49118

Applied Geotechnics

Dams and Application of

Grouting and Soil Mixing for
Ground Improvement

OUTLINE

Introduction to Dam Engineering

Dam Flow Net and Cutoff
Dam Filter Design
Ground Improvement Methods
Deep Soil Mixing and Mass Mixing

Behzad Fatahi
PhD, MEng, BEng (Hons), CPEng, MIEAust, NPER
University of Technology Sydney (UTS), and Coffey Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Sydney Office

Permeation and Compaction Grouting

Jet Grouting

Structure of Dam

Dams

Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable
location across a river valley to store flowing
water.

Storage of water is utilized for following objectives:

 Hydropower
 Irrigation
 Water for domestic consumption
 Drought and flood control
 For navigational facilities
 Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries

Free board
Sluice way

Gallery

Heel

Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release

the excess water of the reservoir to downstream side

Toe

Types of Dams
Gravity Dams:

Toe: contact on the downstream side

Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting

water before the construction of dam. This helps in
keeping the river bed dry.

Spillway
(inside dam)

NWL
Normal
water level

Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side

Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam

for checking operations.

Down stream

MWL
Max. level

Components of Dams

Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of

the dam rest

Crest

Upstream

Reservoir
Force

These dams are

heavy and massive
wall-like structures of
concrete in which the
whole weight acts
vertically downwards

As the entire load is transmitted on the small area of foundation,

such dams are constructed where rocks are competent and stable.

Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground

level, which is used to clear the silt accumulation in the
reservoir side.

Buttress Dam:

Arch Dams:

These type of dams are
concrete or masonry dams
which are curved or convex
upstream in plan

Buttress Dam Is a
gravity dam reinforced
by structural supports

Buttress - a support
that transmits a force
from a roof or wall to
another
supporting
structure

This shape helps to transmit

the major part of the water
load to the abutments

Arch dams are built across
narrow, deep river gorges,
but now in recent years they
have been considered even
for little wider valleys.

This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation

rocks are little weaker

Position of Filters in a Typical Embankment

Dam Section

Earth Dams:

They are trapezoidal in
shape

Earth
dams
are
constructed where the
foundation
or
the
underlying
material
or
rocks are weak to support
the masonry dam or where
the suitable competent
rocks are at greater depth.

Earthen
dams
are
relatively smaller in height
and broad at the base

They are mainly built with
clay, sand and gravel,
hence they are also known
as Earth fill dam or Rock
fill dam

Critical D/S Filter

rip-rap
Fill
Fill
Core
Filter
Foundation

Downstream Filter: Prevention of Dam Core Erosion, Reduction of Excess Pore

Pressure, Drainage of Seepage Water
Upstream Filter: Reduce Excess Pore Pressure, and stability during Rapid Drawdown

Filters

Granular Filter Design

Used for:
 facilitating drainage
 preventing fines from being washed away
Used in:
 earth dams


retaining walls

Drain

Filter Materials:
 granular soils


geotextiless

Two major criteria:

(a)

granular filter

Retention Criteria
- to prevent washing out of fines

Filter grains must not be too coarse

(b)

Permeability Criteria
- to facilitate drainage and thus avoid
build-up of pore pressures

Filter grains must not be too fine

Granular Filter Design

Retention criteria:

Permeability criteria:

D15, filter < 5 d85, soil

D15, filter > 4 d15, soil

Example
Particle Size Distribution for a base soil is shown in
the following figure, design a filter for this soil and
plot the suggested gradation curves of this filters.

average filter pore size

D

C u = 60 20
D10

(Terzaghi & Peck, 1967)

D15, filter < 20 d15, soil

US Army Corps of Engineers,
USACE (1971)

D50, filter < 25 d50, soil

PSD Curves for the soil and filter must be parallel

ICOLD Filter Criteria

Asphalt Concrete Core Dam

What is an ACC dam?

