Study Guide 001 (Both) For TST271Z

Only study guide for
TST271Z
THEORY OF STRUCTURES II
Compiler: CA Hollenbach
Moderator: IG Watts
Revisor:
BD Ikotun
Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering

University of South Africa, Florida
THEORY OF STRUCTURES II
STUDY GUIDE
(TST271Z)
Compiled by: CA HOLLENBACH PrEng BSc BSc (Eng) FIStructE MSAICE TED
THEORY OFMSAICET
STRUCTURES II
Moderator: IG WATTS NDT(CIVIL)
(TST271Z)
Revised by: BD IKOTUN BEng (CIVIL)
MSc (Eng)
COPYRIGHT DECLARATION
In terms of Copyright Act, 98 of 1978 no part of this material may be produced, published,
redistributed, screened or used in any form without prior written permission from Unisa.
When materials have been used from other sources permission must be obtained directly
from the original source.
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1
STRESSES AND STRAINS
CHAPTER 2
SECTIONAL PROPERTIES
52
CHAPTER 3
SIMPLE BEAMS
86
CHAPTER 4
THEORY OF ELASTIC BENDING
130
CHAPTER 5
MOMENT-AREA METHOD OF ANALYSIS
158
CHAPTER 6
MATHEMATICAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS
197
CHAPTER 7
ELASTIC REINFORCED CONCRETE THEORY 231
CHAPTER 8
STATICALLY DETERMINATE PIN-JOINTED
FRAMES
260
CHAPTER 9
IMPACT LOADING
298
CHAPTER 10
ANALYSIS OF STRESSES
313
TST271Z
CHAPTER 1
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Obtain the mechanical properties of a material given the load-elongation data
obtained from a tension test.
Define factor of safety.
Determine the stresses and strains in bars that are connected in series and/or parallel,
which are subjected to axial loads and/or changes in temperature.
TST271Z
CHAPTER 1
CONTENTS
PAGE
1.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 7

1.2 STRESS ............................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 DIRECT STRESS AND STRAIN; YOUNGS MODULUS........................................... 9
1.4 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL ........................................................... 13
1.5 WORKING STRESS, STRESS FACTOR AND LOAD FACTOR.............................. 16
1.6 POISSONS RATIO ......................................................................................................... 20
1.7 BARS IN SERIES AXIALLY LOADED ........................................................................ 27
1.8 COMPOSITE BARS ........................................................................................................ 30
1.9 TEMPERATURE STRESS IN COMPOSITE BARS ................................................... 35
1.10 BENDING STRESS ....................................................................................................... 41
1.11 SHEAR STRESS ............................................................................................................ 42
1.12 TORSIONAL STRESS .................................................................................................. 45
1.13 VOLUMETRIC STRESS AND STRAIN AND BULK MODULUS .......................... 46
1.14 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELASTIC CONSTANTS ................................. 48
1.15 HARDNESS TEST ......................................................................................................... 49
1.16 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................... 50
1.1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the effects of forces. A force can be defined as that which changes or
tends to change the position of rest or motion of a body. Force is a vector quantity, i.e. it has
magnitude as well as direction. It can be represented graphically by a straight line drawn to
scale, with an arrowhead indicating the direction of the force.
The unit of force is the Newton which is defined as a force that will accelerate 1 kg mass 1
metre per second2 (i.e. 1 metre per second per second). The acceleration due to gravity
equals 9.81 m/sec2. Thus 1 kg mass exerts a force of 9.81 Newtons.
4 cm
4 kN
Scale: 1 cm = 1 kN
Graphical representation of a force of 4 kN acting horizontally from left or right
The moment of a force F about a point A is equal to the force multiplied by the shortest
distance between point A and the line of action of the force.
A
F (N)
Moment of F about A = Fa Nm or MA = Fa Nm
1.2
STRESS
Stress is defined as force per unit area.
F
A
The basic unit of stress is the Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Stress may be due to any of the following:

1)
Direct or axial force
2)
Bending
3)
Shear Force
4)
Torsion
1.3
DIRECT STRESS AND STRAIN: YOUNGS MODULUS
Direct stress may be either tensile or compressive
F
Tensile stress t =
Where
F
A
F
Compressive stress C =
F=
direct axial force (either tensile or compressive)
A=
cross sectional area

Figure 1.1: Direct stress
Stress causes deformation of the body in which it occurs. Direct stress causes -:
a)
Lengthening if it is tensile
b)
Shortening if it is compressive
Strain is defined as change of length per unit length:
Where
l
l
l = original length
l = change of length
Youngs modulus E (or Modulus of direct elasticity)

According to Hookes Law:
F
A
Strain stress
Hence, E x strain
i.e. E
= stress (E = Constant)
=
stress
strain
F
Force
stress A
area
E= =
=
=
strain l changein length
l
original length
E is termed Youngs Modulus and since strain is dimensionless, E is usually expressed in

kN/mm2 i.e. in GPa.
The above relationship holds good for any elastic material within its elastic range.
Values of E for different materials are found experimentally. The following are typical
values for E:
Structural or mild steel:
E = 210 kN/mm2
= 210 GPa
Concrete:
E = 14-28 kN/mm2
= 14-28 GPa
Structural grade timber:
E = 6-16.5 kN/mm2
= 6-16.5 GPa
Note : 1 GPa =
1 000 000 000 Pa
1 000 000 000 N/m2
1 000 N/mm2
1 kN/mm2
10
Example 1.3.1
A bar of sectional area 1 250 mm2 and 2 m in length extended 0.4 mm when an axial load of
52.5 kN was applied. Calculate Youngs modulus for the material of the bar.
SOLUTION
stress A
E= =
=
strain l
l
52.5 1000 N
1250mm 2
=
N mm 2
0 .4
2000
2
= 210000 N mm
= 210 kN mm 2 (or = 210GPa )
Example 1.3.2
A short timber post of rectangular section has one side of its section twice the other. When
the post is loaded axially with 9.8 kN it contracts 0.119 mm per metre length. If E for the
timber = 8.4 GPa calculate the cross sectional dimensions of the post.
SOLUTION
Let x be smaller side

Then 2x
= larger side
Area of section
= 2x2 mm2
11
Load 9800 N
4900
=
N mm 2 = 2 N mm 2
2
area
x
2x
0.119
strain =
= 0.000119
1000
stress
E=
strain
4900
x2
8400 N mm 2 =
N mm 2
0.000119
4900
x2 =
= 4902mm 2
8400 0.000119
x = 70mm
stress =
Dimensions of post are 140 mm 70mm
12
1.4
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL
If the changes in length of a test specimen as a result of different loads are measured, the
stress-strain curve can be plotted. For mild steel a tensile load is usually applied, the curve
for a compressive load being virtually the same up to the point when the change in cross
section of the test specimen becomes substantial.
The ends of the test specimen are gripped in the jaws of a special testing machine in which
measurable tensile loads can be applied. A strain gauge is attached over a length l on the test
specimen, and read for various increasing loads until the specimen breaks.
The stress-strain curve can then be plotted. For mild steel it has the form as shown in fig. 1.2.
Plastic range
Elastic range
Semi-plastic range
Upper yield stress
A
limit of
proportionality
Ultimate stress ult
lower yield stress y
C D
General extension Local extension
(elastic limit)
E=
= tan
Figure 1.2
strain
l
l
Stress-strain curve for mild steel
From 0 to the elastic limit A is a straight line, and Hookes law, which states that stress is
proportional to strain applies. If the load is removed before the elastic limit is reached, the
test specimen will revert to its original dimensions.
After the elastic limit has been passed, the strain is semi-plastic and on removal of the load,
some extension will remain, called the permanent set.
13
On increasing the load further, the yield stress is reached at point B, where a sudden
elongation from C to D and a rapid drop in stress from B to C takes place. Point B is called
the upper yield point and C the lower yield point. Beyond D, strain hardening occurs, and
stress again increases with strain, and reaches a maximum value, known as the ultimate stress
ult at point E, where the phenomenon of necking occurs. This is a rapid reduction in crosssectional area at some weak point in the test specimen. From E to F there is a reduction in
nominal stress (i.e. load
original
area
) until fracture occurs at F.
For mild steel and other ductile materials:

Ultimate tensile strength
Nominal fracture stress
True fracture stress
max imum load

original cross sectional area
load at fracture
original cross sectional area
load at fracture
final cross sectional area at fracture
Example 1.4.1
A tensile test is carried out on a mild steel bar of 20 mm diameter. The bar yields under a
load of 80 kN. It reaches a maximum load of 150 kN and finally breaks at a load of 70 kN.
The diameter at the fracture was measured as 10.2 mm.
Calculate:
(a)
The tensile stress at yield point
(b)
The ultimate tensile stress
(c)
The nominal fracture stress
(d)
The true fracture stress
14
SOLUTION
(a)
Nominal tensile stress at yield point
A0 =
y =
Fy
A0
d 2
4
(20) 2
4
= 314.2mm 2
where A0 = original cross sec tional area
80 10 3
N mm 2
314.2
= 254.6MPa
=
(b)
Ultimate tensile stress
ult =
(c)
Nominal fracture stress
fn =
(d)
Fmax 150 x10 3

=
= 477.4 MPa
A0
314.2
Ff
A0
70 x10 3
= 222.8MPa
314.2
True fracture stress

Af =
ft =
(10.2) 2
4
Ff
Af
= 81.72mm 2
70 x10 3
= 856.6 MPa
81.72
15
1.5
WORKING STRESS, STRESS FACTOR AND LOAD FACTOR
The stresses that are present in a component of a structure under normal working conditions
are called the working stresses (w). The ratio of the yield stress of the material of the
component to the working stress is the stress factor against yielding.
y
Stress factor against yielding =
Previously this ratio was called the factor of safety. Modern literature prefers the term stress
factor since this defines more precisely that working stress is compared with yield stress.
In practical problems, working stresses can only be estimated approximately in stress
calculations. For this reason the stress factor may give little indication of the safety of a
component. A more realistic estimate of safety can be made by finding the extent to which
the applied or working loads may be increased before collapse or fracture occurs. A working
load F to which a load factor n is applied becomes a factored load nF.
Example 1.5.1
(a)
A mass of 200 kg is suspended from a metal rod of 5 mm diameter and 14 m long.

Find the change of length of the rod if E for the metal is 180 GPa.
(b)
If the yield stress of the metal is 380 MPa, find the largest mass that the rod can
support if a stress factor of 2.5 is applied.
SOLUTION
(a)
F
Fl
E= A =
l Al
l
Fl
l =
=
AE
200 9.81 14
(0.005)
180 10
= 7.8mm
Change in length
+7.8 mm
16
10 3 mm
(b)
stress factor =
w =
y
= 2 .5
w
y 380
2 .5
F = A
= 152 MPa
2 .5
= 152 x10 6
(0.005 )2 N
4
2985
m =
= 305 .3kg
9 .8
Mass
= 305.3 kg
Example 1.5.2
A strut 2 m long and 20 mm diameter is subjected to a compressive force of 40 kN. Find the
stress and the change in length if E = 210 GPa.
SOLUTION
40 10 3
F
2
=
N m
A
(0.02)2
4
= 127 10 6 N m 2 Stress = 127 MPa
E=
l =
F A
Fl
=
l l Al
Fl F l
=
AE A E
= 127 10 6
2
10 3 mm
9
210 10
l = 1.21 mm (shortening)
17
Example 1.5.3
A tie of 25 mm diameter and 12 m long is stressed to 140 MPa. The total extension at this
stress is 9.8 mm. Find E for the tie and the total load.
SOLUTION
0.0098
= 0.0008166
12
140 10 6
E= =
N m 2 E = 171.44GPa
0.0008166
strain = l =
l
F = A = 140 10 6
(0.025)2 N
= 68722 N
Load = 68.7 kN
Note:
In paragraph 1.4 the stress-strain curve for mild steel, which is a ductile material is described.
In brittle materials, such as high tensile steel, there is no marked yield point. The stress-strain
graph is a straight line until the limit of proportionality is reached. Thereafter it curves
upward until fracture occurs at ultimate stress.
Fracture at ult
stress
limit of proportionality
strain
Figure 1.3
18
Whereas the stress factor on yielding is
/w for mild steel, it is more convenient to use the
term proof stress for high tensile steel.

The proof stress is found by drawing the line parallel to the linear-elastic line at the
appropriate proof strain, as illustrated in figure 1.4 below.
0,2% proof stress
stress
0,1 % proof
stress
strain
Figure 1.4
19
1.6
POISSONS RATIO
When a body is subjected to tension (or compression) the stretching (or contraction) in the
direction of the force is accompanied by a smaller contraction (or expansion) at right angles
to the force.
contraction
Stretching
contraction
expansion
Figure 1.5
Let = applied stress

Let = strain in direction of applied stress
Then: lateral strain
where
1
m
= Poissons ratio
The value of is found experimentally and for metals it is approximately 0,3.

Note
Although we might well apply a positive or negative sign to

not to give a sign, but to state increase or decrease.
20
1
, it is accepted usage
m
Example 1.6.1
A strut 1.6 m long has a cross section of 3 cm 5 cm. If a compressive force of 220 kN acts
along the long axis of the strut, find the change in the longitudinal and lateral dimensions.
Poissons ratio = 1/3 and E = 200 GPa.
SOLUTION
F
E= = A
l
l
l =
Fl
EA
220 10 3 1,6
10 3 mm
0.03 0.05 200 10 9
l = 1.17mm (decrease )
=
1
m l m
1.17
1
=
3
1.6 10 3
Lateral change in dim ension :
Lateral strain =
1.17
1
0.03 10 3 mm
3
1.6 10 3
= 0.0073mm (increase)
a ) 3cm side =
5
0.0073mm
3
= 0.0122mm (increase)
b) 5cm side =
21
Example 1.6.2
A cube of 12 cm sides and made of material for which E = 80 GPa, is subjected to a

compressive force of 2000 kN in the x direction, a tensile force of 1500 kN in the y direction
and no force in the z direction. Calculate the change of dimensions in each direction if
Poissons ratio = 1
2 .9
. Also calculate the new dimensions.
y
1500 kN
2000
2000
x
z
1500 kN
SOLUTION
2000 10 3
10 6 = 138.9 MPa
0.12 0.12
1500 10 6
y =
10 3 = 104.2 MPa
0.12 0.12
z = 0
x =
Consider the force in the x direction. Fx = 2000 kN compression
22
x =
l x
lx
Fx
2000 10 3
=
Ax E 0.12 0.12 80 10 9
= 1.74 10 3 (decrease)
l x = x l x
= 1.74 10 3 120mml x = 0.209mm(decrease)
y =
l y
ly
1.74 10 3
(increase )
2 .9
1.74 10 3
120mml y = 0.072mm(increase )
2 .9
l z x 1.74 10 3
(increase)
z =
=
=
lz
m
2 .9
l y = y l y =
l z = z l z =
1.74 10 3
120ml z = 0.072mm(increase )
2 .9
Consider the force in the y direction. Fy = 1500 kN tension
y =
l y
ly
Fy
Ay E
1500 10 3
0.12 0.12 80 10 9
= 1.30 10 3 (increase )
l y = y l y = 1.3 10 3 120mml y = 0.156mm(increase )

x =
l x
lx
y
m
1.3 10 3
2 .9
1.3 10 3
120mml x = 0.054mm(decrease)
2 .9
y 1.3 10 3
l
z = z =
=
lz
m
2 .9
l x = x l x =
l z = z l z =
1.34 10 3
120mml z = 0.0554mm(decrease )
2 .9
Total changes of dimension

