 E.
47 30'
0"
117845'9"E ^ 1179 37'39"E
of
at
at
time
the
Sun
at
Lat. 47 51'
JLong. 179
time of 1st Observation
time
of
48 0' 0"
178 50' 0"
N
19'
W
W
7^
and
2nd Observation
June 20th p.m. at Ship, at sea, and uncertain of my

a Chronometer (corrected) indicated M. T. G. on
the 19th 13h 38'" 12^ the Obs. Alt. ki^ was 59 34' 14"
and
again p.m. at Ship, when the same Chronometer (corrected) indicated M. T. G. on the 19th 19^ 9-" OS the Obs. Alt. Li. was
10 3' 50"; Height of Eye at each Observation 21 feet,
I. E. + V 20"
the Ship made 25 miles on a S 37
Course
(True) in the interval between the Observations.
Eequired the
Line of Position when the 1st Altitude was taken, and the
True Bearing of the Sun and the place of the Ship when the
2nd Altitude was observed, by Sumner's method by projection
on the Chart, assuming Latitudes 49 and 49 30' N.
6.
1898,
position,
when
332
EXERCISES
Anstver.
1^
12^
1st Observation
to A. T.
N E
Dec. 23 26' 48"
Tr. Alt. 59 46' 22"
T.
(using Lat. 49)
A' T. S.
20th l" 22-" 2^ (using Lat. 49 30') 20th l^ IS'" 12^ 2nd ObserDee. 23 26' 55" N E. T. 1" 15' + to A. T.
Tr. Alt, 10 11' 28"
A. T. S. (using Lat. 49) 20th 6'' 47" 19^
vation
(using Lat. 49 30') 20th 6" 48' 42^
Positions of
.
49
0"N
0'
'*-ll7615'30"E
, 49 0' 0"N t. 49
Û75'18'0"E ^1174 53' 30" E " 1 175
-p.
4930'0"N

of 2nd Observation
Line of Position
S 51 E.
True Bearing
651
at time
.
Sun
the
at
0"
15"
30'
14'
Lat. 49 7' 40" N

(Long. 174 59' 0"
N
E
time of 1st Observation
at
of
W and
51
time of 2nd Observation
w.
Latitude by Altitude of Pole Star
M.
1.
1898, January 4th, in Long. 29 14'
T.
S.,
Height
the Obs. Alt. of Polaris
of
Eye 19
2nd
t-
51"
3rd
March
1898,
2.
1'
W,
at
9,^
28' 20", I.
E.
10"
a.m.
10",
2'
Required the Latitude.
feet.
Time 18^ 55"
Sidereal
Aiisiver.
was 47
10"
9-9'
1st Corr.
23"
8'
10;h, in Long. 162 14' E, at 9^
20"
was 37
p.m.
49' 10", I.
E.
3' 5'',
Height of Eye 27 feet. Eequired the Latitude.

Answer. Sidereal Time 8^ 42" 53-8 1st Corr.
2nd + 31" 3rd + 58" Latitude 38 12' 17" N.
25'
52"
A. T.
S.,
the Obs. Alt. of Polaris
3. 1898, May 1st, in Long. 15 44' E, when the M. T. G. by

Chronometer was on April 30th 14'' 28" 12', the Obs. Alt. of
1' 20", Height of Eye 23 feet.
Polaris was 33 10' 50", I. E.
Aimver. Sidereal Time 18" 7" IS^'' 1st Coit. + 23' 23"
2nd
4.
M.
28"
1898,
3rd
0"
1'
July 9th, in Long. 148 37'
T. S., the Obs. Alt. of Polaris
Height of Eye 12
2nd
58"
feet.
Sidereal
Aiiswer.
;
3rd
1'
was 56
W,
at 10"
18' 50", I.
E.
20"
p.m.
-f 0'
40",
Time 11^ 33"

21"
6-5=
1st Corr.
83'
33"
EXERCISES
5.
1898, September 20th, in Long. 77 E, at 3.30 a.m. A. T.
the Obs. Alt. of Polaris was 11
Eye 16
2"
Sidereal
3rd
20",
9'
E.
I.
Height
1' -50",
S.,
of
feet.
Ansu-er.
2nd
333
43"
Time
3^ 18"" 52-8
1st Corr.
4'
26"
6. 1898, November 5th, in Long. 46 10' W, when M. T. G. by

Chronometer was on November 5th 9'^ 18 14=, the Obs. Alt. of
was 29
Polaris
19' 30", I. E.
2'
Height
0",
of
Eye 20
feet.

Answer.
+ 20"
2nd
Sidereal
;
3rd
1'
Time 21h 14"

42"
2-7=
1st Corr.
Latitude by Mep:dian Altitude of the

1.
1898, February 7th, in Long. 110
was 47
22' 20", bearing
17
feet.
North,
I.
Moon
the Obs. Mer. Alt. 1.

15", Height of Eye
9'
2.
1"
M. T. G. 6th 19^ 56'4" S. D. 15' 29"; H. P.

Dec. 10 46' 25" N App. Alt. 47 32' 32"
Tr. Alt.
30" Latitude 31 4' 5" S.
3"
48
W,
- 1'
E.
Ansiver.
56'
35'
1898, April 13th, in Long, 175 E, the Obs. Mer. Alt. 1_

58' 40", bearing South, I. E. + 1' 25", Height of Eye
was 66
21
feet.
Answer. M. T. G. 12th 5^ iS'S-" S. D. 16' 27-7" H. P.

59' 20"
Dec. 23 52' 35" S
App. Alt. 67 12' 4" Tr. Alt.
67 34' 40"
;
3.
June 22nd,
1898,
in
Long. 17
was 64
49' 10", bearing South, I.
25
feet.
E.
W,
the Obs. Mer. Alt.
2'
15", Height of
Eye
Answer. M. T. G. 22nd 3^ 47-8"' S. D. 15' 3-8" H. P.

54' 19" Dec. 16 9' 55-8" N
App. Alt. 64 26' 57" Tr. Alt.
64 49' 56" Latitude 41 20' 0" N.
;
4.
20
W,
1898, August 25th, in Long. 47"
was 26
feet.
33' 30",
bearing South,
I.
E.
the Obs. Mer. Alt.
3'
10", Height of
5.
Eye
M. T. G. 25th 9" SI'S S. D. 16' 19'8" H. P.

Dec. 25 21' 34" S App. Alt. 26 48' 36" Tr. Alt.
27 39' 38"
Answer.
59' 17-4"
EXERCISES
334
5.
1898, October 28th,. in Long. 145
was 71
28
14' 20", bearing South,
M.
Ansiuer.
56' 19-3"
7'
6.
feet.
T. G. 28th 21h 11-6"
Dec. 17 21' 38-3"
17"
the Obs. Mer. Alt.

25", Height of
Eye
App.
S.
Alt.
D. 15' 38"
70 49' 6"
H. P.
Tr. Alt.
1898,
was 65
W,
- 4'
feet.
71
E.
I.
December 25th,
18' 40",
in Long. 81 B, the Obs. Mer. Alt. JL
bearing North,
E.
I.
2'
Eye 14
45", Height of
Answer.
54' 39-5"
65 55' 5"
M. T. G. 25th 4" 46-3' S. D. 15' 8-1" H. P.

Dec. 24 23' 50" N App. Alt. 65 32' 53" Tr. Alt.
;
Lunars
1. 1898, January 15th, at about 8'' lO"" a.m., in Lat. 39 20' S,
Long. D. E. 90 50' B, when a Chronometer showed 2^ 11"" 15',
whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be 5" slow, the Obs.
Alt. .0 was 37 55' 50", I. E. nil. Height of Bye 14 feet;
and the Obs. Dist.
i N. L. was 97 14' 0", I. B. -1' 16".
Eequired the Error of the Chronometer and the Longitude.
Dec.
Answer. M. T. G. by Chron. 14th, 14^ 16 15';
21 8' 32-3" S
19h 38-" 13-89'
12h 57' 48-18'
Sum
73
9-" 35-49'
A. T.
to
E. A.
J H. P. 57' 58-37"
J S.-D. 16' 1-48"
11
50'
59"
Dec.
S
Tr. Alt. 38
D
;
E. T.
23"
9'
M.
20" 20"' 0-5'
T. S. 14th
M. 0;
E. A.
19"
J
7'
H. A.
33"
Â
D
App. Alt. 40 55'

Z. D. 48 21' 45"
])
True Dist. 97 5' 49"
App. Dist. 97 45' 2"
M; T. G. 14th, 14'' 16' 24'* Long. 90 54' 7" E Error of
Chronometer, slow 5- 9' on M. T. G.
Sh 0"" 26'
])
60 20' 59"
2.
1898, February 6th, at about
0*'
45' a.m., in Lat. 45 26'
N,
and Long. D. E. 45 36' W, when a Chronometer showed

3*' 28 30', whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be slow
22"', the Obs. Alt. of Jupiter's L. L. (East of Mer.) was
29 38' 15", and the Obs. Dist. Jupiter and i N. L. was
Eequired the
I. B. nil. Height of Bye 25 feet.
and
the
Longitude.
Chronometer
Error
Answer. M. T. G. by Chron. 5th, 15" 50 30'
* E. A.
21" 5 13-63'
12" 39 12-19' * Dec. 2 37' 12" S E. A. M.
15' 21-18"
D H. P. 55' 23-93"
J E. A. 8" 50 7-29';
J S.-D.
59 26' 45",
of the
;;: ;;
EXERCISES
N *
34"
J Deo. 16 26'
H. A. 21h 14-" 13-5'
;
P 3m 184s
i
;
Sum 83 47' 34"
T. S. 5th, 12^ 48"> 12-1=
z. D. 31 52' 36"
Tr. Alt. 29 31' 56"
M.
335
App.
21"
Alt. 57 38'
H. A.
;
60 25' 58"
App. Dist. 59 42' 25" True Dist. 59 39' 41'5"
M. T. G. 5th, 15h 50>" 13^; Long. 45 30' 15" W; Error of
;
Chronometer, slow 21" 43^ on M. T. G.
March 12th, in Lat. 51 5' N, Long. D. E. 2 25' E,