Base Gradation Curve

Cohesionless

Cohesive

Asphalt Concrete Core (ACC)

Non
Dispersive
D15 0.4 mm

Broadly
Graded
Cu > 20

NO

Legend:

YES
Linearly
Graded

Dispersive
D15 0.2 mm

Gap
Graded

Concave
Upward

Internally
Stable

NO

dsf = self-filtration size

of the base
d85 = 85% of the base
D15 = 15% of the filter
dD* = lower size of the
gap
** risk of selfclogging

dsf = d85

Body (Earth/Rock Fill)

Body (Earth/Rock Fill)

YES
Linearly
Graded
dsf = d50
Retention
D15 < 4dsf

Gap
Graded
dsf = dD*

Internally Unstable &

Concave Upward**
dsf = d20

Permeability
D15 > 4d15

END

Transition Zones

(ICOLD, 1994)

Asphalt Concrete Core Dam

ACC dam is an embankment dam with central bituminous core

Asphalt Concrete Core Dam

5000 years ago, natural bitumen was used in INDUS
dam reservoir
Modern ACC dam construction started by Germans
in 1962
Chinese constructed their first ACC dam in 1970

Norwegians Constructed their first ACC dam in 1978

East Dam, Hong Kong 1977

(with two central cores)
106m high, 485m long

Russians constructed some ACC dams with high

bitumen content
Greater Ceres Dam, South Africa 1998

Asphalt Concrete Core Dam

By now there are more than 70 dams with ACC in
the world
Yele ACC dam with 140m height under construction in
China is the highest ACC dam in the world

Asphalt Concrete Advantages

Excellent impervious element
Sufficient resistance against acting forces
Very well flexibility without cracking

Why AC is being used in dam Construction?

High aging resistance
Appropriate construction period is short

Self healing capability

Mountainous and cold areas

Areas with long raining season
Impervious soil is not available in the site or is costly to transport it

ACC and ACF

ACC and ACF - Continued

ACF

ACC

Asphalt Concrete Facing

High-quality connection between asphalt concrete

and granular materials

Asphalt Concrete Core

Advantages of ACC
Application of only one asphalt concrete mix
Easier construction method
Less construction cost
Protection against aging
Protection against impact
Short construction period (simultaneous core and body
construction)

ACC and ACF - Continued

Composite Dams

Disadvantages of ACC
Reduction in sliding safety factor
Inaccessibility for inspection or repair (except close to
crest)
Rip Rap requirement for wave protection

Composite dams are combinations of one

or more dam types. Most often a large
section of a dam will be either an
embankment or gravity dam, with the
section responsible for power generation
being a buttress or arch.

Saturated

Flow Net for Dams

Q=k
Flow per unit
length in y
Coefficient of
permeability

Flow Net for Dams with Grout Curtin

H
Nf
Nh

Total head
loss

Number of
flow channels
Number of
equipotential drops

Impermeable boundary = flow line

Flow Net for Dams with Grout Curtin

How Grouting Is Used in Dam Foundation?

Grout curtains are used under dams where the

foundation would otherwise pass too much
seepage, or pass dangerous seepage.

These curtains are never completely water-tight;

the reduced amount of seepage passing through
them should be picked up in drainage holes
downstream of the curtain

Submerged boundary = equipotential line

Impermeable boundary = flow line

Flow Net for Dams with Grout Curtin

How Grouting Is Used in Dam Foundation?

Foundation problems can cause dams to
collapse:

Typical layout of grout

holes in a grout curtain

If the surface rock requires

Improvement; blanket
grouting could be appropriate.

Ground Improvement Methods

Ground Improvement - continued

SemiSemi-Rigid Inclusion

Above the Ground

Stone columns (dynamic replacement, vibro floatation, etc.)

High strength geotextile

Deep soil mixing (dry, wet)

Stabilisation berms

Mass mixing

Lightweight fill (bottom ash, expanded polystyrene, etc.)

Rigid Inclusion

Preload & surcharge

Concrete columns (displacement, CMC, etc.)

Surface Compaction

Jet grout columns

Dynamic Compaction

Piles (precast, timber, CFA, etc.)

Flexible Inclusion
Vertical drains (wick drains, sand drains, etc.)

Slope Stabilisation

Vacuum consolidation

Nailing and Anchoring

Electro osmosis, etc.