x direction :
-0.209 0.054 = -0.263 mm
y direction :
+0.072 + 0.156 = +0.228 mm
z direction :
+0.072 0.054 = +0.018 mm
23
New dimensions
x direction :
120 0.263 = 119.737 mm
y direction :
120 + 0.228 = 120.228 mm
z direction :
120 + 0.018 = 120.018 mm
Example 1.6.2 in reverse
If we know the strains in three mutually perpendicular directions, as well as the values for
Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio
1
for the material, we can find the stresses in the
m
three directions (and hence the stress in any other direction, if required).
Let stresses x y and z occur in three mutually perpendicular directions x, y and z. The
strains x, y and z resulting in each direction will be made up of the following:
(a)
Longitudinal strain due to stress in the given direction; plus
(b)
Lateral strains due to the stresses in each of the other two directions.
Let tensile stress be positive, compressive stress negative. Let increase in dimension be
positive, decrease negative.
The following equations will hold good:
x y
z
E mE mE
y z
ie E x = x
m m
x =
In x direction
In y direction
z
E mE mE
ie E y = x + y z
m
m
y =
24
y
z x
E mE mE
y
ie E z = x
+ z
m m
z =
In z direction
If x, y and z are known, and also E and
1
, then the three equations above can be solved for
m
x, y and z.
Now again consider example 1.6.2 (in reverse). Suppose the strains are now given and E and
1
/m are known, and it is required to determine the stresses in the three directions and hence the
loads.
Let us first determine the total strains in the three directions:
x (t ) = x +
x
y (t ) =
z (t ) =
x
m
y
m
+y +
y
m
z
m
z
m
= 1.74 10 3
1.3 10 3
+ 0 = 2.188 10 3
2.9
+ 1.74 10 3
+ 1.3 10 3 + 0 = +1.9 10 3
2 .9
+z = +
1.74 10 3 1.3 10 3
+ 0 = +0.152 10 3
2.9
2.9
Using these total strains we can now find the stresses by substituting in equations
and
, 2
above :
80 109 (-2.188 10-3)
= x +
80 109 (+1.9 10-3)
80 109 (+0.152 10-3)
x
2 .9
2.9
y
2.9
z
2.9
+ y
2.9
25
z
2 .9
+ z
1a
2a
3a
We now have three equations with three unknowns, which on solving give:
x
= -139.1 MPa
= +104 MPa
=0
These are the same stresses we had at the start.
26
1.7
BARS IN SERIES AXIALLY LOADED
Consider three bars in series axially loaded, as shown in fig 1.6(a) forming member A B
N
A
R
P2
P1
P3
P4
P5
(a)
FM
FM
P1
P2
P3
Figure 1.6
The member as a whole is in equilibrium: P = 0

i.e
-P1 - P2 - P3 + P4 + P5 = 0
Each part of the member must be in equilibrium.

Considering free body diagram to left (or right) of MM
FM
P1
(= -P2 -P3 + P4 +P5)
27
P4
P5
(b)
Similarly:
FN
= -P1 -P2
(= P3 - P4 - P5)
F0
= -P1 - P2 - P3
(= - P4 - P5)
FR
= -P1 - P2 - P3 +P4
(= - P5)
The total change in the length of the member equals to the algebraic sum of the change in
length of each part.
Example 1.7.1
Two round mild steel bars AB and CD are connected by a square copper bar BC. The
lengths, diameters and sizes are shown in the sketch. The compound bar is subjected to a
tensile axial force P. If the total elongation of the compound bar is 1.2 mm, find (a) the force
P and (b) the forces in the bars. Youngs modulus for mild steel is 200 GPa and for copper
100 GPa.
20mm square
B
A
P
m.s.
copper
m.s.
15mm diameter
15mm diameter
0.6m
0.8m
0.4m
SOLUTION
The applied force P is transmitted throughout the length AD

FAB = FBC = FCD = P
Also:
LAB + LBC + LCD = 1.2 mm
28
(a)
F A
Fl
Fl
=
i.e.l =
l l Al
AE
Pl BC
Pl CD
Pl AB
+
+
= 0.0012
AAB E AB ABC E BC ACD ECD
E=
0 .6
0 .8
0 .4
+
+
P
2
9
(0.0150 )2 200 10 9 (0.02 ) 100 10

(0.015)2 200 10 9
4
4
P
(16.98 + 20 + 11.32) = 0.0012
10 9
0.0012 10 9
P=
10 3 kN
48.3
= 24.8kN
(b)
AB = CD =
24.8 10 3
BC =
(0.015)
24.8 10 3
(0.020)
10 6 = 140.3MPa
10 6 = 62MPa
29
= 0.0012
1.8
COMPOSITE BARS
A composite bar is made up of two or more different materials. They are connected in such a
way that the change of length under load is the same for each constituent material.
F
(a)
Under tension
(b)
Figure 1.7
Under compression
Composite bars
Because the constituent members of a composite bar under load remain the same length:
strain =
l
l
is the same for all constituent members
But strain
stress
=
E
E
If a composite bar is made up of materials A, B, C ...
then
l
l
A
EA
B
EB
C
EC
If FA, FB, FC.... are the forces carried by A B C ....

and AA, AB, AC .... are the cross sectional areas of A, B, C .....
30
FA
F
B = A
AA
AB
FB
FC
=
=
A BEB ACEC
= FA + FB + FC +
then A =
FA
AA EA
andFTotal
C =
FC
AC
The above two equations can be solved to find the portion of the total load carried by each
material of which the composite bar is made.
Example 1.8.1
A strut is made of three strips of metal glued together. One strip is steel with E = 210 GPa
and cross section 8 cm 2 cm; the second strip is an aluminium alloy with E = 70 GPa and
cross section 8 cm 3 cm; and the third strip is bronze with E = 110 GPa and cross section 8
cm x 1 cm. If the whole strut is subjected to a compressive force of 0.3 MN, find the force
carried by each strip and the stress in each. Also find the change in length of the strut if it is
0.6 m long.
SOLUTION
8 cm
Steel S
2 cm
0.3MN
Aluminium
0.3MN
3 cm
1 cm
Bronze B
0.6 m
31
FS
FA
FB
=
=
AS E S
AA E A AB E B
Fs
FA
FB
=
=
9
9
0.08 0.02 210 10
0.08 0.03 70 10
0.08 0.01 110 10 9
F
F
F
i.e. S = A = B
336 168 88
From the above:

168 FS = 336 FA
1
88 FS = 336 FB
2
Also
FS + FA + FB = 0.3 10 kN
On solving the three equations with three unknowns we get the following:
. S =
170.3 10 3
10 6 = 106.4 MPa
0.08 0.02
FS = 170.3kN
i.e
FA = 85.2kN
i.e.
A =
85.2 10 3
10 6 = 35.5MPa
0.08 0.03
FB = 44.5kN
i.e
. B =
44.5 10 3
10 6 = 55.6 MPa
0.08 0.01
Check :
FS + FA + FB =
Change in length
300 kN
The strain is the same for S, A and B.
Using steel:
l
l
= =
E
l 106.4 10 6 0.6
10 3 mm
l = =
E
210 10 9
Change in length l
0.304 mm
32
Example 1.8.2
The figure shows the cross section of a short reinforced concrete column. Calculate the stress
in the concrete and the stress in the steel if an axial load of 735.5 kN is applied to the column.
Assume that the bond between the steel and the concrete is sufficient to prevent slip.
Given:
E for steel = 210 GPa

E for concrete = 14 GPa
420 steel bars as reinforcement

300 mm
360 mm
SOLUTION
( 4 )(0.02)
As = 4
Strain =
l
l
S =
Also
= 106.74 10 -3 m 3
is the same for the steel and the concrete
S
ES
C
EC
210
C = 15 C
14
FS +
FC
S AS + C AC =
Substitute
A C = 0.36 0.3 - 1.2566 10 -3 m 2
= 1.2566 10 3 m 2
Ftotal
735.5 103 N
15C in 2 :
15C 1.257 10-3 + C 106.74 10-3
33
735.5 103
C (125.6 10-3)
735.5 103 N/m2
6 106 N/m2
C = 6 MPa
15C
S = 90MPa
From
Note
The factor ES/EC (= m) is used in the modular ratio method of reinforced concrete
design which is dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 7.
34
1.9
TEMPERATURE STRESS IN COMPOSITE BARS
In composite bars made up of materials with different rates of thermal expansion, internal
stresses are set up by temperature changes.
Consider a simple composite bar consisting of two members - a solid round bar B contained
inside a circular tube T.
The coefficients of linear thermal expansion are B and T
respectively.
If the ends of the bar and tube are attached rigidly to each other, longitudinal stresses are set
up by a change of temperature.
If the bars are not attached, each bar will extend freely:
Bar B will extend B Lo t
and Tube T will extend T L0 t
where t = increase in temperature
L0 = original length of B and T.
If the members are attached to each other, the one with the higher coefficient of expansion
will be compressed by a force F, while the one with the lower coefficient of expansion will be
extended by an equal force F.
The two forces must be equal and opposite in order to maintain equilibrium of internal forces.
35
B l0 t
l (T)
Bar B
l0
l (B)
T l0t
Tube T
B > T
Original member
Temperature raised tC
Cross sectional areas:
Members free
Members
BAR B: A(B)
to expand
attached
Tube T: A(T)
separately
to each other
Figure 1.8
E=
=
l l
l =
E
F = A
Also
(l ) B
B lo
EB
and (l ) T =
T lo
ET
But (l ) B + (l ) T = B lo t T lo t
B lo
EB
T lo
ET
= lo t ( B T )
Also : Compressive force in bar B = tensile force in tube T
B AB = T AT
We now have two equations with two unknowns B and T, which can be solved.
Note
The original length l0 is immaterial as it cancels out in equation 1 .
36
Example 1.9.1
An aluminium rod 2.2 cm diameter is threaded at the ends, and passes through a steel tube 2.5
cm internal diameter and wall thickness 0.3 cm. Both are heated to a temperature of 140C,
when the nuts on the rod are lightly screwed onto the ends of the tube. Calculate the stress in
the rod and in the tube when the common temperature has fallen to 20C.
Given:
ES
200 GN/m2
S = 1.2 10-5 per C
EA
70 GN/m2
A = 2.3 10-5 per C
SOLUTION
Sl0t
(l)S
Al0t
(l)A
S
At 140C
Temperature falls 140C to 20C
AA = /4 (22)2 mm2
Members free
Nut
AS = /4 (302 - 252) mm2
to contract
screwed on
separately
(l ) A = Al 0 (l )S = S l0
EA
ES
But (l ) A + (l )S = A l 0 t S l 0 t
A
70 10
Al0
EA
S l0
ES
= l 0 t ( A S )
= 120(2.3 1.2 )10 5

200 10 9
20 A + 7 S = 20 70 120(1.1)10 4
+
20 A + 7 S = 1848 10 6 N m 2
37

2
Also A AA = S AS . i.e A (22 ) = S 312 25 2
4
4
312 25 2
i.e. A = S
22 2
A = 0.694 S
Substituting in
)
2
20 (0.694) S + 7 S
1848 106 N/m2
20.88 S
1848 106 N/m2
88.5 MPa
61.4 MPa
and
Example 1.9.2
A bar of brass 25 mm diameter is enclosed in a steel tube 50 mm external diameter and 25

mm internal diameter. The bar and tube are both initially 1 m long and are rigidly fastened at
both ends. Find the stresses in the two materials if the temperature rises from 15C to 95C.
If the composite bar is then subjected to an axial tensile load of 50 kN, find the resulting
stresses and the increase in length from the original state.
Given:
ES = 200 GN/m2
EB = 100 GN/m2
S = 11.6 10-6 / C
B = 18.7 10-6 / C
38
SOLUTION
(l)B
l0Bt
(l)S
Brass bar
Steel tube
l0st
Temperature raised 80C
Original state
Rigidly connected at ends
Free
l
=
l =
l l
E
(l )B = l0 B (l )S = l 0 S
E=
EB
But (l )B + (l )S = l 0 B t l 0 S t
B
100 10
ES
l 0 B l 0 S
+
= l 0 B t l 0 S t
EB
ES
+
= 80(18.7 11.6 )10 6 N m 2
200 10
2 B + S = 113.6 10 6 N m 2
9
Also : compressive force in brass

B AB
tensile force in steel
S AS
B (/4 252) =
S (/4) [502 - 252]
Giving B
3S
Substitute in 1 :
113.6 106 N/m2
6S + S
16.23 MPa
48.69 MPa
39
The composite bar is now subjected to an axial tensile load of 50 kN.
i.e
Total force
force in brass + force in steel
50 x 103
B AB + S AS
(0.025)2 B + [(0.050)2 (0.025)2 ] S

4
giving B + 3S
= 50 10 3
101.86 106 N/m2
Also: extension of bronze = extension of steel.
B l0
l
= S 0
EB
ES
= S
100 200
B = S
2
Substitute in 1 :
S
+ 3S
2
101.56 106 MPa
giving S
29.02 MPa
14.51 MPa
Resultant tension in steel
29.02 + 16.23 =
45.25 MPa
Resultant tension in brass
14.51 + 48.69 =
63.2 MPa
40
1.10
BENDING STRESS
Consider a member AB subjected to bending due to an applied bending moment M, as shown

in fig. 1.9. The top of the beam reduces in length and is, therefore, in compression. The
bottom of the beam increases in length and is, therefore, in tension. At a certain plane
between the top and bottom fibres, the length remains the same. This plane is called the
neutral axis, where the stress is zero.
Maximum C
M
M
compression
ompres
n.a
A
n.a
n.a
n.a
tension
maximum t
(a) Elevation
(b) Cross
(c) Stress
section
Figure 1.9
diagram
Member subject to bending
From the stress diagram in the figure it can be seen that the bending stress is a maximum in
compression at the top of the cross section. It gradually reduces to zero at the neutral axis,
and then again gradually increases to a maximum tensile stress at the bottom.
Bending stress is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 4
41
1.11
SHEAR STRESS
A shear force consists of two equal parallel forces acting in opposite directions, i.e. not in the
same line.
shear force
area resisting shear force
Average shear stress =
/A
Consider a rectangular block of material PQRS acted upon by a shear force couple F l as
shown in fig.1.10 (a).
S1
R
A
R1
strained
shape S
1
Let the deformation in the direction of F be .