Time by a Chronometer was on the 11th 16'' 0 0*,
whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be slow 24'*, the Obs.
Alt. of Eegulus (West of Mer.) was 15 2' 20", I. E. nil. Height
of Eye 28 feet, and the Obs. Dist. *
J F. L. was 72 9' 0",
6".
Longitude
and the Error of the
Eequired the
I. B. +1'
3.
when
1898,
the
Chronometer.
T. G. by Chron. 11th, 16'^ 0 24^
* E. A.
23 19' 18-09"
Deo. 12 27' 43-4" N E. A. M.
11-19"
H. P. 58' 52"
5 E. A. 14^ 24 2-37^
J)
J S.-D. 16'
* Tr. Alt. 14 53' 32" ^ Sum
D Deo. 19 30' 23-4" S
71 45' 24"; * H. A. 5" 26 35-5=; M. T. S. 11th, 16i' 10 16-7^
M.
Answer.
10^
2-" 59-3^
1"
H. A.
ZA
32-4^
7"
72
Z. D.
2'
39-5"
;
App. Dist. 71 53' 55"

71 45' 10"
M. T. G. 11th, 16" 0 14^ Long. 2
Error of Chron. slow 14^ on M. T. G.
17
4'
7-5"
60
9'
4.
15
1898, April 17th, at about 2^
Long. D. E. 126
2'
W, when
App. Alt.
True Dist30' 40" E
Ji
28 20' N,
p.m., in Lat.
a Chronometer showed 10" 36 2^
whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be slow 1 46^ the

Obs. Alt. y was 19 0' 10" (West of Mer.), I. E. nil. Height of
N. L. was 36 0' 34",
Eye 17 feet, and the Obs. Dist. J
Eequired the Longitude and the Error of the
I. E. nil.
Chronometer.
Answer. M. T. G. by Chron. 17th, lO" 37 47^
Dec.
E. T. 0 36-88* + to M. T.
E. A. M.
15' 36-46"
S.-D.
} H. P. 56' 49-75"
5
J E. A.
0' 57" N
1
18
40'
30"
23" 25 21-75*
App.
Alt.
Dec.
J
D
10 44' 15-4"
Ih 44m 17.59s.
Tr. Alt. 19 31' 33"
M.
T. S. 17th, 2h
36
5'
Sum
68 25' 18"
H. A.
4fi
33
4*
14 8' A. T. S. 17th, 2" 14 44-9*

Z. D.
App. Alt. 53 54' 40" /_ A, 60 9' 41" App. Dist.
36 32' 7" True Dist. 35 41' 42"
M. T. G. 17th,10h 38 22*
Error of Chronometer on M. T. G. slow
Long. 126 3' 30"
2 20*.
57"
336
EXERCISES
5.
May
1898,
31st, at
about
?>
30^ p.m., in Lat. 24 16'
and Long. D. E. 51 12' E, when a Chronometer showed 4^ Y" 6S

whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be fast i&, the Obs.
Alt. of Venus's L. L. (West of Mer.) was 14 23' 40", I. E. nil,
Height of Eye 21 feet, the Obs. Dist. Venus
N. L. was
99 59' 9", I. E. nil. Eequired the Longitude and the Error of
Chron. on M. T. G.
Ansiver.
M. T. G. by Chron. 31st, 4^ 6" 20=
* Dec.
([
N *
24 43' 21"
E. A. &^ 28' 44-54=
S.-D. 16' 13"
])
H.
D Dec. 11 13' 18" S
J)
H.
39"
A. 5^
23h IS-" 53=

60 25' 44"
21-5=
E. A. M.
P. 58' 32-5"
4^ 36"^ 41-73=
E. A. 12h 52'" 13= ;
])
Tr. Alt. 14 15' 43"
M.
Sum 51 54' 11"
T. S. 31st 7" SI-" 24-3=
H. A.
Z. D. 37 5' 14"
J App. Alt. 52 19' 44"
c A
App. Dist. 100 15' 28" True Dist. 99 55' 58"
M. T. G. 31st 4h 6" 6= Long. 51 20' 35" E Error of Chron.
])
on M. T. G.
6.
fast
June
1898,
W, when
4=.
23rd,
42 10'
Lat.
in
S,
Long. D. E.
Time by a Chronometer was on the 23rd

17'^ 0^ 4=, whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be slow
2^ 10=, the Obs. Alt. JL was 16 19' 10" (West of Mer.), I. E. nil.
P. L. was
Height of Eye 26 feet, and the Obs. Dist. Spica
142 38"
the
])
55 38' 55",
I.
the Chron. on
B.
nil.
M.
Eequired the Longitude, and the Error
of
T. G.
Ansiver.M.. T. G. by Chron. 23rd 17" 2^ 14=; * E. A.

6^ 9"" 30-04=
ig-" 52=
* Dec. 10 38' 4" S E. A. M.
54"> 49-56=
9^
54'
55-69"
5"
15'
A.
E.
H.
P.
S.-D.
J
])
J
4' 56" N;
29'
9
16
15";
Tr. Alt.
Alt.
App.
]>
Dec.
J
J
13'>
Sum 79 16' 50" D H. A. 3" 46 9-5=; M. T. S. 23rd

* H. A. 0^ 21 7-1= * Z. D. 31 52' 9" * App.
26"
App. Dist. 55 23' 50" True
<! A 60 8' 7"
17 18' 45"; i
7h SI-" 29-1=';
Alt. 58 8'
Dist. 54 40'
28"
M.
T. G. 23rd 17^
2"
25=
Error of Chronometer on M. T. G. slow 2
Long. 142 44'
21=.
7. 1898, July 16th, at about 1'^ 22 a.m., in Lat. 76 22' N,

Long. D. E. 150 54' B, when a Chronometer showed 3^ 19 40=,
whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be 1 fast, the Obs.
Alt. 5. (East of Mer.) was 16 36' 20", L E. +1' 10", Height of
Eye 18
40".
the Obs. Dist.

D N. L. was 34 0' 4", I. E.
Eequired the Longitude and the Error of the Chrono-
feet,
meter on M. T. G.
;; ;;;
EXERCISES
337
by Chron. 15th 3 18' 40"

Dec.
B. T. 5^ 43-2^ + to A. T.
E. A. M.
?!> 33"> 59^
D H. P. 53' 52-5"
D S.-D. 14' 49"
J E. A.
9-1"
25
32'
5" g-" 1-6^
N
Dec.
J App. Alt. 16 48' 8"
D
J)
M.
Answer.
T. G.
21 28' 23-7"
Tr. Alt. 17 36' 33"
Sum
T. S. 15th 13h 22"" 18-6'
79 13' 12"
H. A. 15^
47'" 16'
Z. D. 81 30' 51"
App. Alt.
App. Dist. 34 29' 59" Tr. Dist.
34 40' 11"
M. T. G. 15th 3" 18'" 25' Long. 150 58' 24" B
Error of Chronometer on M. T. G. fast 1" 15'.
M.
8 35' 11"
/.
60
8'
5"
8.
August 29th,
1898,
W, when
48
Lat.
in
12'
S; Long. D. E.
Time by a Chronometer was on the 29th

12^ 58 10', whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be slow
l"'20',theObs.Alt. Saturn's L. L.( West of Mer.) was 32 18' 40",
I. B. 3' 20", Height of Eye 20 feet, and the Obs. Dist.
*
Eequired the
i N. L. was 70 17' 49", I. E. +1' 10".
Longitude and the Error of Chronometer on M. T. G.
45 12'
the
T. G. by Chron. 29th 12" 59 30'

* E. A.
Dec. 19 42' 7-3" S E. A. M. 010^ 32 59-44'
E. A. 21^ 12 13-31'
})
D H. P. 60' 1"
D S.-D. 16' 35"
* Tr. Alt. 32 9' 33" ^ Sum 75 19' 43"
i Dec. 13 30' 29-1" S
M.
Ansicer.
16h 17 36-7'
A. 4h 13 36-5'
* H.
23h 18 59-9
T. S. 29th 9^
M.
58 13-8
J)
H. A.
D. 35 43' 11"
J App. Alt. 53 41' 59"
App. Dist. 70 35' 43" True Dist. 70 20' 27"
/_ A 60 26' 51"
M. T. G. 29th 12h 59 19' Long. 45 16' 15"
Error of
J Z.
Chronometer on M.
T. G. slow
9'.
9. 1898, September 4th, in Lat. 25 16' N, Long. D. E.

141 30' W, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the 4th
19h 58 50', whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be fast
34',
1'
J)
3 was 18 6' 40" (Bast

Bye 14 feet, and the Obs.
the Obs. Alt.
50", Height of
F. L.
was 100
0' 3", I.
E.
- 3' 40".
of Mer.) I.
B.
Dist. a Aquilse
Eequired the Longi-
tude and the Error of the Chronometer on M. T. G.
by Chron. 4th 19" 54 16'; * E. A.

10" 57 46-89'
Dec. 8 36' 12" N E. A. M.
E. A. 2" 37 3-43'
J)
J H. P. 55' 54"
J S.-D. 15' 21"
5 Dec. 20 7' 49-8" N
J Tr. Alt.
J App. Alt. 18 16' 30"
M.
Ansiuer.
19" 45 52-2'
T. G.
19
6'
41"
4th 10" 28
VOL.
II.
Sum 57
22'
* Z.
7'
25"
D. 29
H. A. 18" 49 6' M. T. S,
6"
* App. Alt. 60 54' 26"
6'
;;;
:
EXERCISES
338
/
A. 60
13"
9'
App. Dist. 99
T. G. 4th 19h
M.
54"
Chronometer on M. T. G.
41' 2"
True Dist. 98 51' 52'

30"
Error of
Long. 141
25'
4 45^
fast
10. 1898, October 20th, at about 1^ 20"" p.m., in Lat.