Reinforced Soil

Biotechnical Stabilisation

Other Soil Improvement Methods

Deep Soil Mixing

Wet Method
Wet soil mixing is the mechanical mixing of in situ soil
with a cement grout slurry using a hollow stem
paddle type mixer

Deep Soil Mixing Wet Method

Groundwater control
Excavation support
Soil and foundation stabilisation
Liquefaction mitigation

Dry Method
Dry cement or lime powder is mechanically blended
with the in situ soil using the in situ moisture of the
soil to hydrate the binder

Deep Soil Mixing Dry Method

Deep Soil Mixing - continued

Useful for soils with high moisture content

Undrained shear strength of 150-200 MPa

Deep Soil Mixing - continued

Effect of Time on Column Strength

Mass Mixing
Mixing cement/lime with soft soils on soil surface
Useful to construct working platforms
Laboratory tests can be used to finalise the mixture

Concrete Injected Column (CIC) - continued

Displacement Auger Columns (DAC)

Deep Soil Mixing - continued

Effect of Time on Column Permeability

Concrete Injected Column (CIC)

Concrete columns can be adopted, either using 450mm
diameter displacement auger columns (DAC) or 600mm
to 750mm Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) piles.

Concrete Injected Column (CIC) - continued

CFA piles are formed by screwing a continuous auger
into the ground to the design depth; concrete is then
pumped at pressure down the stem of the auger to the
bottom of the bore.

Concrete Injected Column (CIC) - continued

Ultimate pile resistance:
Pu = Ps + Pb - W
Load to cause failure

Ps = fs As

Pile/soil adhesion

Pb = fb Ab

PERMEATION GROUTING :GROUT FILLS THE SOIL

Base resistance
Shaft resistance

Surface area of the shaft

Skin friction

fs = ca + n tan

Grouting Methods

Pu
PORES. ESSENTIALLY NO CHANGE IN THE VOLUME
OR STRUCTURE OF THE ORIGINAL GROUND.

Ps

Pile/soil friction angle

Normal stress = h

DISPLACEMENT OR COMPACTION GROUTING

HYDRAULIC FRACTURE OR ENCAPSULATION OR
SQUEEZE GROUTING

Area of the base

Bearing capacity at tip

fb = c Nc +q Nq + 0.3 B N

Pb
JET GROUTING

Small, can be ignored

Applications of Grouting
1.

FILLING VOIDS TO PREVENT EXCESSIVE

SETTLEMENT

2.

TO INCREASE ALLOWABLE PRESSURE OF THE SOIL

BOTH FOR NEW STRUCTURES AND / OR ADDITIONS
TO EXISTING STRUCTURES.

3.

CONTROL OF GROUNDWATER FLOW

4.

GROUND MOVEMENT CONTROL DURING

TUNNELING OPERATIONS

Applications of Grouting - continued

5.

SOIL STRENGTHENING TO REDUCE LATERAL

SUPPORT REQUIREMENT

6.

SOIL STRENGTHENING TO INCREASE LATERAL

AND VERTICAL RESISTANCE OF PILES.

7.

STABILIZATION OF LOOSE SANDS AGAINST

LIQUEFACTION

8.

FOUNDATION UNDERPINNING

9.

SLOPE STABILISATION

GROUTS

DISPLACEMENT OR COMPACTION GROUTS : STIFF, LOW

SLUMP (0-5 CM) MIXTURES OF CEMENT, SOIL, AND / OR CLAY
AND WATER LIME SLURRIES ARE MOST COMMONLY USED IN
ENCAPSULATION GROUTING

IN SOIL / CEMENT GROUTS, VOLUMES OF SOIL 4-6 TIMES THE

VOLUME OF CEMENT ARE MOST COMMON ALTHOUGH
RATIOS FROM 1 TO 12 HAVE BEEN USED.
VOLUME OF THE MIXING WATER VARIES FROM ABOUT 3/4 - 2
TIMES THE VOLUME OF CLAY PER BAG CEMENT IN CEMENTCLAY GROUTS.
IN WATER / CEMENT GROUTS, w/c= 0.5/1 6/1 HAVE BEEN
VOLUME OF THE MIXING WATER VARIES FROM 1/3-1 TIMES
USED.
IF 0.5/1 RATIO IS USED STRENGTH WILL BE HIGHER BUT IT
WILL BE HARDER TO INJECT. SEGREGATION AND FILTERING
WILL BE LESS. CHEMICALS (LIKE CALCIUM LIGNOSULFONATE)
ARE ADDED TO CONTROL FLUIDITY AND PENETRATION AND
SETTING TIME (30 sec -- VERY LONG) AND PLASTISIZERS TO
PREVENT FLOCCULATION.