=
Since is small, tan

=
(b)
Figure 1.10
deformation
leverarm l
=
Modulus of rigidity G (or shearing modulus)
42
R
1
1
P
Q
(a)
Then shear strain
If a body is subjected to a shear stress within its elastic range, the shear strain is directly
proportional to the shear stress.
Hence G x shear stress
i.e
G=
shear strain (G = constant)
F A
=
l l
Note: Compare Young's modulus E (paragraph 1.3)
Complementary shear stress

If shear stress acts on planes PQ and RS of a body as shown in figure 1.10 (b), a clockwise
moment ( x PQ x t) x Q R, where t = thickness of the body, will result. Since the body is in
equilibrium, there must be an equal and opposite moment acting on the body.
( PQ t) Q R = (1 Q R t) P Q
Hence for a shear stress in a plane of a body there always exists an equal shear stress in a
perpendicular plane. This shear stress is called the complimentary shear stress.
Rivets in single and double shear planes
single shear plane
two shear planes
(a) Lap joint
(b) Butt joint with cover plates

Figure 1.11
43
The rivet in the lap joint above is in single shear, having only one shear plane. If diameter of
rivet = d, then
d2
The rivets in the butt joint above are in double shear, having two shear planes each. If
diameter of rivets = d, then
F
=
2
Note
d2
Shear stress will be more fully investigated in STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS II
44
1.12
TORSIONAL STRESS
L
A
A
(a)
B
B
Elevation
(b)
Figure 1.12
View X
Torsion
Consider a solid circular shaft AB fixed at A and with a pulley of radius A rigidly attached at
B. Twisting moment (or torque) on shaft: T = FA.
It can be shown that, subject to certain assumptions, the following relationship holds good:
T G
= =
J r
L
where T
= twisting moment or torque
= polar moment of inertia (see paragraph 2.8)
= shear stress
= distance from axis of shaft in a plane perpendicular to it
= shearing modulus (or modulus of rigidity)
= relative angle of twist of the two ends of the shaft
= length of shaft
The above relationship is analogous to the basic formula

(see Chapter 4).
We shall not deal further with torsional stress in this course.
45
M E
= =
for elastic bending
I
y R
1.13
VOLUMETRIC STRESS AND STRAIN AND BULK MODULUS
When a body is immersed in a liquid, it is subjected to the same pressure on all its faces.
This also occurs on a soil sample at depth.
This pressure creates a volumetric stress. This causes a strain on the body, called the
volumetric strain.
Volumetric stress
= v = Constant
v
volumetric strain
This constant is called the bulk modulus K.
Volumetric strain
Consider a square bar acted on by a tensile axial force as in figure 1.13.
x L0
L0
a a
ya
Figure 1.13
If x is the longitudinal strain, then the lateral strain is
y =
1
1
is Poisson's ratio.
x where
m
m
Volume of bar before stretching
V0
= a2 L0
After straining the volume is
= (a - ya)2 (L0 + x L0)
= a2L0 (1 - y)2 (1 + x)
i.e
= V0 (1 - y)2 (1 + x)
46
If x and y are small quantities compared to unity, we may ignore squares and products of x
and y and we may write
(1 - y)2 (1 + x)
V =
(1 + x - 2 y)
V0 (1+ x - 2 y)
Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of the change of volume to the original volume
and is, therefore,
V V0
= x 2 y
V0
If y =
1
x , then the volumetric strain is:
m
V V0
2
= x 1
V0
m
47
1.14
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELASTIC CONSTANTS
where E
= Youngs modulus or modulus of direct elasticity
= Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
= bulk modulus
= Poissons ratio (also referred to as )
/m
48
1.15
HARDNESS TEST
Hardness represents the resistance of a material against in indentation. There are various
methods of determining the hardness number k.
Brinell method
A hardened steel ball is pressed into the surface under a specified load which is held on for a
fixed period and then removed. A permanent impression is left in the surface and the
Brinell number is defined as the ratio of the applied load in kg to the spherical area of the
impression in mm2.
Other tests
There are various other tests, e.g. the Vickers Pyramid Diamond method, the Firth
Hardometer, the Rockwell hardness tester, the Shore scleroscope method and the Knoop
hardness test.
It has been found that there is an approximate linear relation between ultimate strength and
hardness number :
Ultimate tensile strength (N/mm2)
For mild steel and using the Brinell method, k = 3.5.
49
k Hardness number
1.16
TUTORIAL
1. A compound bar consists of a steel core, 15 mm diameter, within an alloy bar 25 mm

square. If the coefficient of thermal expansion for both metals is the same, and equal
to 12 10-6 per C, find the stress in each if the positions of the two ends are fixed in
position and the temperature rises 60 above that at which the bar is unstressed. Also
find the total force in the bar. ES =
200 GPa,
Ealloy
= 90 GPa
[Ans : S = 144 MPa; alloy = 64.8 MPa; F = 54.5 kN ]
2. A rod with a diameter of 25 mm and a length of 500 mm is subjected to an axial force

of 50 kN which causes an elongation of 0.25 mm. Determine (a) the stress in the rod;
(b) the strain; and (c) the modulus of elasticity of the material.
[Ans : 101.86 MPa; 50 x 10-6; 203.7 GPa]
3. A composite rod of total length 200 mm consists of a steel rod 120 mm long and 10
mm in diameter, which is rigidly attached to the end of a brass rod 80 mm long and
20m mm in diameter. The rod is used as a tie in a link mechanism and the strain in the
brass rod is limited to 0.53 x 10-3. Given that the total extension of the composite rod
must not exceed 0.1624 mm and E for the steel is 200 GPa, calculate the (a) strain in
the steel rod; (b) load carried by the steel rod; (c) load carried by the brass rod; and (d)
modulus of elasticity for the brass.
[Ans : 1 x 10-3; 15.71KN; 15.71 KN; 94.35 GPa]
4. A steel rim must be shrunk on a wheel 3 m in diameter without exceeding a stress of
77.25MPa in the rim. Calculate (a) the inside diameter of the rim; and (b) the least
temperature increase for the rim to fit the wheel ( = 11 x10-6/oC; E = 200GPa)
[Ans : 2.9988 m; 35.12oC]
5. An aluminium rod 20 mm in diameter is screwed at the ends and passes through a 25
mm bore steel tube 3 mm thick. Rigid washers and nuts are then fitted to the screwed
ends of the aluminium rod and the whole system heated to 140oC, when the nuts on
the rod are lightly tightened to take up any slack. Calculate the stress in the rod and in
50
the tube when the assembly has cooled to 20oC (EST = 200GPa; EAL = 70GPa; ST =
12 X 10-6/oC; AL = 23 X 10-6/oC).
[Ans : AL = 65.23 MPa (T); ST = 77.625 MPa (C)]
51
TST271Z
CHAPTER 2
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Determine the position of the centroid of a built up section.
Explain what the second moment area of a section and the neutral axis of a section
are.
Determine the second moment of area about the horizontal and vertical axes passing
through the centroid of the section.

Determine the section modulus of the cross section of a beam.
52
TST271Z
CHAPTER 2
CONTENTS
PAGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 54

2.2 CROSS SECTIONAL AREA .......................................................................................... 55
2.3 CENTROID ...................................................................................................................... 56
2.4 SECOND MOMENT OF AREA (MOMENT OF INERTIA I).................................... 61
2.5 PARALLEL AXES THEOREM.....................................................................................64
2.6 RADIUS OF GYRATION................................................................................................73
2.7 SECTION MODULUS (ELASTIC) ............................................................................... 74
2.8 PERPENDICULAR AXES THEOREM........................................................................75
2.9 PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS ............................................................................... 77
2.10 SECTION MODULUS (PLASTIC) .............................................................................. 79
2.11 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................... 84
53
2.
2.1
INTRODUCTION
By virtue of their shapes alone, various sections have the following properties:
(1)
Cross sectional area
(2)
Position of the centroid
(3)
Second moment of area
(4)
Radius of gyration
(5)
Section modulus (elastic)
(6)
Section modulus (plastic)
54
2.2
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA
A table of properties, which include cross sectional areas of some common sections, is given
in paragraph 2.9. A comprehensive table is given in the South Africa Steel Construction
Handbook (Red Book).
The cross sectional areas of structural steel sections are given in the Red Book. Three
examples are given below:
I-beam
460 140 46 I
A = 5,90 103 mm2
Channel
140 60 x 16 [
A = 2,04 103 mm2
Unequal angle
75 50 6
A = 0,719 103 mm2
55
2.3
CENTROID
The centre of gravity (C.G.) of a body is the point through which the weight of the body acts,
for all positions of the body.
The C.G. of a body is not necessarily inside the body itself.
The cross section of a structural section is a plane figure without mass (and hence it cannot
have weight) and the term centroid is used.
An axis through the centroid is called a
centroidal axis, and two mutually perpendicular centroidal axes intersect at the centroid of the
section.
To determine the centroid of a compound cross section made up of different parts, proceed as
follows:
(1)
Divide the cross section into its different parts, whose areas and positions of centroids
are known.
(2)
Assume the area of each part to act as a force through its centroid.
(3)
Assume the total area to act through the centroid of the total cross section at a distance
y from the top or bottom of the section for a horizontal centroidal axis. Let the total
area be A and the areas of the parts be a1 a2 ....... distant y1 y2 .......... from the top or
bottom of the section.
(4)
Take moments of all areas about the top or bottom of the cross section.
Then:
Ay
a1 y1 + a2 y2 +.........
Solve for y
(5)
Follow the same steps for a vertical centroidal axis, taking moments about left-hand
or right-hand edges.
56
Example 2.3.1
Find the position of the centroid of the following figure.

20
a2
a1
100
SOLUTION
a1
20 150
a2
80 30= 2 400
A
= 3 000
= 5400
Moments about bottom edge :

5400 y =
3 000 75 + 2 400 15
225 000 + 36 000
261 000
48.33
Moments about left-hand edge:

5400 x =
3 000 10 + 2 400 60
30 000 + 144 000
174 000
57
32.22
Example 2.3.2
Find the position of the centroid of the following figure

60
x
a1
a1
100
SOLUTION
a1
a2
60 50
/2 (40 50)
1 000
3 000
1 000 + 3 000 =
4 000
Moments about bottom edge:

4 000 y
1 000 50/3 + 3 000 25
16666.67 + 75 000
9 1666.67
22.92
Moments about right-hand edge:

4 000 x
1 000 (60 + 40/3) + 3 000 30
73333.33 + 90 000
58
163 333.33
40.83
Example 2.3.3
Find the position of the centroid of the compound girder shown in the following figure.
Notes:
(1)
Due to symmetry, the centroid of course lies on the Y-Y axis.
(2)
The addition of the single plate renders the compound sections un-symmetrical about
the X-X axis, and the position of x must be calculated as before.
254 152 59 I
Centroid of I
X
A
Y
200 15 plate
From the South Africa Steel Construction Handbook (Red Book), the area of 254 x152 x59 I
section is 7.57 103 mm2
SOLUTION
254 152 59 I. A =
7.57 103 mm2
59
7 570 mm2
200 15 pl.
A =
3 000 mm2
Total
A =
10 570 mm2
Moments about AA:

10 570 x
7 570 142 + 3 000 7.5
1 074 940 + 22 500
1 097 440
103.8 mm
60
2.4 SECOND MOMENT OF AREA (MOMENT OF INERTIA I)
In Fig. 2.1 below, A is an element of area, distant y from any axis XX
Element of area A
Area A
y
y
X
Figure 2.1
First moment of area about XX
yA
I = Second moment of area about XX
y2A
Total area A
y dA
2
or Ixx =
for a continuous area.
Example 2.4.1
A
Rectangular section d x b
y
G
b
61
GG = centroidal axis
Find IGG
SOLUTION
Consider an element of area A = by, distant y from GG

IGG for this element
A.y2
by.y2
I GG for complete section =
d
2
by dy
2
d
2
by 3 2
=
3 d
d 3
b d

3 8 8
b d3

3 4
bd 3
12
bd 3
=
12
=
I GG
Example 2.4.2
Rectangular section b d.
GG = centroidal axis
b
G
G
d
62
Find IGG
SOLUTION
Using the same method as for Example 2.4.1 above, we find that
I GG =
db 3
12
If the sections in examples 2.4.1 and 2.4.2 are compared, with d = 2b, we get the following
result:
b
2b
G
2b
Areas are equal = 2b2

1
1
3
b(2b ) I GG = (2b )b3
12
12
2 4
1 4
= b I GG = b
3
6
I GG =
I GG
It can be seen that the moment of inertia of the upright beam is 4 x the moment of inertia of
the flat beam, but they have equal cross-sectional areas. This is an important result, as will be
seen later, when we deal with resistance to bending and the deflection of beams.
63
2.5 PARALLEL AXES THEOREM

A
e
Q
Figure 2.2
The parallel axes theorem states:

IQQ
where IGG
QQ
e
IGG + Ae2
moment of inertia about centroidal axis G-G
GG
=
distance between the axes.
Proof
Since the area would balance about G-G if it had mass:
(+ y) A
(- y) A
yA
(e +y)2 A
IQQ
( e2 + 2 ey + y2) A
e2 A + 2ey A + y2 A
e2 A + 2e yA + y2 A
64
e2 A + 0 + IGG
IQQ = IGG + Ae2
Example 2.5.1
Find IBB, IQQ and IYY of the rectangular cross section d b
Y
d
d
y1
b
Q
Q
Y
SOLUTION
(1) IBB
Method 1
Method 2
From first principles
Using parallel axes theorem
A = by
I BB = I GG + Ae 2
I BB = y 12 bdy
y3
= b 1
3 0
=
1
d
bd 3 + bd
12
2
bd 3
1
bd 3 +
12
4
3
bd
=
3
=
bd 3
3
65
(2)
IQQ
I QQ = I GG + Ae 2
i. e. I QQ
(3)
bd 3
=
+ bde 2
12
IYY
IGG
1
( width)(depth) 3
12
In this case
width = d
depth = b
IYY
1 b3 d
12
Example 2.5.2
Find Ixx of the I section shown below

B
G1
G1
G2
G2
d
D
t
s
SOLUTION
Method 1
Method 2
Subtract the moment of inertia of
Divide I-section into three rectangules : the two
the shaded portion from the
flanges and the web.
moment
of
inertia
rectangular D B
of
the
Top flange:
66
I XX = I G1G1 + Ae 2
Bt 3
D t
=
+ Bt
2 2
12
Bottom flange :
Width of shaded portion = B-s =b

(say)
I XX = I G2 G2 + Ae 2
Depth of shaded portion = D-2t =

d (say) Section is symmetrical
Centroid of shaded portion
Web :
Coincides with centroid of D B

I XX =
Bt 3
D t
+ Bt
2 2
12
1
3
s( D 2 t )
12
2
Bt 3
3
D t 1
= 2
+ Bt + s( D 2 t )
2 2 12
12
I XX =
BD3 bd 3
12
12
Total I XX
Example 2.5.3
Find IXX the I section shown

below.
10
50
All dimensions in mm
67
SOLUTION
Method 1
I XX =
I XX
Method 2
I XX = 2(I XX flanges ) + I XX web
1
1
BD 3 bd 3
12
12
2 flanges :
1
3
2
I XX = 2 (5)(1) + 5(1)(4.5) cm 4
12
4
= 2[0.42 + 101.25]cm
1
(5)(10)3 1 (4)(8)3 cm 4
=
12
12
= 416.67 170.67cm 4
= 246cm
I XX
I XX = 246cm 4
= 203.3cm 4
web :
1
(1)(8)3 cm 4
=
12
= 42.67cm 4
Total I XX = 203.3 + 42.7cm 4