51 40' S, Long D. E. 45 20' W, when a Chronometer showed
20 20^ whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be slow

(Bast of Mer.) was 44 46' 0", I. E.
10% the Obs. Alt.
i N. L.
+ 1' 25", Height of Bye 17 feet, and the Obs. Dist.
1' 16".
Eequired the Longitude and
was 67 35' 0", I. E.
411
the Error of Chronometer on
M.
19-4" S
Ansioer.
10 31'
13" 56 34-95
18'^
])
21 43-94
M.
68
6'
15"
19"
8'
20'
19 18=
Sum
30"
H. A. 3'' S 51
1^
34
29=
Z. D.
20th
A. T. S.
Alt. 44 35'
81 25' 52"
56"
,1
Dist. 67 39' 31"
True
Long. 45
slow 20".
App.
Dec.
T. S. 20th Ih
45 24' 57"
T. G.
B. T. 15 11-34^ + to M. T. E. A. M.
5 S.-D. 16' 25"
J E. A.
J H. P. 59' 17-45"
Dec. 23 66' 35-3" S
J)
J App. Alt. 44 26' 56"
Tr. Alt. 45
M.
G. by Chron. 20th 4^ 20 30=;
T.
M.
60 23' 3"
App. Dist.
T. G. 20th 4"
20 40=
Error of Chronometer on M. T. G.
11. 1898, November 25th, at about 2h 20 a.m., in Lat. 3419'

N, Long. D. E. 154 22' B, when a Chronometer showed 4'' 0 10=
whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be 1 15= slow, the
Obs. Alt. JL (West of Mer.) was 14 14' 40", I. B. - 1' 40",
Height
of
was 106
Eye 20
0'
55",
feet,
E.
I.
the Obs. Dist. of Mars
-V
18".
N. L.
Eequired the Longitude, and
C!
the Error of the Chronometer on M. T. G.

T. G. by Chron. 24th 4^ 1 25=; * E. A.
16^ 14 31-24=
Dec. 20 41' 44" N E. A. M.
11 51-98=
S.-D. 15' 29"
H. P. 56' 26-68" J E. A.
])
])
App. Alt. 14 24' 6"
])
5 Tr. Alt.
J Deo. 13 5' 31" N
15 15' 8"; \ Sum 63 14' 18"; J, H. A. 5'> 21 15=;
M.
A^mver.
8h 41 5-48=
18 35= * H. A. 2^ 8 1-5= (E) * Z. D.

Alt. 58 42' 17"
App.
*
App.
z. A 60 7' 17"
True Dist. 105 24' 58" M. T. G. 24th
Dist. 106 15' 11"
41' 1 2=
Long. 164 23' 15" E Error of Chronometer on
M. T. G. slow 62=.
M.
T. S. 24th 14'^
31 18' 14"
;;
,
EXERCISES
339
12. 1898, December 2nd, in Lat. 28 14' N, Long. D. E.

161 26' E, when the Time by a Chronometer was on the Ist
^h
12 4:0^ whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be slow

2 20^ the Obs. Alt. of a Arietis (West of Mer.) was 40 31' 0",
I. E. -l'10",HeightofEye30feet,theObs.Dist. *
E.L.
j)
was 71 33' 58", I. B. 1' 30". Eequired the Longitude and
T. G. by Chron. Ist 2^ 15 0
* E. A.
16" 41 49-67"
Dec. 22 59' 18" N E. A. M.
E. A. 7^ 12 28"*
S.-D. 14' 59"
])
J H. P. 54' 3"
24'
21
39'
56"
40
28"
App.
Alt.
Dec.
N
*
3
* Tr. Alt.
40 23' 21"; i Sum 67 49' 1";
* H. A. 3" 40 4P
2'i
Answer.
1 30-5''
M.
])
M.
13'^'
T. S. 1st
21-8"
H. A. 1^ 30
16-5" (B)
Z.
]>
App. Alt. 68 13' 21" /. A 60 27' 51-5" App.

Dist. 71 17' 29"; True Dist. 70 59' 1"; M. T. G. 1st
2h i5in x^-o-'
Error of Chronometer on M. T. G. slow 2 32-5^
21 27' 0"
Double Altitudes
1.
1898, January 5th, in Lat. D. E. 49 10' N, the following
Observations were taken to determine the Latitude by Double

Altitude
Time
M.
Ship
at
T. G. by Chron.
A.M.
4th
22'^
P.M.
5th
2ii
15
25
O True Bearing
S 37 E
Obs. Alt. 21
9" 40' 40"
13^
15 31' 40"
49-5"
Height of Eye 20 feet Eun of Ship between the

1. E. nil
20'.
Observations S 66
Eequired the Latitude at time of
;
P.M. Observation.
Apparent Interval 4^ 10 32^;
Answer.
Dec.
1st Obs.
22 35' 26-4" S; B. T. 5 42-99>*

from
go 47/ 24", Z. D. corrected for run 80 17' 6"
M.
T.,
Tr.
Alt.
2nd Obs. Dec.

from M. T., Tr. Alt.
;
22
34'
14-1"
15 40' 22", Z. D.
PXY
p X z
or
5 47-64^
7'
38"
54";
x y or Arc.
zxYor
IV. 25 35' 42"

Arc.
;
T.
74 19'
or Arc. II. 103
40 53' 42"
2.
E.
I.
57 21' 40"
Arc. III." 77 32' 12";
and p
or
Colatitude
1898, February 24th, in Lat. D. E. 47 45' S, the following
EXEECISES
340

Altitude
Time
M.
at Ship
T. G. by Chron.
A.M.
23rd
10'^
A.M.
23rd
14'^
E.
I.
2'
20"
the Observations
Height
Obs. Alt.
29" 55^
19" 57^
72
of
True Bearing
N 85 E
17 17' 40"
48 41' 50"
Eun of Ship between

Eequired the Latitude at the
Eye 28 feet
42'.
time of the Second Observation.

1st Obs.
Dec.
Apparent Interval 3'^ 50" 3*^
47" S
Tr. Alt.
E. T. 13" 27-19'
from M. T.,
17 28' 9", Z. D. corrected for run 73 10' 33" 2nd Obs. 0Dec.
9 29' 15" S, E. T. 13" 25-76
from M. T.,
Tr. Alt.
Ansiver.
9 32'
48 54' 27", Z. D. 41 5' 33" x y or Arc. I. 56 38' 56" ; p x t

or Arc. II. 84 52' 11"
z x y or Arc. III. 41 57' 50"
p xz
or Arc. IV. 42 54' 21"
p z or Colat. 42 19' 7" Latitude
47 40' 53' S.
;
1898,
3.
March
20th, in Lat. D. E. 34 N, the following

Altitude
Time
P.M.
M. T. G. by Chron.
20th 2h 14" 12
51 47' 34"
P.M.
20th ^^ 11" 00^
11 28' 20"
at Ship
True Bearing
Obs. Alt.
S 29^
I. E. 1' 40"; Height of Eye 21 feet; Eun of the Ship

36'.
between the Observations S 39
Eequired the Latitude
at the time of the Second Observation.
Answer. Apparent Interval 3*" 56" bl^ 1st Obs.
Dec.
0 0' 8-2" N
E. T. 7" 29-82 - from M. T.,
Tr. Alt.
51 56' 50", Z. D. corrected for run 37 27' 37"

2nd Obs.
E. T. 7" 26'86'
from M. T.,
Tr. Alt.
Dec. 0 4' 3"
;
11 33' 53",
Z. D. 78 26' 7"
p Y X or Arc.
IL 90
2'
16"
p Y z or Arc. IV. 55 14' 37"

33 58' 10" N.
x y or Arc. I. 59
y x or Arc. III. 34
p z or Colat. 56
1'
50"
12'
45"
47'
39"
Latitude
4. 1898, April 10th, in Lat. D. E. 52 20' N, the following

Altitude
Time
at
Ship
M.
T, G.
by Chron.
Obs. Alt.
A.M.
10th 4h 52" 50'
7 51' 30''
A.M.
10th
10" 35'
41 27' 50"
9'^
True Bearing
N 87 E
EXERCISES
341
B. +2' 20"; Height of Eye 16 feet; Eun of the Ship

32'.
Eequiredthe Latitude
between the Observations, S 81
I.
Second Observation.
Answer. Apparent Interval 4^ 17 48= 1st Obs.
Dec.
8 8' 8" N E. T. l-" 12-44' - from M. T.,
Tr. Alt. 7 59' 38",
Z. D. corrected or run 82 32' 10" 2nd Obs. 0Dec. 8 12' 5-4" N
B. T. 1 9-53^ - from M. T.,
Tr. Alt. 41 41' 18", Z. D.
48 18' 42"
63
43' 7"
X Y or Arc. I.
p x y or Arc. II.
84 49' 44'
z x y or Arc. III. 46 53' 28"
p x z or Arc. IV.
37 56' 16"
p z or Colat. 37 34' 46"
at the time of the
1898,
5.
May
27th, in Lat. D. R. 29 45' S, the following
Observations were taljen to determine the Latitude by Double

Altitude
Time
M. T. G. by Chron.
at Ship
True Bearing
N 48 E
Obs. Alt.
A.M.
26th 14" 39-" 11'
20 45' 50"
P.M.
26th 19" 30 53'
33 29' 44"
Height of Eye 30 feet; Eun of the Ship