THE LOOSE VOLUME OF SAND PER BAG OF CEMENT IN

CEMENT - SAND GROUTS

GENERALLY MINIMUM WATER CONTENT WHICH WILL STILL

YIELD AN INJECTABLE UNXIUIE IS USED.
SULFATES AND SULFATE BEARING GROUND WATER ARE
THE ENEMY OF CEMENT.
PARTICULATE

GROUTS

CANNOT

BE

INJECTED

AS

PERMEATION GROUTS INTO SOILS FINER THAN MEDIUM TO

COARSE SANDS. THIS APPROXIMATELY CORRESPONDS TO
A PERMEABILITY OF ABOUT 5x10-4 cm/sec.

AREAS OF USE :
CEMENT GROUTS : FOR BOTH
IMPERMEABILISATION AND STRENGTH INCREASE
SOIL, CLAY AND CHEMICAL GROUTS :
IMPERMEABILISATION AND COMPACTION
GROUTING
CLAY GROUTS : LIMITED USE (USUALLY FILLING
VOIDS ETC)
CLAY-CEMENT GROUTS : FILLING VOIDS,
MUDJACKING

TYPES I AND II PORTLAND CEMENT ARE SUITABLE FOR

SOILS COARSER THAN 0.60 mm.
TYPE III PORTLAND CEMENT IS SUITABLE FOR SOILS
COARSER THAN 0.42 mm. (BENTONITE: 0.25 mm)
PARTICLES 50 micron SIZE CAN BE INJECTED TO COARSE
SAND (> 0.8 mm). COLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONS CAN BE
INJECTED INTO MEDIUM SAND ( 0.1 TO 0.8 mm). FINE SANDS
& SILTS REQUIRE NEWTONIAN SOLUTIONS OF LOW
VISCOSITY.
THE ABILITY OF PARTICULATE GROUTS TO PENETRATE A
FORMATION IS OFTEN INDICATED IN TERMS OF A
GROUTABILITY RATIO. SOME GROUTABILITY RATIOS THAT
HAVE BEEN PROVEN USEFUL ARE GIVEN BELOW:

N=

( D15 ) soil
( D85 ) grout

> 24 GROUTING CONSISTENTLY POSSIBLE

< 11 GROUTING NOT POSSIBLE

Nc =

( D10 ) soil
( D95 ) grout

SOILS CONTAINING < 10 % FINES ARE USUALLY

PERMEATION GROUTED WITH CHEMICALS.

> 11 GROUTING CONSISTENTLY POSSIBLE

<6

GROUTING NOT POSSIBLE

IF FINES CONTENT > 15 % EFFECTIVE CHEMICAL

GROUTING MAY BE DIFFICULT, FOR FINES
CONTENT > 20 % PERMEATION GROUTING WILL

FOR ROCKS

NR =

Width of fissure
>5
( D95 ) grout
<2

NOT BE POSSIBLE BUT CHEMICAL GROUTS NOT

GROUTING POSSIBLE

BE DISTRIBUTED ALONG AND THROUGH

NOT POSSIBLE

HYDRAULIC FRACTURES.

COMPACTION GROUTING
Important Design Parameters

TYPICAL APPLICATION DETAILS ARE :

TRIANGULAR PATTERN USUALLY, 1.5 - 5 M SPACING
PRIMARY (~5 M) / SECONDARY HOLES, GROUT TAKES

LAYOUT OF HOLES IN NUMBER

LOCATION OF HOLES & INCLINATION
DEPTH
SEQUENCE OF HOLES GROUTED
PROCEDURE OF GROUTING INDIVIDUAL HOLE

HOLES UNDER FOUNDATIONS, RATHER THAN OPEN

AREAS; PERIPHERAL HOLES FIRST
< # 200 % 10 - % 30, SAND IN COMPACTION GROUTING
100% PASSING NO.8 SIEVE, A COARSER SAND WILL
CAUSE WATER TO BE DRIVEN OUT.
PRESSURES 0-4200 kN/m2