= 246cm 4
Example 2.5.4
Find the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis XX of the T-section below.
100
A
G2
A2
G2
X
X
G1
G1
A1
20
68
SOLUTION
For a rectangle, I-section etc. the position of the centroid is known without calculation. For a
T-section or other asymmetrical section it is necessary first to calculate the position of the
centroid.
Find position of centroidal axis XX
Take moments about AB
Ay
A1 y 1 + A 2 y 2
(14 2 + 10 1) y
14 2 8 + 10 1 0.5
38 y
224 + 5
229
cm
38
6.03 cm
Ixx
IGG + Ae2
457.3 + 108.7 cm4
566 cm4
IGG + Ae2
Web:
Flange:
Ixx
0.8 + 305.8 cm4
306.6 cm4
/12 (2) (14)3 + (14 x 2) (8 6.03)2 cm4
/12 (10) (1)3 + (10 1) (6.03 0.5)2
Total Ixx
566 + 306.6
69
Ixx
872.6 cm4
Example 2.5.5
Find Ixx and Iyy of an H-section 152 152 37 with a plate 180 mm x 15 mm on each flange.
180 15 plate
152 152 37 H
180 15
plate
All dimensions
in mm
SOLUTION
IXX
H-section
Ixx
2 210 cm4 (Red Book)
2 plates
Ixx
2 [IGG + Ae2]
2 [1/12 (18) (1.5)3 + (18 1.5) (8.09 + 0.75)2]
2 (5.06 + 2 109.93) cm4
4 230 cm4
6 440 cm4
Total Ixx
IYY
H-section
Iyy
706 cm4 (Red Book)
2 plates
Iyy
2 (1/12 db3)
70
Total Iyy
1.5 18 3
cm 4
6
1 458 cm4
2 164 cm4
Example 2.5.6
Find Ixx and Iyy for the built-up section shown
Y
400 20 pl.
200 20 pl.
200 20 pl.
X
X
105 20
150
20 105
60 60 10 angle sections (4)
A = 11.1 cm2 *
*18,5
400 x 20 pl
*18,5
* = from the Red Book
SOLUTION
IXX
2 flange pls
Ixx
= 2 [1/12 (40) (2)3 + (40 x 2) (11)2] =
19 413 cm4
2 web pls
Ixx
= 2 [1/12 (2) (20)3]
2 667 cm4
4 Ls
Ixx
= 4 [34.9 + 11.1 (10 -1.85)2]
3 089 cm4
Total Ixx
25 169 cm4
71
IYY
2 flange pls
Iyy
= 2 [1/12 (2) (40)3]
21 333 cm4
2 web pls
Iyy
= 2 [1/12 (20) (2)3] + (20 x 2) (8.5)2] =
5 807 cm4
4 Ls
Iyy
= 4 [34.9 + 11.1 (7.5 + 2 + 1.85)2]
5 859 cm4
32 999 cm4
Total Iyy
72
2.6 RADIUS OF GYRATION

The radius of gyration of a section is that distance from the centroid of the section which
would give the same moment of inertia if the whole area were concentrated at that distance.
X
Area A
Figure 2.3
If radius of gyration = r, then

I
= Ar2
i.e r = I/A
This property will be used later in column calculations.
73
2.7
SECTION MODULUS (ELASTIC)
The elastic section modulus Ze of a cross section is defined as

Ze
where I
y
I
y
= Moment of inertia of the cross section about centroidal axis

= The extreme fibre distance from the centroidal axis.
This property will be used later in bending stress calculation.
74
2.8 PEPENDICULAR AXES THEOREM

The perpendicular axes theorem states that
Izz
IXX + IYY
where XX, YY and ZZ are three mutually perpendicular axes.
Z
r
x
r 2 = x2 + y2
Figure 2.4
Consider an elementary area A that is distant:

y from axis XX
x from axis YY
r from axis ZZ
Ixx + Iyy
y2A + x2A
(x2 + y2) A
r2A
Izz
75
Izz
Ixx
Iyy
Izz is called the polar moment of inertia and is denoted by J. This property is used in torsion
calculations.
76
2.9
PROPERTIES OF PLANE AREAS
A = bd
d
c=
2
bd 3
I=
12
bd 2
Ze =
6
d
r=
12
RECTANGLE
G
d
TRIANGLE
bd
2
d
c=
3
bd 3
I=
36
bd 2
Ze =
24
d
r=
18
A=
c
b
CIRCLE
c=
G
d
d 2
A=
I=
4
d
2
d 4
64
Ze =
r=
77
= R 2
d 3
32
d R
=
4 2
R 4
R 2
4
HOLLOW CIRCLE
c=
d1
(d 2 d 12 )
A=
I=
4
d
2
(d 4 d 14 )
64
Ze =
r=
32d
d 2 d 12
4
A = bd b1d 1
I - SECTION
b1
d d1
(d 4 d 14 )
C=
d
2
I=
bd 3 b1d 13
12
12
G
c
bd 3 b1d 13
12
Z e = 12
d
2
b1 = b - t
r=
78
I
A
2.10
SECTION MODULUS (PLASTIC)
The last sectional property we will deal with in this chapter is the plastic section modulus Zp,
also called the first moment of area.
For plastic section modulus the neutral axis must be in such a position that the area above the
plastic neutral axis equals the area below it.
Consider the following T-section.
300
20
15
x
430
x
15
a = 415
Figure 2.5
The first step is to find the position of the equal-area axis.

15a
= (300 20 + 430 15)
which gives a = 415 mm

Then Zp(xx)
= First Moment of area about XX

= 300 20 25 +
15 (15) 2
15 (415) 2
+
2
2
= 1 443 400 mm3
Example 2.10.1
The figure below shows a built-up section. Calculate the following with MM as reference
point.
79
a. The position of the centroid of the section.

b. The second moment of area about horizontal and vertical axis (Ixx and Iyy).
c. The radius of gyration, rx and ry.
d. The elastic section modulus.
e. The plastic section modulus.
SOLUTION
Since YY is an axis of symmetry, its position is known, x = 150mm.
A = (300x50) + (110x30) + (70x50)

1500+ 3300+ 3500= 21800mm2
y=
15000(25) + 3300(65) + 3500(115) 375000+ 214500+ 402500

=
= 45.5mm
21800
21800
(b)
I XX = I GG + Ae2
I XX = 1 / 12x300x503 + 15000(45 25) 2 + 1 / 12x110x303 + 3300(65 45.5) 2 + 1 / 12x50x703 + 3500(115 45.5) 2
= 3125000+ 6303750+ 247500+ 1254825+ 1429166.67 + 16905875= 29266116.67mm4 = 2926.7cm4
I YY = 1 / 12x50x3003 + 0 + 1 / 12x30x1103 +0 + 1 / 12x70x503 + 0
= 112500000+ 3327500+ 729166.67 = 116556666.7mm4 = 11655.67cm4
80
(c)
rx =
I XX
=
A
ry =
I YY
116556666.7
=
= 73.12mm
A
21800
29266116.67
= 36.64mm
21800
(d)
Z ex (top ) =
I XX 29266116.67
=
= 643211.36mm 3
45.5
y top
(e)
Let us take the distance that cut the figure into two equal areas to be P from MM
1 / 2 A = 300 xP
21800
= 300 P
2
10900
P=
= 36.33mm
300
13.67
Z p = (300 x36.33)18.165 + (300 x13.67)

+ 36.33 + (110 x30)(15 + 13.67) + (50 x70)(35 + 30 + 13.67)
2
Z p = 197980.335 + 177019.665 + 94611 + 275345
Z p = 744956mm 3
81
Example 2.10.2
Calculate Zp(xx) for the section shown in example 2.7.1
500
25
yp
273,92
2/90656 LS
90
x
12
1031,08
1280
121280 pl
50
2/65506 L
12
300
SOLUTION
Find equal-area axis
Area A = 3 4578 mm2
A 34578
=
= 17280 mm 2
2
2
17289 = (500 25) + (901 2) + (yp - 25) 12
= 14302 + 12yp - 300
giving yp
= 273.92 mm
Calculate first moment of area Zp(xx):

500 25 pl.
= 3.268 106 mm3
(500 25) (273.92 12.5)
2/90 65 L's (901 2) (273.92 - 25 27.9)

12 1280 pl. above XX .12(273.92 12.5)
= 0.397 106 mm3
273.92 25
= 0.372 106 mm3
2
82
equal area
axis
12 1280 pl. below XX (1031.08 12)

300 12 pl.
1031.08
2
= 6.379 106 mm3

= 3.733 106 mm3
(300 12) (1031.08 + 6)
= 1.4 106 mm3
2/65 50 L's (2 658) (12.9 + 12 + 1031.08)

Zp(xx)
83
= 15.549 106 mm3
2.11
TUTORIAL
Calculate the position of the centroids and the second moment of areas about a horizontal and
vertical axis through the centroid for the following built-up sections. Use the section tables
for standard sections (all dimensions are in millimetres).
1.
80
20
40
20
40
40
160
[Ans : Ix = 13.928 x 106 mm; Iy = 16.85 x 106 mm4]
2.
50
80
15
80
200
90
120
[Ans : Ix = 193.41 x 106 mm4; Iy = 8.718 x 106 mm4]
84
3.
400
260
30
300
40
40
340
30
30
[Ans: x = 262.55 mm from the left hand side; Ix = 1090.6 x 106 mm4; Iy = 1285.4 x 106 mm4]
85
TST271Z
CHAPTER 3
SIMPLE BEAMS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Define shear force and bending moment and obtain these values at any given point on
a beam.
Explain the relationship between load, shear force and bending moment.
Plot the shear force and bending moment diagrams for statically determinate beams.
Determine the maximum shear force and bending moment for a statically determinate
beam.
Define and obtain the point of contraflexure on a beam.
86
CHAPTER 3
TST271Z
SIMPLE BEAMS
CONTENTS
PAGE
3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 88
3.2 CALCULATION OF REACTIONS .............................................................................. 90
3.3 SHEAR FORCE ............................................................................................................... 93
3.4 SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM .......................................................................................... 96
3.5 BENDING MOMENT ..................................................................................................... 99
3.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING
MOMENT ....................................................................................................................... 103
3.7 POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE.................................................................................107
3.8 BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM .............................................................................. 109
3.9 TUTORIAL.....................................................................................................................128
87
SIMPLE BEAMS
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Simple beams are statically determinate beams, i.e. all reactions can be found by considering
the three basic conditions for static equilibrium:
V
Note: If V 0, the beam would move up or down

If H 0, the beam would move to the left or right
If M 0, the beam would rotate clockwise or anti-clockwise
Simple beams may be:
(1)
Simply supported beams

W
VL
(a) With no overhang

(2)
W1
VR
w/m
w/m
VL
VR
(b) With overhang at one end
Cantilevers
w/m
W2
(a) Fixed in position and direction at one end

(b) Free at the other end
Figure 3.1
88
VL
VR
(c) With overhang both ends
Loading may be point loads W, W1.... etc., a uniformly distributed load (u.d.l.) of w per
meter run OR a linear varying load of w per meter run.
89
3.2
CALCULATION OF REACTIONS
The reactions are found by considering the three basic conditions for static equilibrium:
H = 0,
V = 0,
Example 3.2.1:
M = 0
Simply supported (s.s) beam, no overhang

400 kN
3m
2m
B
5m
VA
VB
SOLUTION
MB = 0 :
5 VA - 800 = 0
VA = 160 kN
MA = 0 :
5 VB - 1200 = 0
VB = 240 kN
Check :
V = 0 :
VA + VB = 400 kN
ALTERNATIVELY
VA
V = 0 :
160 kN as calculated above

VA + V B
= 400
VB
= 400 - 60
VB
= 240 kN
Note: VA and VB are the reactions to the external loading system.
90
Example 3.2.2:
Simply supported beam with overhang

120 kN
70 kN
50 kN/m
70 kN
C
2m
3m
1.5
VB
1.5m
6m
VC
SOLUTION
MC = 0 :
MB = 0 :
6VB - 120 8 - 70 4.5 - 70 1.5 - 50 8 4 = 0

6VB
= 2 980
VB
= 496.667 kN
6VC + 120 2 - 70 1.5 - 70 4.5 - 50 8 2 = 0

6VC
= 980
VC
= 163.333 kN
Check: V = 0:
VB + VC - 120 - 70 - 70 - 50 8 = 0
496.667 + 163.333 - 660 = 0
ALTERNATELY:
VB
= 496.667 kN
as calculated above
= 0: 496.667 + VC
= 120 + 70 + 70 + 400
VC = 163.333 kN
Note: VA and VB are the reactions to the external loading system.

91
Example 3.2.3
Cantilever
100 kN
MA
50kN
20 kN/m
3m
3m
6m
VA
SOLUTION
V = 0:
VA
= 100 + 5 + 20 3 kN
M = 0:
MA
= 100 3 + 50 6 + 20 3 4.5
VA
= 210 kN
MA
Note: VA and MA are the reactions to the external loading system.
92
= 870 kNm
3.3
SHEAR FORCE
Shear force is the internal force which occurs in a beam, resisting the external loading
system. It acts perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam, and is transmitted from
point to point along the beam.
A beam as a whole must satisfy the three basic conditions for static equilibrium. Similarly
any portion of a beam must satisfy the same conditions. A portion of a beam showing the
external loading system as well as the internal forces is called a free body diagram.
Consider the free body diagram of portion LX of beam LR as shown in figure 3.2.
W
w/unit length
R
L
x
VL
VR
w/unit length
Free body diagram of LX of beam
x
VL
Figure 3.2
The internal force at X resisting the external loading system = shear force S.
For equilibrium V = 0
S = VL - W - wx
93
Definition
The shear force (SF) at any section of a beam is the resultant vertical force of all the forces
acting on one side of the section.
Sign Convention
Shear force up on left and down on right = +
Shear force down on left and up on right = -
Example 3.3.1
Calculate the SF at A and at 2m from A for the beam shown.
400 kN
300 kN/m
A
2m
2.5 m
5m
B
VB
VA
SOLUTION
Find reactions
MB = 0 :
MA = 0 :
5VA
= 400 2 + 300 2.5 3.75
VA
= 722.5 kN
5VB
= 400 3 + 300 2.5 1.25
VB
= 427.5 kN
Check : V =
0 : 722.5 + 427.5 - 400 - 300 2.5 = 0
SF immediately to the left of A = 0, Since there are no forces to the left of A (see definition
of SF)
94
SF immediately to the right of A :

V = 0 :
SA = V A
SA = + 722.5 kN
300 kN/m
Free body
SA = 722.5 kN
diagram at A
VA 722.5kN
(SF is positive since force is up on left, down on right)
SF at 2 m from A
V = 0:
S = 722.5 - 2 300
S = 122.5 kN
300 kN/m
Free body diagram

of first 2 m of beam
A
2m
S2m = 122.5 kN
VA = 722.5 kN
95
3.4
SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM
A shear force diagram is a scale representation of the shear force at any point along the beam.
If the SF at various points is calculated and plotted, the SF diagram will result.
For u.d.l.s and point loads the S.F. diagram will consist of straight lines so that the only
shear forces that need to be calculated and plotted are those at point loads and at the ends of
u.d.l.s.
Notes
(1)
At point loads the SF changes from just left of the load to just right of the load by an
amount equal to the load.
(2)
For the purpose of the SF diagram the reactions at the supports are taken as loads.
Example 3.4.1
Calculate the shear forces and draw the SF diagram for the beam shown below:
400 kN
300kN/m
A
2m
2.5 m
5m
VB = 427.5 kN
VA = 722.5 kN
SOLUTION
VA and VB have been calculated in example 3.3.1
SA
722.5 kN
SC
722.5 - 300 2.5
-27.5 kN
SD (L) =
722.5 - 300 2.5
-27.5 kN
96
SD (R) =
722.5 - 300 2.5 - 400
-427.5 kN
722.5 - 300 2.5 - 400
-427.5 kN
SB
722.5 kN
+
-
27.5
2.5 m
0.5
427.5 kN
2m
5m
SF Diagram
Example 3.4.2
Draw the SF diagram for the beam below
120 kN
70 kN
70 kN
120 kN
50 kN/m
1.5m
3m
2m
6m
VB = 440
1.5m
2m
VC = 440
SOLUTION
From inspection VB = VC = 120 + 70 + 5 50 = 440 kN
SA
- 120 kN
SB (L) =
- 120 - 2 50
= -220 kN
SB (R) =
- 220 + 440
= +220 kN
97
+ 220 - 50 1,5
= +145 kN
SE (R) =
145 - 70
= +75 kN
SF (L)
+ 75 - 3 50
= -75 kN
SF (R) =
- 75 - 70
= -145 kN
SC (L) =
- 145 1.5 50
= -220 kN
SC (R) =
- 220 + 440
= +220 kN
SD (L) =
+ 220 - 2 50
= +120 kN
SD(R)
+ 120 - 120
= 0
SE (L)
220
220
120
145
75
A
F
145
C
75
120
220
220
SF Diagram
Values in kN
98
3.5
BENDING MOMENT
Bending moment (BM) is the internal moment which occurs in a beam, resisting the moments
of the external loading system. It acts in the vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of
the beam, and is transmitted from point to point along the beam.
Consider the free body diagram of portion LX of beam LR as shown in fig 3.3.
w/unit length
R
X
x
VL
VR
W
w/unit length
Mx
Free body diagram of LX of beam LR