I. E. -1' 25"
30'. Eequired the Latitude
between the Observations, N 40
Anstoer.
Apparent Interval 4" 51 4G'6' 1st Obs.
Dec.
21 17' 6-2" N
E. T. 3 7-13' + to M. T.,
Tr. Alt.
;
20 52' 31", Z.
D.
Dec. 21 19' 11"
corrected for run 69
6'
17"
2nd Obs.
Tr. Alt.
B. T. 3-" 573' + to M. T.,
33 37' 27", Z. D. 56 22' 33"
x y or Arc. I. 67 14' 10"
p X Y or Arc. II. 105 3' 2" z x y or Arc. III. 61 8' 44"
p X z or Arc. IV. 43 54' 18" p z or Colat. 60 9' 3" Latitude
;
29 50' 57" S.
6.
1898,
June
14th, in Lat. D. E. 47
vations were taken to

Altitude
Time
at Ship
determine the
N, the following ObserLatitude
by Double
EXERCISES
342

2nd Obs.
from M. T.,
Dec. 23 18' 10-3"
E. T. 0 3-65^
;
Tr. Alt. 18 5' 54", Z. D. 71 54' 6"
PYX
or
or Arc. II. 75 57' 0"
Arc. IV. 45 50' 0"
zyx
x y or Arc.
p z or Colat. 43
I.
58 50' 45"
or Arc. III. 30
1'
0"
7'
3"
pyz
Latitude
46 58' 67" N.
1898, July 4th, in Lat. D. E. 41
7.
6' S,
the following

Altitude
Time
Ship
at
M. T. G. by Chronometer
A.M.
3rd 14^ 17"^
0^
P.M.
3rd
19i> 18"^
58^
Obs. Alt.
21
9'
True Bearing
"2^
N 26 E
10"
11 10' 50"
-r
30"; Height of Bye 22 feet; Eun of the Ship

I. E.
between the Observations N 60 E 28'. Eequired the Latitude
Ansioer.
Apparent Interval 5*^ 1"" 55-8*' 1st Obs.
Dec.
22 54' 11-1" N
E. T. 4^ 4-15^ - from M. T., Z^ Tr. Alt.
2nd Obs.
;
Dec. 22 51' 6" N E. T. 4"' 6-38'*

from M. T., i Tr. Alt.
11 15' 59", Z. D. 78 44' 1"; xy or Arc I. 68 39' 30";
p Y X or Arc II. 106 47' 0" zyx or Arc III. 70 57' 30" p y z
;
or Arc IV. 35 49' 30"
41
3'
8.
50"
p z or
Colat. 48
56'
10"
Latitude
S.
1898, August 15th, in Lat. D. E. 15 32' S, the following

Altitude
Time
at
Ship
A.M.
14th aSh 10 22-8^
p.m.
15th
LE. r22";
4h
Height
the Observations S 60
6
of
42-4^
7'
il
C-
10"
True Bearing
N 61 E
50 56' 27"
Eye 14 feet; Eun of the Ship between

36'.

Answer. Apparent Interval
13 59' 24-7"
Obs. Alt.
34

4''
E. T. 4 16-73^
56"^ 21-9''
1st Obs.
at the
Dec.
from M. T, ? Tr. Alt.

2nd Obs.
Dec. 13 55' 32" N
E. T. 4>" 14-35^
from M. T.,
Tr. Alt. 51 6' 33", Z. D. 38 53' 27" x y or Arc I. 71 33' 30"
;
EXERCISES
pxYor
Arc
zxy
100 16' 28";
II.
p X z or Arc IV. 60 4' 12"
343
or Arc III. 40 12' 16";
p z or Coiat. 74 24' 20"
Lat.
15 35' 40" S.
1898, September 6th, in Lat. D. E. 41 45' N, the following
9.

Altitude
Time
at
Ship
P.M.
6th
13'> 11-^
7-5
P.M.
6th
161^
29
45-7'^
I.
B.
+ 1' 25"
Height
the Observations
23
of
Obs. Alt.
True Bearing
35"
10 36' 10"
45
S 47
9'
Eye 26 feet Eun

;
of the
Ship between
38'.
W
at the
Answer.
6
Apparent Interval 3'> 18 41^

N E. T. 1 58-53-' + to M.
Tr.
T.,
Dec. 6
5'
13"
E. T. 2
13"
l-3
;
xy
M.
to
Tr. Alt.
T.,
or Arc
Alt.
2nd Obs.
45 21' 4", Z. D. corrected for run 45 13' 38";

10 43' 47", Z. D. 79 16'
Dec.
let Obs.
18-4"
8'
49 22' 10"
z y x or Arc III. 38 33' 40"

p Y X or Arc II. 87 7' 21"
p z or Colat. 48 12' 59"
p Y z or Arc IV. 48 33' 41"
;

10. 1898, October 30th, Lat. D. E. 6 18' S, the following
Altitude
Time
at
Ship
29th
A.M.
30th
P.M.
24"
i^ 54
221^
Obs. Alt.
10-5^
47 38' 10"
47-7^
35 10' 50"
True Bearing
S 76
1' 50"
Height of Eye 18 feet Eun of the Ship
I. E.
between the two Observations West (true) 20'. Eequired the
Latitude at the time of the Second Observation.
Dec.
Answer. Apparent Interval 6^ 30 37-5= 1st Obs.
;
13 52' 18'4" S
E. T.
16
14'65^
to
M.
Dec. 13 57' 37" S
B. T. 16 14-99^
Arc IV. 92
6 15' 2" S.
13'
3";
to
M.
T.,
Alt.
2nd Obs.
Tr. Alt.
x y or Arc I. 93 52' 50 pyx

pyz or
z yx or Arc III. 17 33' 12"
pz or Colat. 83 44' 58"; Latitude
35 19' 47", Z. D. 54 40' 13"

or Arc II. 74 39' 51"
Tr.
T.,
;;
EXERCISES
344
11. 1898,
November
16th,
in
D. E. 32
Lat.
20' S, the
following Observations were taken to determine the Latitude
by Double Altitude
Time
at
Ship
P.M.
P.M.
22'> 43-" 56-5
66 56' 10"
16th
P 36" 12
31 39' 50"
Height of Bye 21 feet

I. E. +
between the two Observations North (true)
30"
1'
Obs. Alt.
15th
True Bearing
S 86
Eun
W
Ship
of the
Eequired the
25'.
Latitude at the time of the First Observation.

Answer. Apparent Interval 2^ 52" Id'' 1st Obs.
Dec.
Tr. Alt.
E. T. 15" 3-5'' + to M. T.,
67 9' 0", Z. D. 22 51' 0"
Dec. 18 50' 47-9" S
2nd Obs.
E. T. 15" 2-12^ + to M. T.,
Tr. Alt. 31 51' 37", Z. D.
p y x or
corrected for run 58 6' 41" x y or Arc I. 40 38' 54"
;
18
49'
O'l"
Arc
II.
82 47' 0"
63
IV.
44";
4'
y x or Arc
III.
19 42' 16"
57
p z or Colat.
41'
p y z or Arc
29"; Latitude
;
32 18' 31" S.
December
12. 1898,
10th,
in
Lat.
D. E. 8 25'
S,
the
following Observations were taken to determine the Latitude by
Double Altitude.
Time
at Ship
M.
26"
9th 16h 28"
P.M.
I.
T. G. by Chronometer
9fch 10"^
A.M.
E. 1' 20"; Height
between the Observations
48 27' 20"
19
39 13' 40"
of
Obs. Alt.
22^
Eye 24
68
32'.
True Bearing
S 64
Eun of the Ship

feet;
at the time of the First Observation.
Dec.
Apparent Interval 6^ 1" 50"; 1st Obs.
Tr. Alt.
S B. T. 7" 11-8'' + to M. T.,
48 36' 40", Z. D. 41 23' 20" 2nd Obs.
Dec. 22 55' 38" S
Tr. Alt. 39 22' 43", Z. D
B. T. 7" 4-93^ + to M. T.,
x y or Arc I. 81 40' 21 pyx or
corrected for run 50 5' 21"
Arc II. 68 34' 64" z y x or Arc III. 29 59' 39" p y z or
Arc IV. 98 34' 33" p z or Colat. 81 41' 9"
Latitude
8 18' 51" S.
Answer.
22
54'
18-2"
EXERCISES
346
Proof of Double Altitudes by Sumner's Method

1. Prove the result of No. 1 Double Altitude by Sumner's
method, using Latitudes 49 and 49 30'.
With
Ansioar.
Lat. 49
49 30'
Interval 4^ 13""
0"
48
Interval of Apparent Timei
between Observations
10
32
Latitude 49
6'
4" N.

method, using Latitudes 33 50' and 34 10'.
With
Ansiuer.
Lat. 33 50'
34 10'
Interval 3^ 55'"
58
44-5'*
31
Interval of Apparent Time]
between Observations
Latitude 33 57' 59"

method, using Latitudes 46 40' and 47 10'.
Answer. With Lat. 46 40' Interval 4'^ 16 21-&
;
47 10';
20
18
40-8
Interval of Apparent Time)
,
.
ri
between
Observations
1,
Latitude 46 68' 40"
Double Chronometer
1. 1898, July 8th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. D. E. 37 32' N, and
Long. D. E. 164 22' E, when a Chronometer (corrected) indicated M. T. G. on the 7th 8^ 59 62^ the Obs. Alt.
was
27 16' 50",
Alt.
I.
T (W
B. 1' 20", and at the same
Meridian) was 24 22'
of
20",
moment
I.
the Obs.
E.
1'
40",
Height of Eye 22 feet.