PROCEDURE FOR GROUTING FROM TOP TO BOTTOM

TWO BASIC METHODS FOR CONSTRUCTION:
1. DRILL A HOLE TO THE TOP OF THE ZONE (MIN. 1.5 M)
2. INSERT A CASING IN THE HOLE AND FILL THE ANNULAR
1 . FROM TOP TO DOWN

SPACE BETWEEN THE CASING AND THE HOLE WITH QUICK

2. FROM UP TO BOTTOM

3. DRILL THROUGH TIE CASING AND ADVANCE THE HOLE 1-2.5

SETTING CEMENT.
m. NEVER EXCEED 3-3.5 METERS.
4. PUMP IN GROUT UNTIL THERE IS
GROUTING IS DONE IN STAGES, ONLY 0.75 - 1.0 m OF HOLE IS
GROUTED AT A TIME.

"REFUSAL" OR SLIGHT

MOVEMENT OF THE GROUND SURFACE.

5. REPEAT THE PROCEDURE (ITEMS 3

AND, 4) AFTER

HARDENING OF THE PREVIOUSLY PLACED GROUT UNTIL

THE BOTTOM OF THE ZONE TO BE STABILIZED IS REACHED.

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PROCEDURE OF GROUTING FROM BOTTOM TO UP:

1.

DRILL A HOLE TO THE BOTTOM OF THE ZONE TO BE

STABILIZED

2.

PLACE CASING TO WITHIN A METER OF THE BOTTOM OF

THE HOLE.THE CASING SHOULD BE A SNUG FIT AND
MAY REQUIRE PUSHING OR

DRIVING INTO

PLACE.

SOMETIMES IT IS DRIVEN ENTIRELY (i.e. PREDRILIING

IN MOST MIXED SOILS BEGINNING RATE WILL BE ON

THE ORDER OF 0.3 m3/min. 3 -5 m3/min IS APPLIED IN
SOILS WITH LARGE VOIDS. 0.003 -0.014 m3/min IS
USED IN UNDRAINED CLAYS AND HIGHLY PLASTIC
CLAYS.

ELIMINATED)
3.

PUMP IN THE GROUT UNTIL 'REFUSAL' IS ACHIEVED (OR

SLIGHT)

4.
5.

RAISE THE CASING

PUMP AGAIN AND REPEAT 4 AND 5 UNTIL THE GROUND

PRESSURES : 350 KPA - 1700 KPA WITHIN 1.5 - 2 M OF

THE SURFACE AND UP TO 3500 kPa OR MORE WHEN D
> 6 M, SELDOM > 4200 kPa.

SURFACE IS REACHED.

Jet Grouting
Jet grouting is a soil improvement technique which employs
high-speed fluid jets to erode soils. The resulting cavity is
subsequently filled with grout to form a composite
material with enhanced characteristics.

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Jet Grouting Continued

Jet Grouting Continued

Single system
Grout is pumped down through the drilling rods and exits
horizontal nozzles in the tool at high velocity
Double system
A two-phase internal system is employed for the separate
supply of grout and air down to different, concentric
nozzles.
Triple system
Grout, air and water are pumped through three different
lines to the tool.
Air
Grout
Air

Grout

Single

Air
Water
Air

Double

OH&S Issues because of high pressures

Quality control is necessary

Grout

Triple

Jet Grouting
Applicable to all type of soils including clay
Sand and gravel particles increase the strength

Applications of Jet Grouting

Jet Grouting
Advantages
Nearly all soil types groutable
Limited working space required
Any cross-section of soilcrete possible
Designable strength and permeability
Treatment to specific subsurface locations
No harmful vibrations
Safest method of construction
Ability to work around buried active utilities
The most effective means of direct underpinning of
structures and utilities
Much faster than alternative methods

Acknowledgement

 Some of grouting slides are takes from

CE 468 Geotechnical Design Subject
material presented by Dr. M. Ufuk
ERGUN at the Middle East Technical
University
 Many thanks to Ballina Bypass Alliance
(BBA), Austress- Menard, and Keller
Ground Engineering for providing data.

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