X
a
x
VL
Figure 3.3
Internal moment at X resisting moments of external loads = Mx

For equilibrium M = 0
M X = VL x W ( x a)
wx 2
2
99
Definition
The bending moment M at a point in a beam equals the sum of the moments about the point
considered of all external forces to the left (or to the right) of the point.
Sign convention
Sagging BM is taken as positive
Hogging BM is taken as negative
Example 3.5.1
Point load only
Find the BM at any distance x from A in the beam shown in the figure
W
B
A
x1
x2
a
l-a
l
VA =
W (l a )
l
VA =
W (l a )
l
SOLUTION
From inspection
VA =
W (l a )
l
VB =
Wa
l
The expressions for BM differ for values of x < a and x > a

100
x2 > a
x1 < a
Mx =
W (l a )
x1
l
Example 3.5.2
Mx =
W (l a )x 2
l
W (x 2 a )
Point load + u.d.l.
Find the bending moment at any distance x from A in the beam shown in the figure
2000 kN
400 kN/m
A
B
x
6m
3m
9m
VB
VA
SOLUTION
Find VA and VB
MB = 0 :
MA = 0 :
9VA
2 000 6 + 400 9 4.5
VA
3133.33 kN
9VB
2 000 3 + 400 9 4.5
VB
2466.67 kN
3133.33 + 2466.67
Check : VA + VB
101
5 600 kN
x>3m
x<3m
400 x 2
2
= 3133.33 x 200 x 2 kNm
400 x 2
2
= 3133.33 x 2000( x 3) 200 x 2 kNm
M x = 3133.33 x 2000( x 3)
M x = 3133.33 x
Cantilever
Example 3.5.3
W
MB
B
A
x
l-x
l
VB = W
SOLUTION
Reactions :
VB = W
MB = Wl
Considering moments of forces to left of C about C:

Mx = -Wx
OR
Considering moments of forces to right of C about C:
MX = -MB + W (l-x)
= -Wl + Wl - Wx
= -Wx
(which, of course, is the same as above)
Note : There is hogging in the beam, -
BM
102
3.6
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING

MOMENT
Consider an element AB, length x, of a beam carrying a load of w/unit length.
Wx
S+S
M+M
A B
S x
M+M
S+S
Figure 3.4
For equilibrium of element x: V = 0

S = S + S + wx
S
= w
x
in the limit
dS
lim dx = w
x 0
i.e
S = wdx
Also for equilibrium of element x: M = 0

Taking moments about A:
M ( M + M ) + Wx .
Sx - M = 0
x
2
+ ( S + S )x = 0
(neglecting 2nd order of smallness)
in the limit
103
lim
x 0
dM
=S
dx
i.e.M = Sdx
These are important results and the following deductions can be made:
(1)
dM
=0
dx
BM is a maximum when
But
dM
=S
dx
Thus BM is a maximum at point where the shear force = 0
(2)
If w can be expressed in terms of x, then expressions for shear force S and bending
moment M can be obtained by integration.
(3)
If the load is uniform and w is constant then: S = wdx = wx + A

M = Sdx =
(a linear function)
wx 2
+ Ax + B
2
(a parabolic function)
Example 3.6.1
Find the point where the maximum bending moment occurs in the beam below, and calculate
its value.
2000 kN
A
400kN/m
3m
VA = 3133.33 kN
9m
VB = 2466.67 kN
104
SOLUTION
VA and VB were calculated in Example 3.5.2.
The
S.F. diagram can now be drawn :

SA
= 3133.33 kN
Sc (L)
= 3133.33 - 3 400 = 1933.67 kN
Sc (R)
= 3133.33 - 3 400 - 2000 = -66.67 kN
SB
= -66.67 - 6 400 = -2466.67 kN
3133.33
1933.67
66.67
3m
2466.67
S.F. diagram
(values in kN)
Position of maximum BM is where .F. = 0 i.e. at point load

Mmax = 3133.33 3 - 400 3 1.5
= 7600 kNm
105
ALTERNATIVELY USING CALCULUS

x < 3m
x > 3m
M x = 3133.33 x
M x = 3133.33 x 200 x 2 2000(x 3)
400 x 2
2
dM x
= 3133.33 400 x
dx
= 0 for max imum M x
3133.33
this gives x =
3
400
whichis ananomaly
dM x
= 3133.33 400 x 2000
dx
= 0 for max imumM x
this gives x =
Mmaxcan only occur at x=3
106
1133.33
3
400
whichis alsoananomaly
3.7 POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE
A point of contraflexure is a point where the curvature of a beam under loading changes from
concave upwards to concave downwards or vice versa. Thus for an infinitely small length the
beam is straight and BM here = 0.
point of contraflexure BM = 0
Figure 3.5
To find the point/s of contraflexure, an expression for the bending moment at any point x
must be developed, equated to zero and solved for x.
Example 3.7.1
Find the points of contraflexure in the beam shown below. Sketch the deflected shape.
w/m
A
B
7m
1.5m
1.5m
x
VC = 5w
VB = 5w
SOLUTION
From inspection VB = VC = 5w
M x = 5w( x 1.5)
wx 2
= 0 for po int s
2
wx 2
5wx + 7.5w = 0
2
i.e.x 2 10 x + 15 = 0,
givingx
of
contraflexure
i.e.
= 8.16m
and
107
1.84m
Deflected shape
108
3.8
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
A diagram representing bending moments at any point along the beam can be drawn similarly
as for shear force diagrams.
You should be familiar with the following standard cases of bending moment diagrams.
(1)
Simply supported beam with central point load
l/2
l/2
W/2
l
+
W/2
wl/4
BM Diagram
(2)
Simply supported beam with u.d.l over whole span
w/unit length
Mx =
l
wl/2
wl/2
wl2/8
wl
wx 2
x
2
2
This is a parabolic function
dM x
wl
=
wx
dx
2
= 0 for max M x
Solving: x = l 2
wl l wl l
M max =

2 2 2 4
wl 2
=
8
109
(3)
Simply supported beam with two equal point loads equi-distant from supports
W
a
a
l
W
+
Wa
BM Diagram
(4)
Simply supported beam with single non-central point load
l-a
W(l-a)
Wa(l-a)
Wa
BM Diagram
110
(5)
Simply supported beam with u.d.l over whole span as well as central point load
w/unit run
l/2
W+wl
2 2
l/2
W+wl
2 2
Wl+wl2
4 8
BM Diagram
(6)
Cantilever with point load at end
Wl
W
l
Wl
BM Diagram
111
(7)
Cantilever with u.d.l. over whole length
wl 2
2
w/unit length
l
wl
wl 2
2
BM Diagram
Figure 3.6 (1) to (7)
Example 3.8.1
Calculate the reactions and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
cantilever beam below. Calculate the value of the shear force and bending moment at K.
8kN/m
20 kN
MA A
B
2m
VA
40kN 30kN
K
0.5
1.5m 1m
5m
SOLUTION
Reactions : V = 0 : VA = 30 + 40 + 20 + 8 4 = 122 kN
M = 0 : MA - 20 2 - 40 4 - 30 5 - 8 4 2 = 0
112
MA = -414 kNm
Shear forces
Bending moments
SA
= 122 kN
MA
= -414 kNm
SB(L)
= 122 - 8 2 = 106 kN
MB
= -414 + 122 x 2 - 8 2 1 = -186 kNm
SB(R)
= 106 - 20 = 86 kN
MK = -30 2.5 - 40 1.5 - 8 1.5 0.75 =-1444kNm
SK
= 86 0.5 8 = 82 kN
MC
= -30 1 = -30 kNm
SC(L)
= 82 - 8 1.5 = 70 kN
MD
= 0
SC(R)
= 70 - 40 = 30 kN
SD(L)
= 30 kN
SD(R)
= 0
122
106
86
+
70
B
30
82
K
Shear force Diagram (kN)

414
186
144
30
A
Bending Moment Diagram (kNm)
113
Note
You will have noticed that positive bending moments are shown below the beam line and
negative bending moments above, contrary to normal practice in mathematics. This
convention will be adhered to as far as bending moment diagrams are concerned, as the
deflected shape of the beam can be more easily visualised.
Example 3.8.2
Find the equations for the shear force and the bending moment for the beam with uniformly
increasing u.d.l. shown below and sketch the SF and BM diagrams showing values and
positions at which they occur.
350 kN/m
200 kN/m
150
x
6m
VB
VA
SOLUTION
Find reactions
M B = 0: 6V A = 200 6 3 +
150 6 1
6
2
3
V A = 750kN
M A = 0: 6V B = 200 6 3 +
150 6 2
6
2
3
V B = 900kN
Check :900 + 750 = 200 6 +
150 6
2
Equation for SF:
114
x
x
S x = V A 200 x 150
6
2
= 750 200 x 12.5 x 2
For S = 0 :
0 = 750 200 x 12.5 x 2
Solving gives x = +3.12m or -19.12m
Ignore the -19.12 m value
750 kN
3.12 m
900 kN
SF Diagram
Equation for BM
M x = VA x
200 x 2 x
x x
150 .
2 3
2
6
= 750 x 100 x 2
25 x 3
6
Mx is a maximum at SF = 0 i.e at x = 3.12 m
ALTERNATIVELY :
dM x
75x 2
= 750 200 x
= 0 for
dx
6
maximum BM. Solve for x
115
M max
25(3.12 )
= 750 3.12 100(3.12 )
6
= 1240kNm
1240 kNm
3.12 m
BM Diagram
Example 3.8.3
Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown below and
calculate the maximum values and the positions at which they occur. Sketch the deflected
shape.
150 kN/m
2 500 kN
B
A
10 m
VA
Find reactions
10VA = 150 12 4 - 2 500 2
VA
MA = 0 :
= 220 kN
10VB = 150 12 6 + 2 500 12

VB
2m
VB
SOLUTION
MB = 0 :
= 4 080 kN
Check : 220 + 4 080 = 150 12 + 2 500

116
Sketch SF diagram
2800
2500
220
SA
= 220 kN
SB(L) = 220 - 10 150 = -1280

SB(R) = -1 280 + 4 080 = 2 800
SC(L) = 2 800 - 2 150 = 2 500

1200
SF Diagram
Values in kN
Calculate x (position where SF = 0)

220 - 150x = 0
x =
ALTERNATIVELY :
22 m
15
220x -
dM x
dx
220 - 150x
Solve for x
Sketch BM diagram
5300
161 1 3
22
15 m
150 x 2
2
Mx
BM Diagram (values in kNm)
117
= 0 for maximum BM
MA
= 0
M max = 220
22
22 22
150
15
15 30
= 161.33 kNm
MB = 220 10 - 150 10 5
= 5 300 kNm
Point of contraflexure
Contraflexure occurs where M = 0 i.e. at point D.
As BM diagram from A to D is parabolic,
AD = 2
22 44
m = 2.93m
=
15 15
ALTERNATIVELY : Mx = 220 -
150 x 2
= 0 at contraflexure
2
Solve for x
Deflected shape
point of contraflexure
2.93 m
118
Example 3.8.4
For the beam shown in the figure below calculate the position and magnitude of the
maximum sagging bending moment and also the positions of the points of contraflexure.
30kN
40kN
x1
x2
24kN/m
C
A
2.5m
0.6
VA
D B
E
1m
1.5
VB
SOLUTION
Find reactions
4VA + 40 1 - 30 1.5 - (3.1 24 3.05) = 0
MB = 0 :
4VA = -40 + 45 + 226.92

VA = 57.98 kN
4VB - 40 5 - 30 2.5 - (24 3.1 0.95) = 0
MA = 0 :
4VB = 200 + 75 + 70.68

VB = 86.42 kN
Check : 57,98 + 86.42 = 24 3.1 + 30 + 40
Find shear forces
SC
SA(L)
-24 0.6 = -14.4 kN
SA(R)
-14.4 + 57.98 = 43.58 kN
SD(L)
43.58 - 24 2.5 = -16.42 kN
SD(R)
-16.42 - 30 = -46.42 kN
119
SB(L)
-46.42
SB(R)
-46.42 + 86.42 = 40 kN
SE(L)
40 kN
43.58
Find a (where SF=0)
40
+
16.42
14.4
2.5 a
a
=
43.58 16.42
+
-
giving a = 1.82 m
46.42
SF Diagram (kN)
Find bending moments

MA
= - 24 0.6 0.3
= -4.32 kNm
MB
= - 40 1
= -40 kNm
Mmax occurs where SF = 0, i,e, at 1.82 m from A

Mmax = 57.98 1.82 - 24 2.42 1.21
= 35.24 kNm
40
4.32
A
Q B
+
1.82 m
BM Diagram (kNm)
120
Find points of contraflexure P and Q (where BM = 0)

P:
M x1 = 57.98 (x1 0.6) -
24x1
2
= 0
Solving gives x1 = 0.70 or 4.1 m

The value 4.1 m is untenable as it falls outside the range for M x1
i,e. P lies
Q:
0.7 0.6 = 0.1 m from A
M x2 = 86.42 (x2 - 1) - 40 x2 = 0
Solving gives x2 = 1.86 m
i.e. Q lies
1.86 - 1 = 0.86 m from B
ALTERNATIVELY: The position of Q can also be obtained by taking moments from the
left. This, however, entails more work with a higher chance of making an error in the
calculation. The simpler solutions should always be sought.
Example 3.8.5
For the beam shown in the figure, draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams, and
calculate the following:
(a)
The position and magnitude of the maximum positive and negative bending moments.
(b)
The points of contraflexure
(c)
Sketch the deflected shape.