Eequired the position of the Ship
by the Double Chronometer method.
Answer.
Dec. 22 31' 51" N, B. T. 4 42^ + to A. T.
7'' 3 22-6'';
E. A. M.
A. T. S. 7th 19^ 12" 13' by Sun;
Longitude by Sun 154 15' 45" E
Dec.
D E. A. 22" 42 9'*
3 39' 34 S
68' 46-4"
M. T. S.
}) H. P.
J S.-D. 16' 10-7"
;
'
Longitude by Moon 164

]) True Bearing S 63^
Longitude 154 17' 48" E.
7th 19" 16 34-5^ by
True Bearing
tude 37 20'
Moon
81^
J)
10'
36"
;
Lati-
EXERCISES
346
2. 1898, October 22nd, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. D. E. 47 22' S,

Long. D. E. 9 40' W, when a Chronometer (corrected) indicated M. T. G. on the 22nd 4'' 18 26', the Obs. Alt. ij} was
29
same moment the Obs.
20", and at the
2'
Eequired the position

method.
of the
14
4'
27-7"
Longitude by Sun 9
17
l;Dec.
M.
T.
51'
591
3.
36"
J)
J E.
16'
S.-D.
True Bearing
20" 20'
A.
20";
])
H. P.
10-3'
0"
59'
by Moon
True Bearing
3" 38'" 59-6^ Longitude
Latitude 47 27' 30" S
74
])
Longitude 9 47' 11"
W.
1898, August 19th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. D. E. 50 21' N,
Long. D. E. 141
W, when
20'
a Clrronometer (corrected)
G. on the 18th 23^ 33'" 20^ the Obs. Alt. of

(E of Meridian) was 23 40' 20", and at the same
indicated
Mars
S;
33"
44'
by Moon 22nd
S.
3-5"
38'
of
feet.
E. T. 15'" 29-7'-A. T.
by Sun 22nd S^ 54'" 57-5''
A. T. S.
y (E
Ship by the Double Chronometer
Dee. 11 13' 55" S
Ansiver.
E. A. M.
Alt.
Bye being 18
Meridian) was 45 59' 30", Height of
M.
T.
moment
the Obs. Alt. of Markab (W. of Meridian) was

Eequired the position of
the Ship by the Double Chronometer method.
46"
Markab's E. A.
Markab's H. A.
1" 2 0-5'; Longitude by Markab 140 44' W; Mars' Dec.
22 56' 11-7"; Mars' E. A. 5>' 20'" 47-6'; Mars' H. A.
18" 39"' 0-1'; Longitude by Mars 141 13' 30" W; True
Markab's Dec. 14
Answer.
22" 59"' 44-9^
E. A. M.
39'
9" 51'" 21-46'
True Bearing Mars N 82

Bearing Markab S 25
141 15' 30" W.
50
30'
18"
Longitude
Latitude
N
;
4.
41
November
1898,
22'
30th,
Long. D. E. 78
S,
Lat.
D. E.
a.m.
at
Ship,
in
30'
B,
when
a Chronometer
(corrected) indicated M. T. G. on the 29th 11" 35"' 50', the

Obs. Alt. of Sirius (W. of Meridian) was 47 3' 20", and at the
same moment the Obs. Alt. of Jupiter (B of Meridian) was
23 49' 50", Height of
Eye 17
feet.
the Ship by the Double Chronometer method.

16 34' 32" S;
Sirius' Dec.
Ans2ver.
6"
2h
40"'
16" 35"' 28-7';

M.
Longitude by Sirius 78 24' 0" B
43-7';
44m lis
13" 55'" 5-4'
E.
A.
Jupiter's Dec. 10 36' 27" S
Sirius'
E.
Sirius'
H.
of
A
A
Jupiter's E. A.
Jupiter's
H. A.
EXERCISES
191^
29"
28-5
Longitude by Jupiter 78 18' 45" E True

67
True Bearing Jupiter N 83 B
12" S Longitude 78 19' 54" E.
Bearing Sirius
Latitude 41 29'
September 4th, p.m.

Long. D. E. 39 18'
(corrected) indicated on the 4th
5.
38
moment
W, when
N,
(W
Arcturus
of
in
Ship,
at
1898,
35'
347
55
9'^
D. E.
Lat.
a Chronometer
the
8,
Obs.
Alt.
Meridian) was 34 45' 55", and at the same
the Obs. Alt. Antares
(Wof Meridian) was
20 19' 25",
Eequired the position of the Ship by
Height of Eye 24 feet.

Double Chronometer method.
Answer. Arcturus' E. A. 14^ ll"" 2-5^; Arcturus' Dec.
19 42' 40" N; E. A. M. 10^^ 56'" S'S'*; Arcturus' H. A.
4>' 3" 25-3^
Antares' E. A.
Longitude by Arcturus 39 12' 10"
16h 23"" 12-6^ Antares' Dec. 26 12'' 32" S; Antares' H. A.
Ih 50m 57.4s. Longitude by Antares 39 16' 38" W; True
Bearing Arcturus S 89 W; True Bearing Antares S 34

Latitude 38 32' 40" N Longitude 39 12' 6" W.
6.
21
December
1898,
4' S,
indicated
M.
Achernar
(W
at the
T.
p.m.
14th,
Long. D. E. 171
12' E,
G. on the 13th
was 51
211^
of Meridian)
same moment the Obs.
Ship,
at
when
3'
in
D.
Lat.
E.
Chronometer (corrected)
53>
30",
Alt. Sirius
I.
(E
8^ the Obs. Alt.

E. -2' 20", and
Meridian) was
of
Eye 22
Eequired
by the Double Chronometer method.
Ansicer.
Sirius' E. k'^^ 40 44'' Sirius' Dec. 16 34' 37" S
17" 32 21-9' Sirius, H. A. 20" 10" I'' Longitude by
E. A. M.
Sirius 171 18' 45" E
Achernar's E. A. 1" 33" 59^ Achernar's
Dec. 57 45' 8" S Achernar's H. A. 1" 13" 45^* Longitude by
Achernar 170 33' 30" E True Bearing Sirius S 83 E True
Bearing Achernar S 16
Latitude 21 15' 42" S Longi35 45' 0",
I.
E.
15", Height of
1'
feet.
the position of the Ship
tude 171 17' 14" E.
Double Chronometep with Run

1.
when
1898, January 12th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. D. E. 49 35' N,

21" 34" 30s the Obs. Alt.
was 6 29' 30", Height of Eye
(True) 18 miles, and again
18 feet the Ship then ran S 52
a
A.M. at Ship,
when
the
same Chronometer indicated M.
T. G.
;;
EXERCISES
348
on the 12th 0" 26"^ 9^ the Obs. Alt.

was 18 27' 30".
Eequired the position of the Ship at the time of the Second
Observation by the Double Chronometer method.
Ansiver.
1st Obs.
Dec. 21 36' 45" S E. T. 8^ 36-2 +
;
0T.
A. 6 34' 7"
A. T. S. 11th 20^ 43>"41'
LongiLongitude with run 10 39' 55" W;

True Bearing S 45 E. 2nd Obs.
Dec. 21 35' 34" S
B. T. 8 38-8= + to A. T. 0T. A. 18 36' 59"
A. T. S. 11th
23h 43m 37s Longitude 8 28'
True Bearing S 40 E
True Position, Latitude 49 35' 50" N, Longitude 10 49' 15" W.
to A. T.
2.
when
W;
tude 10 18' 15"
1898, February 26th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. D. E. 41 12' S,
9h 33m 44s_ the Obs. Alt.
Ship then ran
53
Q was 41
M.
T. G. on the 26th
46' 0", I.
E.
1'
15"
the
W (True) 18 miles, and p.m. at Ship, when
the same Chronometer indicated M. T. G. on the 26th

15h 24 58^ the Obs. Alt. Li was 36 24' 40", I. E. -1' 10",
Height
of
Eye 14
feet.
of the
Ship at
the time of the Second Observation by the Double Chronometer
method.
Dec. 8 26' 39-5" S B. T. 12i 58' +
to A.T.;
T. A. 41 58' 45"; A. T. S. 25th 21^ 20" 57-5'
Longitude 179 57' W; Longitude with run 179 44' E
True Bearing N 59 B. 2nd Obs.
Dec. 8 21' 9" S
1st Obs.
Ansiuer.
E. T. 12! 55-9'
3h 11" 32-5'
66
to A. T.
T. A. 36 34' 47"
W;
179 48'
3.
True Position, Latitude 41

55" E.
1898,
March
B
7'
A. T. S. 26th
True Bearing
26" S, Longitude
20th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. D. E. 32 25' N,
a Chronometer (corrected) indicated M. T. G. on the 20th

6" 5\ the Obs. Alt. Q was 18 43' 0" the Ship then ran South
(True) 18 miles, and p.m. at Ship, when the same Chronometer
indicated M. T. G. on the 20th 7*' 57" 48^ the Obs. Alt. iii was
52 31' 40", Height of Bye 22 feet. Eequired the position of
the Ship at the time of taking the Second Observation by the
Double Chronometer problem.
Ansiuer.
1st Obs.
Dec. 0 0' 0"
E. T. 7" 30' + to A. T.
A. T. S. 19th 19 30" 5' Longitude
T. A. 18 51' 52"
97 7' 30"
True Bearing S 77^ E Longitude with run
when
2h
;;
EXERCISES
97
30"
7'
to A. T.
349
Obs. Dec. 0 5' 47"