80 kN/m
20 kN/m
A
1m
VL
1m
D
1m
1m
VR
121
SOLUTION
Find reactions
MD = 0:
MB = 0:
2VL
= 20 2 2 - 80 1 0.5
VL
= 20 kN
2VR
= 80 1 2.5
VR
= 100 kN
Check 20 + 100 = 20 2 + 80 1
Find shear forces
SA
= 0
SB(L)
= - 20 1 = -20 kN
SB(R)
= -20 + 20 = 0
SC
= 0 - 20 1 = -20 kN
SD(L)
= -20 kN
SD(R)
= -20 + 100 = 80 kN
SE(L)
= 80 - 80 1 = 0
80
A
20
E
20
SF Diagram (kN)
Bending Moments
MA
= 0
MB
= -20 1 0.5 = -10 kNm

122
MC
= 20 1 - 20 2 1 = -20 kNm
MD
= 20 2 - 20 2 2 = -40 kNm
ME
= 0
40
20
BM Diagram (kNm)
10
A
Point of contraflexure
There are no points of contraflexure, since the bending moment remains negative throughout.
Deflected shape
Example 3.8.6
A beam ABCDEF of constant E.I. is loaded as shown. An anti-clockwise moment is applied
at point C as shown. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams and find the
position of the point of contraflexure.
123
SOLUTION
MA = 0:
(VD 7) + 15 = (12 12) + (8 25 (5+1))

giving VD
MD = 0:
= 161.3 kN
(VA 7) + (12 5) + 25 2 1 = 15 + (25 6 3)

giving VA
Check: V = 0:
= 50.7 kN
161.3 + 50.7 = (25 8) + 12
Find shear forces:

SA
= 50.7 kN
SB
= 50.7 kN
SD(L) = 50.7 - (25 6)
= -99.3 kN
SD(R) = -99.3 + 161.3
= +62 kN
SE
= +62 -(25 2) = +12 kN
SF(L) = +12 kN
Find bending moments:
MA
= 0
124
MB
= 50.7 kNm
MC(L) = (50.7 4) - (25 3 1.5) = +90.3 kNm

MC(R) = +90.3 -15 = 75.3 kNm
Find Mmax
MD
= 50.7 7-(25 6 3) -15 = -110.1 kNm
ME
= 50.7 9-(25 8 4) -15 + 161.3 2 = -36.1 kNm
MF
=0
Assume Mmax to occur in range 0 < x < 4m.

Mx = 50.7x -
25( x 1)
dM x
= 50.7 - 25(x -1) = 0 for Mmax
dx
which gives x = 3.028 m
[Note: If x should fall outside the range assumed, choose the next range.]
ALTERNATIVELY Mmax occurs where SF = 0 From simple geometry it will be found that
q = 2.028 m.
(See SF diagram)
125
12 kN
15 kN
A
25 kN/m
D
161.3
62
50.7 kN
50.7 kN
+
B
12
+
C
q = 2.028
12
F
Shear Force diagram

(kN)
99.3
110.1
36.1
x
-
straight line
straight line
50.7
102
75.3
Bending moment diagram
90.3
(kNm)
126
Point of contraflecture
This is where BM = 0
Find x (See BM diagram)
Mx = 50.7x -
1<x<7
25( x 1)
-15 = 0
12.5x2 75.7x + 27.5 = 0

Solving gives x = 5.67m or 0.39m
Point of contraflexure occurs 5.67 from A.
127
3.9
TUTORIAL
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams and find the maximum shear force,
maximum bending moment and point(s) of contraflexure (PCF) of the following beams.
12 kN
8 kN
A
1.
2m
2m
2m
[Ans : RA = 9.33KN; RD = 10.67KN; Vmax =-10.67 KN, C-D; Mmax = 21.3KN.m, C]
10 kN
10 kN
12 kN
4 kN/m
4 kN/m
2.
B
3m
1m
D
3m
2m
E
5m
[Ans: RC = 48KN; RF = 16KN; Vmax =26KN, C-D; Mmax = -70KN.m, C; PCF 6.87 m from F]
20 kN/m
3.
A
3m
[Ans: Vmax = -30KN, B; Mmax = -30 KN.m, B]
128
4. A beam ABCDE has AB = 2 m, BC = 2 m, CD = 2 m and DE = 6 m. One of the supports

is at point B. The beam carries the following loads: at A a concentrated load of 8 kN; at C a
concentrated load of 5 kN ; at D a concentrated upward force 3.4 kN; and at E a concentrated
load of 5 kN. There is a uniformly distributed load of 4 kN/m from point D to E. If there is a
point of contraflexure 4.5 m from A, calculate the position of the other support. Draw the
shear force and bending moment diagrams and determine the magnitude and position of all
the relevant points.
[Ans : RB = 17.4kN; RF = 31.2kN 7 m from B; Vmax = 17kN, F; Mmax = -33 kN.m, F; PCF 3.7
m from A]
129
TST271Z
CHAPTER 4
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Explain what the neutral axis of a section is.
Derive and apply the beam formula to determine the bending stress at any point in a
statically determinate beam.
Determine the radius of curvature at any section of a statically determinate beam.

Determine the section modulus of the cross section of a beam.
Apply the principle of superposition.
Apply the beam formula and modular ratio to determine the stresses in composite
bars.
130
MODULE 2
TST271Z
CHAPTER 4
CONTENTS
PAGE
4.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 132

4.2 DERIVATION OF FUNDAMENTAL FORMULA .............................133
4.3 SECTION MODULUS .................................................................................................. 136
4.4 THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION...................................................................147
4.5 COMPOSITE BEAMS...................................................................................................154
4.6 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................... 157
131

4.1
INTRODUCTION
Bending stress is briefly mentioned in Chapter 1: Stresses and strains. (See paragraph 1.10.)
In this chapter we will analyse bending and bending stresses in greater detail.
Basic assumptions in the theory of elastic bending

(1)
The material is homogeneous and Youngs Modulus E is the same in tension and
compression.
(2)
Plane cross sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam remain plane
and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis after bending (Bernouillis hypothesis).
(3)
The stress-strain relationship is linear for the loading considered.
132
4.2
M E
= =
I
y R
DERIVATION OF FUNDAMENTAL FORMULA
Consider an elemental length of beam x with moment M applied at each end, the plane of
the moment coinciding with the axis of symmetry. The initial straight shape and the shape
after bending are shown in fig. 4.1.
A
G
yt
A
yc
D
Initial straight shape
y
yt
A1
y
G11
yc
N
H1
1
M B
C1
F1
D1
R
Cross section
Shape after bending
Figure 4.1
133
c
Stress diagram
It is clear from the deformed shape of the beam that the fibres at the top (convex side) extend,
i.e. they are in tension, whilst those at the bottom (concave side) shorten, i.e. they are in
compression.
Between top and bottom fibres, therefore, there must be one layer which neither extends nor
shortens, but remains the same length and is therefore unstressed. This layer is known as the
neutral axis (E1F1 =E F).
If the deformed shape is such that the neutral axis is bent in the form of a circular arc of
radius R, then, since is very small, x = R
i . e. R =
Consider a layer GH at distance y from the neutral axis as shown. Under bending its length
increases to G1H1
Strain =
=
change in length l
original length l
( R + y) R
x
y y
=
=
x
R
But =
y
=
R E
stress
E =
strain
E
i . e.
=
y R
Position of neutral axis (n.a.)

Let A be the area of a strip of beam distance y from the n.a.
yt
Total tension = dA
0
E t
= ydA
R0
E
and total compression =
R
yc
ydA
0
134
For equilibrium, total tension = total compression
i . e.
yt
yc
ydA =
ydA
i.e. 1st moment of area above n.a. = 1st moment of area below n.a.
Neutral axis passes through centroid of section.

Again, for equilibrium:
Moment of resistance provided by internal forces about n.a. = externally applied moment.
y
E t 2
E
y dA +
R0
R
yc
dA = M
E t 2
i . e.
y dA = M
R yc
yt
But
dA = 2nd moment of area about n. a . = I n .a .
yc
M E
= =
I
R y
135
4.3
SECTION MODULUS
For extreme fibre on compression side:
M c
=
I
yc
For extreme fibre on tension side:
M = t
i. e. M = c
I
yc
I
yt
If section is symmetrical about neutral axis (n.a).

For a section that is symmetrical about the neutral axis yc = yt
If Total depth = D , then
M = c
where Z =
yc = yt =
D
2
I
I
=t
= Z
D
D
2
2
I
= section modulus
D
2
If is the maximum allowable stress, then M is the maximum allowable bending moment on
the section, and is called the moment of resistance of the section.
(i.e. the maximum bending moment which the section can resist)
If the section is not symmetrical about the n.a.

There will then be two section moduli.
and
Zt =
I
yt
Zc =
I
yc
yc
yt
Figure 4.2
136
For a rectangular section:
bd 3
12
I
bd 2
z =
=
d
6
2
I=
d/2
A
N
d/2
Figure 4.3
Notes :
(1)
Like I, section modulus z is given in the Red Book in mm units e.g. for a152 x 15 x
23 H section Ze about the xx axis = 165 103 mm3
(2)
Bending in practice is accompanied by shear force, and the bending moment varies
along the beam. Although the basic assumptions no longer hold good completely,
experimental evidence shows that the formula deduced give sufficiently accurate
results.
Example 4.3.1
A simply supported beam of span 4m carries a u.d.l. of 15 kN/m. If the cross section of the
beam is rectangular, 150 mm deep 50 mm wide, find the maximum stress due to bending.
SOLUTION
The maximum bending moment occurs at midspan,
137
Wl 2
8
15 10 3 4 2
=
Nm
8
= 30 10 3 Nm
M =
bd 2 5 (15)
=
= 187.5cm 3
6
6
M = Z
M
i.e.= =
Z
30 10 3
=
= 160 10 6 N m 2
187.5 10 6
= 160 MPa
2
Z=
Example 4.3.2
A beam has a cross section as shown. The ultimate stress is 240 MPa for the material of
which it is made. Find the maximum bending moment the beam can take if a stress factor of
2 is applied.
80 mm
7.5 mm
138
SOLUTION
BD 3 bd 3
I=
12
12
3
3
8(12 ) 7.25(8)
.=
cm 4 = 8.42cm 4
12
12
I
8.42
Z=
=
= 140cm 3
D2
6
ultimate stress
For stress factor of 2 : =
2
240
=
= 120 MPa
2
M = Z
= 120 10 6 140 10 6 = 16800 Nm
M = 16.8kNm
Example 4.3.3
(a)
A uniform beam, having a cross section as shown in the figure, is 6 m long and is
simply supported at its ends. Find the maximum u.d.l, self-weight included, which it
can carry over its whole length, in addition to a point load of 20 kN at midspan, if the
permissible bending stress is 20 MPa.
(b)
A steel wire of 6 mm diameter is coiled round a 6 m diameter drum without being left
under tension. Determine the maximum bending stress set up in the wire.
E = 200 GPa.
50
45
50
160 mm
350 mm
45
50
100
100
100
139
SOLUTION
Find Ixx
IXX = 1/12 (30) (35)3 - 2(1/12)(10)(16)3 - 4 [1/36 (10) (4.5)3 + 1/2 (10) (4.5) (9.5)2]
-2 [/4 (2.5)4
+ /4 (5)2 (12.5)2]
= 107188 - 6827 - 4(25 + 2031) - 2 (31 + 3068)
= 107188 - 6827 - 8224 - 6198 = 85939 cm4
20 kN
w/m
3m
3m
6m
3w + 10
3w + 10
Mmax = (3w + 10) 3 - 3w (3/2) kNm

9w 9w
=
+ 30kNm
2
2
I
M E
= = M =
I
y R
y
= 9 w + 30
20 10 6 85939 10 8
9w
+ 30 10 3 =
0.175
2
which gives w = 15.2kN / m
Notes
(1)
I for circle = /4 r4
(2)
h
b
I = 1/36 bh3
140
h/3
M E
= =
I
y R
(b)
6m
Wire is bent to radius of curvature R = 3m

y = 3 mm: E = 200 GPa
Ey
R
200 10 9 0.003
=
10 6 MPa
3
= 200MPa
Example 4.3.4
(a)
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the simply supported beam
shown in the figure below.
(b)
If the beam is made up from a channel and an I section as shown in the cross-section,
determine the maximum bending stress in MPa.
280 95 42
60 kN
25.3
50 kN/m
119.5
A
2m
VA
94.2
4m
69.7
VB
179.
y=
A
356 171 57 kg I
Cross section
141
SOLUTION
(a) Find VA and VB
MB = 0 : VA 6
= 60 4 + 50 6 3
VA = 190 kN
VB = 300 + 60 - 190 = 170 kN
Draw S.F. Diagram

SA
= 190 kN
SC (L) = 190 - 2 50= 90 kN

SC (R) = 90 - 60
SB
= 30 kN
+ 30 - 4 x 50 = -170
90
190
30
2m
170
Shear force diagram

(all values in kN)
Find position where shear force = 0
x 50 = 30
x =
30
= 0.6 m
50
SF = 0 at 2.6 m from A
i,e, BM is maximum at this point
142
Mmax = 190 2.6 - 60 0.6 - 50 2.6 1.3

= 494 - 36 - 169
= 289 kNm
ALTERNATIVELY : At x from A :
Mx
50 x 2
2
= 190x - 60(x-2) = 130x + 120 - 25x2
dMx
= 130 - 50x = 0 for Mx a maximum
dx
This gives x = 2.6 m
MA
= 190 2 - 50 2 1
= 280 kNm
Draw BM diagram
From section tables
280
I:
A = 7.22 x 103 mm2

Ixx = 161 x 106 mm4
289
h = 358.6 mm
2.6 m
[:
A = 5.34 x 103 mm2

Iyy = 3.98 x 106 mm4
Bending Moment diagram
tw = 10 mm
(all values in kNm)
ay = 25.3 mm
143
(b)
Find Centroid
Take moments about AA.

7.22 103 179.3 + 5.34 103 (358.6 + 10 25.3) = (7.22 + 5.34) 103 y
1294.55 + 1833.22
which gives
IGG
= 12.565 y
y = 249.03 mm
= [161 106 + 7.22 103 (69.73)2] + [3.98 106 + 5.34 103 (94.27)2]
= (161 + 35.1) 106 + (3.98 + 47.5) 106
= 247.6 106 mm4
My
I
289 10 6 249
=
N mm 2
6
247.6 10
= 290.6 N mm 2
Maximum bending stress = 290.6 MPa
Example 4.3.5
For the simply supported been shown in the figure, draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams, and select the lightest channel section suitable to resist the bending moment. Use a
permissible bending stress of 160 MPa
10 kN
20 kN
15 kN/m
20 kN/m
12 kN/m
2m
1m
3m
RA
0.5m
RB
144
SOLUTION
Find reactions
5RA
= 10 6 + 15 + 1 5.5 + 12 2 4 + 20 3 1.5 - 20 0.5 - 20 0.5 0.25

= 60 + 82.5 + 96 + 90 - 10 - 35 = 316
RA
= 63.2 kN
5RB
= 20 5.5 + 20 0.5 5.25 + 20 3 3.5 + 12 2 1 - 15 1 0.5 - 10 1

= 110 + 52.5 + 210 + 24 7.5 - 10 = 379
RB
= 75.8 kN
Check V = 0: 63.2 + 75.8 = 10 + 15 + 24 + 60 + 10 + 20
Draw SF diagram
VA
-10
VB(L) =
-10 -15 = -25
VB(R) =
-25 + 63,2 = +38,2
VC(K) =
+38,2 - 24 = +14,2
VD(L) =
+14,2 - 60 = -45,8
VD(R) =
-45,8 + 75,8 = +30
VE(L)
+30 - 10 = +20
38.2
A
10
B
25
30
14.2
C
x=
+
-
Shear force diagram

(values in kN)
145
D
45.8
20
E
Find x (i.e. where SF = 0)

14.2 - 20x
=0
= 0.71 m
i,e. SF = 0 at 2.71 m from B

i.e. BM is a maximum at 2.71 m from B
Mmax = 63.2 2.71 - 10 3.71 - 15 1 3.21 12 2 1.71 - 20 0.71 0.355

= 39.9 kNm
Check: Mmax = 75.8 2.29 - 20 2.79 - 20 0.5 2.54 - 20 2.29 1.145
= 39.9 kNm
M
I
= i.e.M =
= Z
I
y
y
Z reqd =
39.9 10 3
10 9 mm 3
6
160 10
39.9 10 3
=
10 3 mm 3
160
= 249 10 3 mm 3
240 85 33 [: Ze = 300 103 mm2