E. T. 7'" 25-5= +
42'
52
31"
1^ 20^ 57-5''
20th
T. A.
A. T. S.
W. 2nd
Longitude 97
15"
21'
W
;
True Bearing S 34^
Position, Latitude 32 0' N, Longitude 97 9' 20"
True
W.
Error of Chronometer
1. 1898, January 26th, a.m. at Ship, the Start Point bearing
North (true) distant one mile, when the time by a Chronometer
was on the 25th 20^ 48"' 4^ whose Error on M. T. G. was
supposed
I.
E. 1'
to be
26"'
20", Height of
M.
the Chronometer on
T.
Lat. in 50 12' 18"
25th 20" 47""
M.
Eye 19
feet.
15-7''
Q was
9 2' 0",
Eequired the Error
of
T. G.
Dec. 18 39' 32-7" 8
Ansioer.
M.
30 slow, the Obs. Alt.
E. T. 12 48-7^
from
Long, in 3 38' 28"
A. T. S.
;
Error of Chronometer 26"' 29-8^ slow on
T. G.
2.
1898,
March
Leuwin (summit), in
E, bearing S 85 B (true),
18th, p.m. at Ship, C.
Long. 115
Lat. 34 19' S, and
6'
when
the time by a Chronometer was on the

whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be
5"' 1 slow, the Obs. Alt.
was 22 41' 30", I. E. 4 2' 10",
Height of Eye 17 feet. Eequired the Error of the Chronometer
on M. T. G.
Dec. 0 52' 50" S E. T. 8"' 9-7^ + to A. T.
Answer.
distant 15 miles,
17th
20*" 34"' 10,
Lat. in 34 17' 42" S

4''
10"' 20'
3.
Error
1898,
May
of
Long, in 114 47' 54" E A. T. 8. 18th

Chronometer 5"' 8-1' slow on M. T. G.
;
bearing
N 61 W
Cape Charles Lighthouse,

8" N, and Long. 75 53' 12" W,
distant 6 miles, when the time by a
12th, a.m. at Ship,
Chesapeake, in Lat. 37
(true),
7'
Chronometer was on the 12th 0'' 4"' 48^ whose Error on M. T. G.

was
was supposed to be 3 45' fast, the Obs. Alt. of the
22 47' 20", I. E. 1' 40", Height of Bye 15 feet.
Eequired
Answer. Dec. 18 12' 41" N B. T. 3"" 50-3' - from A. T.
A. T. 8. 11th
Long, in 75 46' 42"
Lat. in 37 4' 14" N
19^ !"> 34' Error of Chronometer 3" 67-5' fast on M. T. G.
;
;;
EXERCISES
350
Eprop of Chronometer (Artifleial Horizon)

1.
1898, June 26th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 50 48' 4" N, Long.
the time by a Chronometer was on the 26th

whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be 3 30'
slow, the Obs. Alt. of the Q by artificial Horizon was 34 6' 43",
Esquired the Error of the Chronometer on
I. E. 1' 45".
M. T. G.
1" 5' 59"
W, when
gh 7m 50s_
Ansiver.
Dec. 23 21' 18"
17 14' 51"
E. T. 2
26th
Chronometer on M. T. G. slow 3 262^
T. A.
2.
A. T.
S.
6'>
1898, August 26th, a.m. at Ship, in Lat. 33
71 38' 42"
W, when
38-3'*
14"
to A. T.
Error
53"
1'
the time by a Chronometer
S,
of
Long.
was on the
21 55s whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be

1 10" fast, the Obs. Alt. of the Q by artificial Horizon was
48 7' 3", I. E. + 1' 35".
Eequired the Error of the
26th
Dec. 10 18' 23-3"
Ansiver.
T. A.
Chronometer on M.
3.
E. T. 1 37-6"
24 18' 13"; A. T. S. 25th
1898,
T. G. fast
November
20'^
32
to A. T.
26-9"; Error of
15-7".
5th, p.m. at Ship, in Lat. 25 58'
44"
S,
Long. 32 38' 23" E, when the time by a Chronometer was on

the 5th 2'^ 38 27", whose Error on M. T. G. was supposed to be
7 29" slow, the Obs. Alt. of the
by artificial Horizon was
34
4'
20",
I.
1'
Eequired the Error
50".
of
the
from A. T.
Dec. 15 49' 16" S E. T. 16 17-2"
A. T. S. 5th 5" 12 46" Error of Chrono-
Ansivcr.
T. A. 17 14' 32"
meter on M. T. G. slow 7
28-6".
Error of Chronometer by Equal Altitudes

1
1898, January 10th, in Lat. 23
4'
N, Long. 109
the following Times by Chronometer were noted
when
20'
the
W,
Sun
had Equal Altitudes at the a.m. Sight 4"^ 27 10", at the p.m.
Eequired the Equation of Equal Altitudes,
Sight 10^ 29 30".
the Error of the Chronometer on Mean Time at Place, and on
:
Mean Time
at
Greenwich.
EXERCISES
Interval &' 2^ 20=
Aimoer.
7"
58-9^
of
Chronometer on M.
56-5= fast.
'
2.
to A. T.
Equation
351
Deo. 21 51' 58'7" S
Equal Altitudes
of
4-6
T. S. 7" 20'" 16-5^ fast,
on M, T. G.
W,
1898, April 18th, in Lat. 50 48' N, Long. 1 12'
following Times by Chronometer were noted
when
E. T.
Error
the
the
Sun had
Equal Altitudes at the a.m. Sight 8'> 2 41^ at the p.m. Sight
4h 10 53'. Eequired the Equation of Equal Altitudes, the Error
of the Chronometer on Mean Time at Place, and on Mean
Time at Greenwich.
Interval 8'^ 8" 12=
Dec. 10 56' 0" N E. T.
Ansiuer.
Qm 44-5S _ A. T. Equation of Equal Altitudes 18-3.3' Error
of Chronometer on M. T. S. 7" 13-2= fast, on M. T. G. 2 25-2=
:
fast.
3.
1898. September 5th, in Lat. 48 26' S, Long. 156 18' E,
Times by Chronometer were noted when the Sun

had Equal Altitudes at the a.m. Sight 7'' 16 2=, at the p.m.
Sight 1'^ 34 22^
the Error of the Chronometer on Mean Time at Place, and on
the following
Mean Time
^t
Greenwich.
6'^ 18 20=
0' Dec. 6 30' 22-7" N

E. T.
Equation of Equal Altitudes 19-14= Error
of Chronometer on M. T. S. 1" 33 28-4= slow, on M. T. G.
3h 8m 16-4= slow.
Answer.
1 38-65=
4.
Interval
A. T.
1898,
November
20th, in Lat. 12 18' S, Long. 132 19'
W,
the following Times by Chronometer were noted when the Sun

had Equal Altitudes at the a.m. Sight 4h 52 6=, at the p.m.
:

the Error of the Chronometer on ]SIean Time at Place, and on
Mean Time at Greenwich.
Dec. 19 51' 26" S E. T.
Interval 8" 14 20=
Ansiucr.
14m 5.4s
Equation of Equal Altitudes 0-5= Error of
A. T,
Sight
I'l
26=.
Chronometer on M. T.
S.
2''
46
39-1= slow,
on M.
T. G. 0"
24
4-9=
fast.
5. 1898, January 25th and 26th, in Lat. 29 48' N, Long.
63 49' E, the following Times by Chronometer were noted
when the Star Sirius had Equal Altitudes East of iMeridian at
:
;;
EXERCISES
352
2h
of
7m 26', West of Meridian at 9^ 26" 2^ Eequired the Error

Chronometer on Mean Time at Greenwich.
Ansioer.
Chron. Time of Transit S^ 46 44" Sidereal Time
Greenwich S*- 25'" 25-5" Error on M. T. G. 0^ 18" 26-2^ slow.
;
at
6. 1898, August 10th and llth, in Lat. 40 28' N, Long.

112 17' W, the following Times by Chronometer were noted
Bast of
the Star Eomalhaut had Equal Altitudes
Meridian 4^ 23" 12^ West of Meridian 1^ 21" 28^ Eequired
the Error of Chronometer on Mean Time at Greenwich.
Answer. Chron. Time of Transit B** 52" 20= Sidereal Time
when
at
Greenwich 6^ 21"
13-4"
Error on M. T. G.
0'^
9"
29-3= slow.
Great Circle Sailing
Find the distance from Pernambuco to C. Leuwin on the

arc of a Great Circle, the initial and final courses, the position
of the vertex, and the points where the Great Circle will cut the
1.
following Meridians
20
W,
W,
10 E, 25 E, 40 E, 55 E,
70 E, 85 E, and 100 E.
Ans. Distance 7738-68 miles Initial Course S 32 7' 3" E

Final Course N 39 35' 55" E Vertex Lat. 58 14' 12" S Long.
5 W,
50 6' 25" E
Positions 20 W, 28 47' 32" S
42 44' 10" S 10 E, 51 0' 36" S 25 E, 65 38' 17" S 40 B,
;
70 E,
57 50' 3" S 55 E, 58 8' 35" S
100 E, 46 8' 13" S.
85 E, 52 57' 10" S
56
38'
17" S
2. Find the total distance on the arcs of Great Circles and

on the Parallel of 55 S, from SW Cape, Tasmania (A) to
C. Pembroke, Falkland Islands (B), also the initial and final
courses and the points at which the Great Circles will cut the
Meridians of 150 E, 160 E, and every Meridian 10 apart to
your destination. The limit of South Latitude is 55.
Total Distance 5732-3 miles A to Vertex 1963-8'

Ansiver.
Vertex to Vertex 2765-6' Vertex to B 1002-9' Initial Course
S 52 19' 32" E Pinal Course N 67 40' 12" E Position of
Position of 2nd
1st Vertex Lat. 55 S, Long. 165 42' 45"
Vertex Lat. 55 S, Long. 85 21' 3"
Positions 150 E,
;
45 37' 58" S
160 E, 49 43' 10" S 170 E, 52 28' 7" S

170 W, 54 55' 32" S from 165 42' 45"
180, 54 8' 59" S
along the Parallel of 55 S
80 W,
to 85 21' 3"
54 62' 56" S 70 W, 64 0' 58" S 60 W, 52 13' 51" S.
;
EXERCISES
353
3. Find the Shortest Distance on the ares of Great Circles

from C. Eunaway, New Zealand (A), to Valparaiso (B), it being
compulsory that you pass to the Northward of a point in Lat.
39 27' S, Long. 108 19'
(C)
also the initial and final
courses, and the points at which the Great Circles will cut the
Meridians of 170 W, 160 W, and so on, on every tenth Meri-
dian.
Answer.
Distance
to
3360-4 miles,
C to B
1802-9 miles,
Total 5163-3 miles Initial Course S 63 21' 12" B Pinal Course

67 4' 14" E; Position of Vertex A to C 44 60' 56" S
142 30' 7"
Position of Vertex C to B 39 27' 16" S,
;
43 29' 27" S
130
W,
44
W,
4.
W,
Positions 170
150
W,
44 36' 10" S
42" S; 120 W,
100 W, 39 4' 12" S
9'
39 59' 40" S
80
109 27' 29"
41 25' 26" S ; 160 W,

140 W, 44 49' 18" S
42 35' 0" S 110 W,
;
90
W,
37 48' 38" S
35 37' 31" S.
Mnd
the Distance on the Arc of a Great Circle from (A)
W, to (B) Lat. 26 10' N, Long.

and Final Courses, the Position of the
Vertex, and the points at which the Great Circle will cut the
Meridians of 140 W, 125 W, 110 W, and so on, at every
Lat. 47 48' S, Long. 155 36'
28 20'
W, also the
Initial
Meridian 15 apart.
Distance 8026-5 miles Initial Course S 81 35' 45" E
N 47 45' 10" E Position of Vertex 48 21' 52" S,
144 18' 58"
Positions 140 W, 48 17' 12" S 125 W,
Alls.
Final Course
46 43' 33" S
80
36
W,
W,
42 55' 26" S 95 W, 36 17' 58" S

66 W, 11 52' 6" S 50 W, 4 44' 47"
W,
110
35" S
20 19' 57" N."
26
3'
Find the Shortest Distance between (A) Lat. 45 28' N,

W, and (B) Lat. 41 47' N, Long. 130 14' E
(it being compulsory to keep to the Southward of the Parallel
of 48 N), also the Initial and Final Courses, the Position of
the Vertices, and the points at which the Great Circles will cut
6.
Long. 154 46'
the Parallels of 170

Ansiver.
Vi to
W and 155 E.
Distance
to
W
32'
Positions 170
W,
47 40' 68"
VOL.
V to
Vi 694-3 miles,
N 72 34' 20"
V 48 N, 178
'
985-5 miles,
Total 3161-3 miles; Initial Course

Position of
Final Course S 63 45' 8"
Position of V, 48 N, 166 39' 45" E
1681-5 miles.
11.
155 E, 47 24' 21" N.
A A
EXERCISES
354
Find the Distance on the arcs
6.
Great Circles from (A)
of
Lat. 10 27' S, Long. 128 40' E, to (B) Lat. 64 18' S, Long.

138 14'
(it being compulsory to pass to the Northward of a
point (C) in Lat. 51 S, Long. 150 W), also the Initial and
Pinal Courses, the Position of the Vertices, and the points at
which the Great Circle

and 175 B, and 170,
will cut the Meridians of 130, 145, 160,
155,
W Longitude.
and 140
C to B 471-1 miles. Total

C
Ans. Distance
Final Course
Initial Course S 39 47' 12" B
5058-4 miles
S 69 57' 18" B Position of V 51 0' 0" S, 150 0' 0"
Positions 130 E,
Position of V,, 56 45' 25" S, 114 2' 21"
4587-3 miles,
to
;'
12
11" S
6'
145 E, 27 33' 35" S 160 B, 38 26' 30" S

46" S; 170 W, 49 14' 48" S; 155 W,
;
E, 45
50 53' 35" S
175
19'
140
W,
53 54' 26" S.
Find the Distance on the arc of a Great Circle between

N, Long. 165 20' W, and (B) Lat. 15 18' S,
Long. 98 42' W, also the Initial and Final Courses, the Position of the Vertex, and the points at which the Great Circle
will cut the Meridians 155, 145, 135, 125, 115, and 105 W.
Ans. Distance 5230-97 miles Initial Course S 62 26' 20" E
Final Course S 36 47' 37" E Position of Vertex 54 42' 38" N,
7.
(A) Lat. 49 20'
160
39
8'
6'
115
9"
58"
W,
Positions
135
7 12' 30"
155
W,
W,
30 58' 15"
105
W,
45
;
28"
2'
125
W,
145
20 15' 0"
W,
6 49' 54" S.
8. Find the nearest Distance from (A) Lat. 5 26' N, Long.

149 41' E, to (B) Lat. 48 42' S, Long. 23 56' E (it being com-
pulsory to keep to the Northward of the Parallel of 50 S), also

the Initial and Final Courses, the Position of the Vertices, and
the points at which the Great Circle will cut the Meridians of
135, 120, 105, 90, 75, 60, 45, and 30 E.
Ans.
Vi to
S 40
B
12'
Distance
to
676-61 miles.
35"
50 S, 55
V 5825-97
miles,
to
Total 7040-33 miles;
Vi 537-75 miles,
Initial Course
Final Course N 76 52' 52" W; Position of

20" B Position of V, 50 S, 41 9' 44" E
W;
6'
135 E, 11 34' 24" s'; 120 E, 26 38' 29" S

105 E, 37 23' 34" S 90 B, 44 16' 25" S 75 E, 48 13' 3" S
60 B, 49 53' 16" S 45 E, 60 S
30 E, 49 27' 37" S.
Positions
9.
79
Find the Nearest Distance from (A) Lat. 40 N, Long.

to (B) Lat. 40 N, Long. 170 B, it being compulsory to
;; ;
EXERCISES
355
pass to the Southward of a point (C) in Lat. 40 N, Long.

120 W, also the Initial and Final Courses, the positions of the
and the points at which the Great Circles will cut the
Meridians of 90, 105, 120, 135, 150, 165, and 180
Longitude and 170 B Longitude.
Vertices,
Ans. Distance A to C 1867-4 miles, C to B 3127-8 miles, Total

4995-2 miles Initial Course N 76 29' 12"
Final Course
Position of V 41 51' 18" N, 99 30'
S 65 46' 4"
Position of Vi, 45 41' 22" N, 156

41 27' 46"
105 W, 41 43' 25"
135
W,
43 54' 28"
45 15' 3"
W,
150
180, 42 52' 24"
W;
N
W,
Positions 90
120
45 34' 49"
W,
40
165
W,
170 E, 40 N.
10. Find the shortest distance from (A) Lat. 10 28' N,

also
Long. 39 18'
to (B) Lat. 51 47' S, Long. 112 16' B
the Initial and Final Courses, the Position of the Vertex, and
the points at which the Great Circle will cut the Meridians of
25 and 10 W, 5, 20, 35, 50, 65, 80, 95, and 110 B.
Ans. Distance 7959-8 miles Initial Course S 23 36' 60" B
Final Course N 39 33' 8" B Position of Vertex 66 48' 8" S,
55
14'
41"
E;
Positions
25
W,
21
34'
36" S; 10
W,
B, 56 10' 26" S 23 B, 62 18' 45" S

35 B, 65 27' 2' S 50 B, 66 42' 55" S 66 B, 66 29' 54" S
80 B, 64 44' 10" S 95 B, 60 51' 45" S 110 B, 53 23' 59" S.
44 20' 19" S
11.
Find the shortest distance from (A) Lat. 28
Long. 0 0' to (B) Lat. 51 40' S, Long. 141 27' E,
18'
it
S,
being
compulsory not to go South of the 55th Parallel of S. Latitude

and Final Courses, the Position of the Vertices,
and the points at which- the Great Circles will cut the
;
also the Initial
Meridians of 15, 30, 46, 60, 76, 90, 105, 125 and 135
Longitude.
Ans. DistanceAtoV3278-2miles,VtoV, 1580-3 miles, Vi to
1004-8 miles, Total 5863-3 miles Initial Course S 40 39' 0" B ;
67 38' 1" B Position of V 55 S, 67 51' 2"B
Final Course
;
Positions 16 B,
Position of Vj, 55 S, 113 46' 13" B
40 46' 34" S 30 B, 48 26' 4" S 45 B, 52 46' 15" S
60 B, 64 44' 46" S from 67 51' 2" E to 113 46' 13" E
;
along the Parallel of 56 S

53 5' 12" S.
125 E, 54 28' 41" S
136 E,
EXERCISES
856
12. Find the shortest distance from (A) Lat. 16 40' N,

Long. 148 10' W, to (B) Lat. 49 18' S, Long. 89 44' E, it
being compulsory to pass to the Northward of a point (C) in
Lat. 40 26' S, Long. 120 10' E
also the Initial and Einal
Courses, the positions of the Vertices, and the points at which
the Great Circles Avill cut the Meridians of 160 and 175 W,
and 170, 155, 140, 125, 110, and 95 E Longitude.
Alls. Distance A to C 6121 miles, C to B 1387-4 miles. Total
7508-4 miles; Initial Course S 51 3' 8" W; Pinal Course
S 79 2' 43"
Position of V 41 50' 12" S, 102 17' 49" B
;
Position of Vi 50 11' 31" S, 75 24' 40" E ; Positions 160 W,

6 50' 34"
175 W, 6 50' 14" S 170 E, 18 45' 39" S
;
155 E, 28 28' 44" S 140 E, 35 18' 38" S
125 B,
39 83' 10"
110 E, 44 34' 58" S
95 E, 48 30' 14" S.
Bight-Angled Plane Triangles

Given three parts
1.
c = 90
0'
0",
to
find the
otlier
parts
a = 59-45, b = 94-8.
= 32 5' 32" b = 57 54' 28" c = 111-898.