Use a 240 85 33 [
Note: We are using the elastic section modulus Ze
146
4.4
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
If a material is elastic and obeys Hookes Law, it follows that: (a)
Stresses are proportional to strains
(b)
Loads are proportional to deflections
(c)
Moments are proportional to rotations
The principle of superpositions states:

The effect on an elastic structure of any loading system will be the algebraic sum of the
effects of the individual components of that loading system.
The principle of superposition can also be applied to members subject to a combination of
stresses. A beam under a combination of axial thrust and bending moment might at some
section have a distribution of stress across the section as follows:
b + c
C
+
T
T
b
b - c
Distribution of stress due to Distribution of stress due to Combined

bending
axial loading
stress
Figure 4.4
147
distribution
of
Further examples of the principle are as follows:

Loading
(1)
w/m
/2
/2
a
/2 /m
/2
/2
=
l
/2
/2
(2)
/2 /m
/2 /m
/2 /m
/2
(3)
Figure 4.5
Bending moment
MA
MB
A
Free BM diagram
MC
+
+
MA
MB
BM diagram for end moments

=
MA
MB
+
Figure 4.6
148
Combined BM diagram
Example 4.4.1
A cantilever beam ABC is 3 m long and has a rectangular cross-section of 100 mm wide x
300 mm deep. It carries a uniformly distributed load (including self-weight) of 4 kN/m and
an axial compressive load of 150 kN, as shown in the sketch.
4 kN/m
F = 150 kN
HA = 150 kN
A
C
1.5 m
1.5 m
VA =12kN
(a)
Calculate the bending moments at A and at midspan C and draw the bending moment
diagram.
(b)
Find the top and bottom fibre stresses at A, B and C.
(c)
Calculate the distance from C where the tensile stress in the top fibres = zero
(a)
MA = -4 3 1.5
= -18 kNm
MC = -4 11/2 0.75
= -4.5 kNm

(values in kNm)
A
1.5 m
149
C
1.5 m
(b)
Point A
Bending:
b =
Direct force :
c =
MA
18 10 3
=
10 6 = 12 MPa
1
Z
(10)(30) 2 10 6
6
F
150 10 3
=
10 6 = 5 MPa
A 10 30 10 4
5 MPa
12 MPa
7MPa
12 MPa
Stress diagrams :
17 MPa
Due to bending
Due to compression
Point B
M B 4 ,5
=
12 = 3 MPa
Z
18
Bending:
b =
Direct force :
c = 5 MPa as before
3 MPa
5 MPa
2 MPa
=
C
C
3 MPa
5 MPa
8 MPa
150
Combined
Point C
b = 0
Bending
C = 5 MPa as before
5MPa
(c)
Let distance from C = x

4x2
M
b = x = 2 = 5 MPa
1 2
Z
bd
6
Working in N and m:
2 x 2 10 3
1
(10)(30) 2 10 6
6
= 5 10 6
12 x 2 10 3
=5
9000
giving x = 1.936 m
=
C
151
Example 4.4.2
The figure shows the cross section of a short hollow column. The diameter of the drain pipe
running through the column is 125 mm, and the centre line of the pipe is displaced 20 mm
from the centre of the column. Calculate the maximum and minimum stresses resulting from
the application of a comprehensive force of 1 MN applied along the longitudinal axis through
the centre line of the column. Use the principle of superposition of stresses.
X
20 mm
1MN
125
yt
e
100 mm
100 mm
yc
X
SOLUTION
Find centroid of column
2
2
2
2
(200 ) 4 (125) y t = 200 (100 ) 4 (125) (120 )
which gives yt = 91.15 mm

P = 1 MN
i.e. yc = 108.85 mm
= 1000 kN
eccentricity e = 100 91.15 = 8.85 mm

Bending
M = Pe
= 1000 8.85 = 8850 kN/mm
152
(cm units)
Find IXX
1
(20)4 + (20)2 (0.885)2 1 (12.5)4 + (12.5)2 (2 + 0.885)2
12
4
64
4
= 11427cm
I 11427
Zt =
=
= 1254cm 3
y t 9.115
I XX =
ZC =
I
11427
=
= 1050cm 3
y c 10.885
P M
A Z
P M
max =
A Zt
1000 10 3
8850 10 3
(N and mmunits )
1050 10 3
8850 10 3
( N and mm units)
1254 10 3
(200)2 (125)2
4
= 36 + 8 = 44 MPa
mn =
=
P M
A
Zt
1000 10 3
(200) 2 (125) 2
4
OR
36
36
= 29 MPa
36
Stress diagram due to direct stress
Stress diagram due to bending

7
44
Combined stress diagram
29
(all values in MPa)
153
4.5 COMPOSITE BEAMS

The flitched beam is the simplest type of composite beam. A flitched beam is one where a
beam of, say, timber is strengthened by adding a steel plate (say) on the top and bottom or on
each side in such a way that there is no slip between the two materials.
steel plate
timber beam
bolts at intervals along beam
steel
Figure 4.7
Strain in steel = strain in timber

i.e.
i.e.
S
ES
S =
T
ET
ES
T = m T
ET
ES
is called the modular ratio m
ET
The sketches below show two ways of considering the composite (or flitched) beam.
plate a t
plate a t
t
b
plate a t
/m b
Plate a x t
(a) Composite beam of timber and steel
Equivalent steel beam
154
plate a t
ma
t
h
plate a t
(b) Composite beam of timber and steel
Equivalent timber beam
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8(a) shows how the composite beam is transformed to an equivalent steel beam and
figure 4.8(b) shows how the composite beam is transferred to an equivalent timber beam.
Note : Only horizontal dimensions can be altered. Alternation to vertical dimensions will
change the value of the strain.
Example 4.5.1
A composite beam is formed using a 400 mm 180 mm timber beam with a 300 m 12 mm
steel plate securely fixed to each side as shown in the sketch.
180
12 mm
12 mm
The maximum stress in the steel and timber respectively may not exceed 140 and 9 MPa, and
the modular ratio is 20.
155
(a)
What will be the actual stresses used for (i) the steel and (ii) the timber?
(b)
What is the safe moment of resistance in kNm for the beam section.
180 1/20 = 9 mm
T
S
300 12 mm pls
a
Stress distribution diagram
Equivalent steel beam
If S = 140 MPa, then T =
200
140 = 186.67 MPa
150
Equivalent timber stress
1
186.67 = 9.33 > 9
m
Use T = 9 MPa
S = 9
150
20 = 135 MPa
200
I of equivalent steel beam

1
(9)(400)3 + 1 (24)(300)3 = 102 10 6 mm 4
12
12
I 9 20 102 10 6
M =
=
10 6 kNm = 91.8kNm
200
y
156
4.6
TUTORIAL
(1) (a) Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the simply supported beam
in the figure shown below.
(b) Find the position of the inflection point.
(c) Calculate the maximum bending stresses in tension and compression respectively if
the beam consists of a 120 x 55 x 13 kg/m CHANNEL section welded to a
127 x 76 x 13 kg/m I-SECTION as shown in figure (a). Indicate clearly where these
stresses occur.
7 kN
3 kNm-1
A
1m
10 kN
B
5 kNm-1
1m
2m
(2) A cantilever beam 2 m long has a rectangular cross section 50 mm wide and 150 mm
deep. It carries a uniformly distributed load of 5kN/m over the whole span and in addition to
this an axially applied compressive force of 3kN.
(a) Calculate the maximum resultant direct stress in the beam, and
(b) for this section, plot a stress distribution diagram
Also calculate the position of the neutral axis.
157
TST271Z
CHAPTER 5
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Define the term flexural rigidity of a beam and boundary conditions.
Use Mohrs moment-area methods to determine the slope and deflection at any given
point on a beam that is statically determinate, statically indeterminate to the first

degree or built in at both ends.
Apply the principle of superposition.
158
TST271Z
CHAPTER 5
CONTENTS
PAGE
5.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 160

5.2 THE MOMENT-AREA THEOREMS ........................................................................ 161
5.3 BEAMS WITH REDUNDANT REACTIONS............................................................ 175
5.4 THE PROPPED CANTILEVER.................................................................................. 177
5.5 THE ENCASTR BEAM ............................................................................................. 183
5.6 THE TWO-SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM ................................................................. 191
5.7 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................... 194
159
5.
5.1
INTRODUCTION
Figure 5.1
At a cross section in a beam stressed under a bending moment M, we know that :

M E
= =
I
y R
i. e.
1 M
=
R EI
1
is termed the curvature
where R = radius of curvature due to M contracting the inner fibres and extending the outer
fibres at the cross section.
EI is termed the flexural rigidity (also called rotational stiffness) and measures the capacity of
the cross section to resist curvature.
160
5.2
THE MOMENT-AREA THEOREMS
We state and prove the Moment-area theorems.

(1)
The slope theorem (Also called the area theorem or Mohr I) : -
The rotation in radians of a carried tangent at one point on a beam subjected to a bending
moment relative to that at another point, equals the area of the
M
diagram between the
EI
points.
(2)
The deflection theorem (Also called the moment theorem or Mohr II): -
The deflection of the tangent at one point on a beam from the tangent at another equals the
moment of the
M
diagram between the points about the deflecting point.
EI
O
Any load W
Loading
Deflected
R
Q
Q
B
Q
shape
P
P1
y
Q
Q B
L-x
L
Bending
moment diagram
M
Diagram
EI
M
EI
Figure 5.2
Consider an arbitrary length AB of a beam under any loading system. The bending moment
diagram, the
M
diagram and the deflected shape for the arbitrary length AB are shown.
EI
161
Consider an element PQ, length x, also shown enlarged

= Q - P
E
R

In the lim it : d =
(deflections very small l = x)

R R
M
1 M
=
i.e =
I
R EI
M
=
x
EI
M
dx
EI
Also =
But
( = change in slope from P to Q)
Integrating between A and B:

A
d = EI dx
M
diagram between A and B
EI
A - B = Area of
EI dx
MOHR I
where = change in slope of carried tangents at any two sections,

and
EI dx =
Area of
M
diagram between the same two sections.
EI
Let y be the intercept on a vertical line through B cut off by the tangents at P and Q
y = (L - x)
(provided deflections are very small compared to distances along the beam)
But =
M
x
EI
y = ( L x )
M
x
EI
162
In the lim it
dy = ( L x )
M
dx
EI
M
diagram about B
EI
= Moment of
Integrating between A and B
y = Moment of area of
where y
M
diagram about a vertical line through B.
EI
EI xdx
MOHR II
total vertical intercept at a point between the carried tangents at this
and a second point.

And
M
dx
EI
The moment of the
M
diagram between the points and the second point.
EI
Example 5.2.1
Find the deflection at the free end of the cantilever shown

w
A
B
L
SOLUTION
tangent at A
B
B
Deflected shape
M
Diagram
EI
WL
EI
- G.
2
/3L
163
A=
tangent at B
WL L
EI 2
MOHR I
B =
WL L
WL2
=
EI
2
2 EI
MOHR II
B =
WL3
WL L 2 L

=
(i .e. down)
2
3
3EI
EI
[Area of
M
diagram]
EI
[Moment area of
M
diagram]
EI
[about B]
Example 5.2.2
Find the deflection at the free end of the cantilever shown

W = wL
A
L
SOLUTION
tangent at A
Deflected shape A
B
B
B
tangent at B
1 wL
A=
L
3 2 EI
2
M
Diagram
EI
wL2
2 EI
MOHR I
= Area of
B =
MOHR II
B =
G
3
/4 L
M
EI
wL2 L WL2 wL3

=
or
2 EI
3
6 EI
6 EI
= Moment of Area of
M
diagram between A and B about B
EI
wL3 3 L
WL3 wL4
==
or
(i . e. down)
6 EI
4
8 EI
8 EI
164
Example 5.2.3
Find the deflection under the point load of the simply supported beam shown.
W
C
/2
/2
/2
W
/2
SOLUTION
W
Deflected shape
tangent at A
tangent at C
M/EI
Diagram
WL
4 EI
/3L/2
MOHR I
= Area of
MOHR II
M
diagram between A and C
EI
WL L WL2
=
4 EI 4 16 EI
= Moment of Area of
M
diagram between A and C about A
EI
WL L 2 L WL3
=
4 EI 4 3 2 48 EI
165
Example 5.2.4
Find the maximum deflection of a simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load
over its whole length.
w/unit length
l
/2
wl
2
/2
B
wl
2
tangent at B
SOLUTION
C = BC
Deflected shape
tangent at midpoint
5
wl 2
wl
EI
M/EI diagram
MOHR II :
/8 (l/2)
2
l wl
A = 23
2 8 EI
= intercept of carried tangents at C and B at B
= Moment of
M
diagram between C and B about B
EI
2 l wl 2 5 l

3 2 8 EI 8 2
5wl 2
384 EI
166
Note
The above four standard cases of deflection should be memorised.

(2)
(1)
W=wl
A
l
=
(3)
A
l
Wl 2
3EI
Wl 2 wl 4
=
8EI 8EI
(4)
W=wl
l 2
l2
Wl 3
48 EI
5Wl 3
5wl 4
=
384 EI 384 EI
Example 5.2.5
A simply supported beam consisting of a 533 210 109 I section spans 7 m and is
loaded as shown. Using moment-area methods, calculate the deflection at the point
load. E = 200 GPa. Ignore the self-weight of the beam.
167
300 kN
40 kN/m
A
5m
2m
300 kN
A
40 kN/m
C
B
BC
tangent at C
VA
Deflected shape
A
VA=140kN
1 2 1
wl = .40.7 2
8
8
= 245kNm
40 kN/m
Beam with u.d.l. only
A1
A2
xA
xB
Parabolic curve
Bending moment diagram for u.d.l.
y = 140 x
40 x 2
2
i . e. y = 140 x 20 x 2
168
For the above curve:

5
Area A1 =
ydx
0
(
0
xydx
0
5
(140 x 20 x ) xdx
2
(140 20 x )dx
2
ydx = As above
0
xB =
680
kNm 2
3
22
m
17
xydx
0
2
65
m
22
Area A2 =
ydx
xA =
20 x 3
2750
140 x 20 x dx = 70 x 2
kNm 2
=
3 0
3
As above
0
2
ydx
As above
300 kN
VA = 2/7 300
=
600
/7kN
5m
600
5
7
3000
=
kNm
7
2m
A3
xA
A4
xB
For the above figure:

Area A3 =
1 3000
7500
kNm 2
5=
2
7
7
x A = 2 3 5 = 10 3 m
169
Beam with point load only
Bending moment diagram for point load
3000
1 3000
kNm 2
2 =
7
2 7
xB = 23 2 = 43m
Area A4 =
MOHR II:
2750 65 7500 10
EI A C = A x A =
10 3 Nm 2
+
22 7
3
3
8125 25000
10 3 Nm 2
=
+
3
7
3
2
= 6279 10 Nm
6279 10 3 10 3
mm
200 10 9 688 10 6
= 47 mm
AC =
AC
Also,
680 22 3000 4
EI B C = A x B =
10 3 Nm 2
+
3
17
7
3

880 4000
10 3 Nm 2
=
+
7
3
= 864.8 Nm 2
864.8 10 3 10 3
mm
200 10 9 688 10 6
= 6.5mm
BC =
BC
The intercepts at vertical lines through A and B of the tangent at C can now be drawn, and the
deflection at C found using simple geometry: A
47mm
5m
B
6.5 mm
tangent at C
2m
= 6.5 + 2/7 (47 6.5) mm