2. A = 90 0' 0", B = 50 42' 0", a = -2839.
Ansiver.
b = -21969
c = -17981
c = 39 18' 0".
3. B = 90 0' 0", a = 10, c = 11-85.
Ansiuer.
c = 49 60' 22" a = 40 9' 38"
b = 15-506.
4. c = 90 0' 0", c = -0098, a = 72 20' 0".
Ansiuer.
b = 17 40' 0" a = -0093378 b = -0029741.
5. B = 90 0' 0", b = 3-7 yards, a = 7-6 feet.
Answer, a = 43 12' 35" c=46 47' 25" c = 8-0903 feet.
6. B = 90 0' 0", a = i^,h= iV
Answer, a = 34 26' 52" c = 55 33' 8" c = -46386.
Answer,
Oblique-Angled Plane Triangles

Given three parts
Ansiver.
= 59
find the other parts
= 1489.
= 1725 c = 745-625.
A = 22 48' 30", a = 3864, c = 7928.
Ansiver.
b = 104 30' 7" c =52 41' 23" b = 9650-2 or
B = 29 52' 53" c = 127 18' 37" b = 4966.
1.
= 95
to
14' 0",
= 25
29'
45"
16' 15", b
2.
EXERCISES
357
= 9-8, c = 5-008.
= 106 9' 14" c = 29 23' 46" a = 71449.
4. a = -089, b = -142, c =
a = 38 26' 43" b = 97 14' 20" c = 44 18' 56".
Anstuer.
5. A = 31 18' 30", a = 2941, c = 4098.
Answer, b = 102 18' 0" c = 46 23' 30" b = 55297 or
15 5' 0"
=
b = 1472-8.
c = 133 36' 30"
B
= 2941, c = 4098.
B = 15 5' 0",
Answer, a = 31 18' 30" c = 133 36' 30" b = 1472-8.
3.
= 44
27' 0", b
Answeo:
!.
6.
ft
Right-angled Spherical Triangles

Given three imrts
1.
= 90
0" a
0'
= 77
Ansioer.
= IT
20'
to
find the other parts
18' 30", b
50"
= 85
= 85
32'
26' 0".
40"
= 88 59'
50".
= 90 0' 0", B = 85 32' 40", c = 88 59' 52".

a = 77 20' 50" a = 77 18' 30" & = 85 26' 0".
0' 0", B = 62 45' 20", a = 45 0' 30".
90
c =
Ansioer.
a = 37 19' 24" 6 = 49 39' 38" c = 59 V 6".
0", B = 124 47' 0", c = 65 18' 0".
4. A = 90
Answer, a = 104 42' 9" & = 127 23' 57" c = 69 55' 41".
B = 90 0' 0", c = 106 21' 57", b = 66 17' 39".
Answer, a = 143 51' 14" a = 147 18' 40" c = 118 32' 7"
c = 90 0' 0", A = 111 14' 52", c = 91 45' 19".
Answer. B = 85 29' 46" a = 111 19' 0" & = 85 10' 0".
A = 90
B = 48
30, b = 47 29' 0".
= 82 23' 20"
Answer, c = 81 37' 11" or 98 22' 49"
or 97 36' 40"
c = 78 41' 56" or 101 18' 4".
8. B = 90 0' 0", A = 82 17' 58", a = 81 41' 0".
21" 6 = 86 51' 9" or
Ansioer.
c = 67 52' 39" or 112
2.
A^muer.
3.
0'
5.
6.
2'
0' 0',
7.
ft
7'
93
8'
9.
51"
c
c =
= 90
Answer.
125 40' 0"
67 39' 58" or 112 20' 2".
0'
0",
= 45 40'
17", b
39 45' 0".
65 20' 66" or 114 39' 4"
63 21' 58" or 116 38' 2".
= 54
20'
0" or
EXTRACTS FROM THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC,
1898
359
EXTRACTS FROM
360
CO
ii
CO
00
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THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC,
CO
1898
361
862
00
EXTRACTS FROM
00
00
1-1
1898
363
S64
EXTKACTS FEOM
1898
365
366
EXTRACTS FEOM
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1898
ser
368
EXTRACTS FROM

s
00
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1898
369
EXTRACTS FROM
370
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371
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1893
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EXTBACTS FROM
372
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18di
373
374
EXTRACTS FROM
THE MOON'S EIGHT ASCENSION

AND DECLINATION
1898
THE MOON'S EIGHT ASCENSION

AND DECLINATION
375
I
1
EXTRACTS FROM
376
j-w
00
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00
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1898
377
EXTRACTS FROM
378
PLANETS
MEAN TIME
1
Day of tlie
Month
Eiglit Ascension
Declination
Noon
Noon
li
May 6
May 7
May 31
June
July 6
July?
October 1
October 2
November 18
November 19
November 24
November 25
December 16
December 17
February
February
February
February
5
6
8
9
March 10
March 11
4
5
10
11
November 29
November 30
May
May
11
12
August
August
August
August
6 33
9-22
15
18
18
20
81
34
11
13
35
36
40
41
48-35
39-96
August 18
August 19
August 23
August. 24
April
April
April
April
4 15 43-12
4 20 52-74
6 27 50-01
6
7
29
30
4-2
50-68
52-67
3713
16-48
33-31
24-74
8
26-24
8
57-68
8
44-46
8
8 46 50-24
8 46 28-84
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
39
39
38
38
29
29
17
17
15
14
54
55
1898
APPAEENT PLACES OF STAES

Name
379
EXTRACTS FROM
380

Name
1898

Name
381
383
EXTEACTS FEOM THE ADMIEALTY

TIDE TABLES EOE 1898
STANDAED POETS
EXTRACTS FROM
384
STANDARD PORTS
Moon's
THE ADMIllALTY TIDE TABLES FOE

STANDARD POETS
Moon's
0ml2
1
14
a 2
1
45
28
7ml0
7
8
53
38
1898
385
386
EXTRACTS FRO^H ADMIRALTY TIDE TABLES FOR
TIDAL CONSTANTS
Port
1898
387
TABLES USED IN DETEEMINING THE LATITUDE BY OBSEEVATIONS OF THE POLE

STAE OUT OF THE MEEIDIAN
TABLE
Containing the First Coeeection
Argument : Sidereal Time

Sidereal
Time
of Observation
TABLES USED IN DETERMINING THE LATITUDE
388
TABLE
II
Containing the Second Coebection (always
Arguments
to be
added)
Sidereal Time and Altitude

Altitude
Sidereal
Time
20
lu
30
1
30
2
30
30
30
5
30
6
30
7
30
8
30
9
30
10
30
11
30
12
30
BV OBSERVATIONS OF
TPIE
TABLE
POLE STAR
II
Containing the Second Corbection (always
Arguments
389
&c.
to be.
added)
Sidereal Time and Altitude

Altitude
Sidereal
Time
40
60
60
70
ii
10
12
5
16
12
30
6
1
13
4
12
23
37
14
30
11
16
8
14
20
26
32
37
42
46
47
48
44
89
34
28
22
16
10
23
31
38
45
50
54
56
57
55
52
47
41
34
26
19
12
22
27
31
33
38
40
40
39
37
33
2i)
24
18
13
46
TABLE
12
19
28
37
46
53
15
8
19
22
23
20
15
8
56
49
40
31
23
1 13
1
6
2
14
24
34
45
55
1
1
1
1
59
49
38
28
18
10
1
1
1
1
1
18
29
42
55
8
20
30
37
41
42
39
33
24
13
47
34
22
12
54
30
16
11
28
43
56
5
10
30
17
30
18
30
19
11
30
20
30
48
34
18
21
30
22
30
44
23
29
16
24
III (for 1898)
Containing the Third Coeeection (always to be added)

Arguments : Sidereal Time and Date
July
30
15
30
PRINTED BY
SrOTl'ISWOODE AXD
CO., XEW-STREET SQUARE

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PEACTICE AND THEORY

NEW YOBK THE MAOMILLAN OOMPANY

THE SECOND VOLUME

Peinciple of Johnson's Tables

Example of Sumnee Peoblem

meant by Sides and Angles of a Spheeical

Bight-angled Triangles, Napibe's Bules of Circular

when Angles are

tween 90 and 180

Spherical Triangles other than Eight-angled or Quadeantal

COMPARATIVB VaLUE OF SuN AND StAES FOR NAVIGATIONAL

Apparent and Mean Time

Time elapsed since Noon at Greenwich

Latitude by Meridian Altitudes above and below Pole

Longitude by Star and Chronometer

to Correct the E. A. and Dec.

Horizontal Par.\llax and Semi-Diameter

Time by an Altitude of the

Latitude by a Meridian Altitude of the Moon

Double Chronometer Problem from Two Simultaneous

Second Differences are used

THE SECOKD VOLUME

Nature of the Problem explained and Skeleton Poem

Correction for Run of the Ship

Example of Double Altitude of Sun

Simultaneous Altitude of Two Stars

Clearing the Distance expl.uned

Error of Chronometer by the Aid

Approximate Times of Meridian Passage of Stars

To PUT the Approximate Meridian Altitude upon a

To Calculate the True Luxar Distance at any aivKs

Ex-ample of the Great

Fastnet and Sandy Hook

Distance First Course

to Magnetise a Steel Bar

SUB-PERM-iNENT MAGNETISM OF A ShIP DETERMINED BY ITS

PiiOBLKMS RELATING TO THE POSITION OF A ShIP's

Problems on the Change on Heeling Ekhok on

FOR every Point of the Compass

from the Deviation on

Compensation for Heeling Error

Eight-hand and Left-hand Semicircles

Some Questions which may be asked about Cyclones

Reduction to the Meridian

The Lunar Problem

CONTEXTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME

Extracts from the Nautical Almanac for 1898

Extracts from the Admiralty Tide Tables foe 1898

Tables for Determination of Latitude by the Pole

lines are so called after

United States Navy,

Captain Sumner of the

who revived and

the circumference of a circle of considerable size on the

Globe, upon some portion of which the observer must be

Heavenly Body, say the Sun,

at the Zenith, its

and accurately speaking