170
c = 18.1 mm
= 6.5 + 11.6 mm
Example 5.2.6
A beam of constant EI is loaded as shown in the sketch below. Find the deflection at point C.
Total load = W
A
L
2W
B
L
L
VB
VA
Calculate reactions: MB = 0 :
VA 2L = W 3L + W L/2 - 2W L giving VA = 3/4W
V = 0
/4 W + VB = 4W
giving VB = 31/4 W
Calculate moments at A, C and B

MA
= -WL
MC
= -W 2L + 3/4 WL = -1 1/4 WL
MB
= -2 WL Sketch deflected shape. Note that the bending moment is negative, i.e.
hogging, for the full length of the beam.
tangent at C
2W
W total
BC
A C
VB = 3 1/4 W
.
171
Draw
M
diagram and subdivide into areas. Find areas and positions of centroids.
EI
x
b
a
5WL
2WL
/4EI
WL
/EI
c
d
2L
/3
/2
L
x
The triangular shape and rectangle give no problems. The area and position of centroid of
abe, however, must be found from first principles.
1
W x2
y = M x = 3 Wx 2W ( x + L)
4
L 2
Area abe
Area abcd =
1
EI
ydx =
0
L
Wx 2
1 1
dx
2
2
Wx
Wx
WL
3
2 L
EI 0 4
L
1 Wx 2
Wx 3
1 4
37WL2
=
2WLx
=
EI 2
6L
24 EI
0
Area abe =
37WL2 5WL2

24 EI 4 EI
172
7WL2
24 EI
x=
xydx
ydx
L
1
1
Wx 2
3
2
2
x
Wx
Wx
WL
+ 1 WL dx
0 4
2L
4
=
2
7WL
24
L
1
Wx 3
3
2
Wx
WLx
1
dx
0 4
4
2L
=
7WL2
24
L
3
1
3
WLx 2
4
1 4 Wx
Wx
4
2
8L
WL3
5
3
3
WL3 WL3
0
8
8
=
= 12
2
2
7
7
24 WL
24 WL
2 24 WL3 2 L
=
=
7
7 24 WL2
MOHR II :
BC
Intercept of carried tangent at B and C at B
Moment of
5WL2 L 7WL2 2 L
17WL3
=
.
.
4 EI 2 24 EI 7
12 EI
M
diagram between B and C about B
EI
(-) ve indicates B down with respect to C
173
AC
Intercept of carried tangent at A and C at A
Moment of
L 1 5WL 2 L
1 WL
7WL3

=
. L.
. L.
2 EI
3 2 4 EI
3
12 EI
M
diagram between A and C about A
EI
( (-) ve indicates A down with respect to C)
17 7
24 12 WL3
EI
31WL3
up
48 EI
Note
The problems given in examples 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 have been solved using moment-area
i . e.
C =
methods. These same problems are tackled in the next chapter, using mathematical analysis.
You will probably find the latter method easier. However, in many cases, where it is not
necessary to calculate areas and positions of centroids of non-standard areas, moment-area
methods may prove more straightforward and less prone to arithmetic errors. In tests and
exams, the method to be used is frequently, but not necessarily, specified.
174
5.3
BEAMS WITH REDUNDANT REACTIONS
We now consider propped cantilevers and encastr beams.
MA
A
B
Vprop
VA
Propped Cantilever
Figure 5.3
AB shown in fig. 5.3 is a propped cantilever, and is statically indeterminate. If we remove

the prop at B, the structure becomes a simple cantilever which is statically determinate.
Alternatively, if we remove the fixing moment at A the structure becomes a simply supported
beam which is statically determinate. The propped cantilever thus has one redundant reaction
(either the prop or the fixing moment).
MB
MA
A
VA
VB
Figure 5.4
Encastr Beam
AB shown in fig. 5.4 is an encastr beam, and is statically indeterminate. If we remove both
fixing moments, the structure becomes a simply supported beam which is statically
175
determinate. Alternatively, if we remove the vertical reaction as well as the fixing moment at
any either of the two ends, the structure becomes a simple cantilever, which is statically
determinate. The encastr beam thus has two redundant reactions.
176
5.4
THE PROPPED CANTILEVER
Consider the propped cantilever AB shown in figure 5.5(a), EI is constant

(a)
Deflected shape
carried tangent at B
w/unit length
MA
carried tangent at A
A
B
Vprop
VA
(b)
Bending moment diagram if prop is removed
WL2
(c)
wL2
A = 13
L
2
x = 34 L
Bending moment diagram for prop only

A = 1/2 Vprop L L
Vprop L
(d)
x = 34 L
Combined bending Moment diagram (Using principle of superposition)

MA
+
Figure 5.5
Applying MOHR II :
Since A and B remain at the same level, the intercepts of carried tangents at A and B at B =
0.
177
Moment of
M
diagram between A and B about B = 0 (BA = 0)
EI
wL2
1
L 3 4 L V prop L. L 2 3 L = 0
13
2
2
i.e.
1
EI
i.e.
wL4 V prop L
=0
8
3
giving Vprop = 3/8 wL
The fixing moment MA as well as the bending moment at any point can now easily be found.
Note
The value of Vprop can also easily be found by using the principle of superposition.
w/unit length
MA
A
B
l
VA
Vprop
=
w/unit length
Vprop
( udl ) = ( prop )
wl 4 V( prop ) l
=
8 EI
3EI
giving
178
V( prop ) =
3wl
8 EI
Deflection due to udl
Deflection due to prop
Example 5.4.1
(a)
A horizontal cantilever AC, of length 2.4 m is built-in at A. It carries a u.d.l. of 12

kN/m from the fixed end A to point B, which is 1.8 m from A. Determine the
deflection of the free end C in terms of EI.
(b)
If the cantilever is now propped at B, so that A and B are on the same level, determine
the reaction at the support B.
(c)
Determine the deflection of C, in terms of EI, with the support B in position.
SOLUTION
(a)
2.4 m
1.8 m
12 kN/m
A
MA
0.6 m
tangent at A
VA
MA
Deflected shape
tangent at B, also tangent at C
MA
M
MAA
-12 1.8 0.9 = -19.44 kNm

3
/4 1.8 = 1.35
0.6m
G
A = 1/3 (1.8 19.44) = 11.664 kNm2
MOHR II:
CA
Intercept of carried tangents at A and C at C
Moment of
M
diagram between A and C about C
EI
179
11.664(1.35 + 0.6 )
22.7448
m=
m
EI
EI
(b)
tangent at C
12 kN/m
A
0,6m
R
1,8m
VA
tangent at A
x =1,35m
Bending moment diagram if
prop is removed
A = 11,664 kNm
= /31,8=1,2m
2
Bending Moment diagram for

prop only
+
1,8R
A = /2 (1,8R) 1,8
= 1,62 R
1
MOHR II:
Since A and B are on the same level, the intercept of carried tangents at A and B at B = 0
Moment of
i.e.
-11.664 1.35 + 1.62R 1.2 = 0
R=
(c)
M
diagram between A and B about B = 0 (BA)
EI
11.664 1.35
= 8.1kN
1.62 1.2
Find (see figure under (b)

180
M
EI
Slope at B = Area of
I
EI
1.458
EI
(-11.664 + 1.62 8.1)
1.458
0.8748
0 .6 =
EI
EI
Example 5.4.2
A propped cantilever AB carries 3 kN/m over its 6m span. The upward reaction of the prop
at B = 5kN. A is fixed. Calculate the deflection of B and draw the bending moment and
shear force diagrams. E = 200 GN/m2 , I = 200 x 106 mm4
3 kN/m
tangent at B
B
tangent at A
B
6m
VA = 13kN
VB = 5kN (given)
SOLUTION
V = 0:
VA + 5 = 3 x 6 kN
VA = 13 kN
2/3 x 6 = 4
only
30
Bending moment diagram for prop
(kNm)
A = (6)(30) = 90
A = 1/3 (6)(54) = 108

54
Bending moment diagram for u.d.l.

only (kNm)
x 6 = 4.5
181
BA
= Intercept of carried tangents at A and B about B

= Moment of
M
diagram between A and B about B
EI
1
[90 4 108 4.5] = 126
EI
EI
126
=
m = 3.15mm
200 10 6 200 10 6 10 12
=
Deflection of B is 3.15 mm down

(i.e. the prop has sunk 3.15 mm)
3 kN/m
24kNm
Beam with loading and reactions
6m
13kN
13
5kN
+
1
x = 4 /3m
6-x
24
Shear force diagram (kN)

x 6 x
1
=
x = 4 m
13
5
3
Bending moment diagram (kNm)
3( 6 )
wl 2
=
= 13 ,5 kNm
8
8
2
Mmax at SF = 0 i.e. at x = 4 1/3 m

Mmax = 13 4 1/3 - 3 4 1/3 4
= 4 1/6 kNm
182
3
2
- 24
5.5
THE ENCASTR BEAM
Consider the encastr beam AB shown in fig. 5.6(a). EI is constant

w/unit length
MA (= M)
(a)
MB (=M)
Deflected shape
tangent at A and B
VB
VA
tangent at midspan
(b)
2 wL2 L
A = .
.
3 8 2
Free bending
moment diagram
wL2
8
x = 5L/16
(c)
Fixing moment
diagram
A =
ML
2
x = L/4
(d)
Combined bending
moment diagram
wL2
8
w L2
=
12
(Using principle of
w L2
=
24
superposition)
Figure 5.6
183
Applying MOHR I:
Change of slope of carried tangents at A and B = 0
Area of
i.e.
M
diagram between A and B = 0
EI
1 2 wL2
.
L
mL
=0
EI 3 8
giving M =
The maximum positive bending moment =
wL2
12
wL2 wL2 wL2
=
8
12
24
Applying MOHR II:

C
= Moment of
M
diagram between A and C about A (or B)
EI
2 wL2 L 5 L wL2 L L

3 8 2 16 12 2 4
= wL4 384 EI
1
EI
184
Example 5.5.1
An encastr beam AB spans 4 m and carries a point load of 100 kN at 1m from A. Use the
moment-area method to find the value of the fixing moments, and then draw the bending
moment diagram. EI = constant.
100kN
MA
1m
3m
MB
B
A
4m
tangent at A and B
VB
VA
SOLUTION
x = 2/3 4 = 8/3 m
Fixing moment diagram
MA
MB
B
x=
4
m
3
2m
Free bending moment

diagram
A
+
(3/4 100) 1 = 75 kNm

3 1/3 m
185
MOHR I :
Change of slope of carried tangents at A and B = 0
Area of
M
diagram between A and B = 0
EI
(MA + MB) 4 + 1
2 EI
(4)
75
=0
EI
giving MA + MB = +75 kNm
MOHR II:
Intercept of carried tangents at A and B at B = 0
Moment of area of
1
EI
M
diagram between A and B about B = 0
EI
1
8 1
2 M A .4 3 + 2 M B .4
4 1 75 10 75
+
.1. + .3.2 = 0
3 EI 2
3
2
i.e. - 16/3 MA - 8/3 MB + 125 + 225 = 0

i.e.
3
x 8
16 MA + 8 MB
= 1050
8 MA + 8 MB
= 600
2 - 3
8MA
Substituting for MA in
450 kNm
MA
= 56.25 kNm
MB
= 75 56.25
MB
= 18.75 kNm
Summation of moment about B to get VA =

4V A M A 100(3) + M B = 0
4V A = 56.25 + 300 18.75
4V A = 337.5
V A = 84.375kN
186
Bending moment under 100 kN load =

V A (1) M A = 84.375 56.25
= 28.13kNm
56.25
18.75
28.13
All values in kNm
Example 5.5.2
An encastr beam AB of span L has a constant flexural rigidity EI.
Prove from first
principles that if the support A rotates through an angle A, the absolute values of the fixedend moments will be
4EI
2EI
A and
A at A and B respectively
L
L
A
B
L
SOLUTION
Deflected shape
tangent at A
A
A
tangent at B
187
M
diagram
EI
2
MA
EI
/3 L
MB
EI
G
G
/3
MOHR I :
Change in slope of carried tangents at A and B = A
A
= Area of
M
EI
1 MA + MB
2
EI
MOHR II:
Intercept of carried tangents at A and B at A = 0
Moment of
i . e.
i . e.
M
diagram between A and B about A = 0
EI
1 M A L 1 M B 2 L
( L) +
( L ) = 0
2 EI 3 2 EI 3
MA
M
= B
6
3
M A = 2 M B
Substitute for MA in
A =
1 2 M B + M B
EI
2
Substitute for MB in
which gives MB =
MA =
2EI
A
L
+4 EI
A
L
188
Absolute values:
MB =
2EI
A
L
MA =
4 EI
A
L
Example 5.5.3
The ends of a beam are partially fixed so that they rotate 2 x 10-3 radians when the beam
carries a u.d.l. of 20 kN/m over its whole span of 6m. Draw a dimensional bending moment
diagram for the loaded beam. E = 210 GN/m2 , I = 20 000 cm4
SOLUTION
6m
Deflected shape
20 kN/m
A
= 210 r
Fixing moment diagram

MA = MB = M (symmetry)
MA = M
MB = M
Free bending moment diagram

90
90kNm
Change in slope from A to B = 4 x 10-3 radians
MOHR I
Change in slope = area of
M
diagram
EI
189
A = 2/3 x 90 x 6 =
360 kNm2
ML 360
+
EI
EI
360
EI
4 10 3
M=
6
L
210 10 6 20000 10 8 4 10 3
= 60
kNm
6
= 60 28 = 32 kNm
4 10 3 =
Final bending moment diagram

Values in kNm
32
32
90
190
90-32=58
5.6
THE TWO-SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM
Consider the two-span continuous beam ACB shown below. If the support at C is removed
the beam becomes a simply supported beam, which is statically determinate. The two-span
continuous beam, therefore, has one redundant reaction.
Tangent at C (horizontal because
tangent at A
w/unit length
C
Deflected shape
/2
/2
VA
VB
VC
5/8 (L/2)
Bending moment diagram -
wl 2
G
8
VC removed
A=
2 wL2 L wL3
=
3 8 2
24
Prop VC
Bending moment
/3 (L/2) = L/3
(Vc L/4)
diagram - prop VC only

A=
1 Vc L L Vc L2
=
2 4 2
16
Figure 5.7
Intercept of carried tangents at A and C at A = 0
191
Moment of
M
diagram between A and C about A = 0
EI
wL3 5 L Vc L2 L
.
. =0
24 EI 16 16 EI 3
5wL
which givesVc =
8
1
V A = VB = 3 wL = 3 wL
16
2 8
2
L
L L
M C = 3 wL w = wL
16
32
2
2 4
i.e.
The bending moment diagram can now be drawn

Final bending moment diagram
5
32 wL
B
C
Figure 5.8
Note : The maximum span moment is found as follows :

wx 2
2
3
wx 2
=
wLx
16
2
M x = VA x
Mx is a maximum when
dM x
=0
dx
dM x
3
= wL wx = 0 for max imumM x
dx
16
i.e. x =
3
L
16
2
M max
3
w L
3
9 wL2
16
3
= wL L
=
16 16
2
512
or 9 w L
128 2
192
Note
The following properties of the parabola should be memorised.
3l
/8
A = 2/3 lh
4
A = 1/3 lh
193
5.7
TUTORIAL
(1)
The figure shows a simply supported beam carrying three point loads. For what value
of W will the downward deflection of the beam under the three point loads be equal?
Use the moment-area method.
50
50 kN
1m
2m
2m
1m
[Answer 92.86 kN]

(2)
Determine the deflection of midpoint C of the beam shown below. Use the momentTake EI = 5 MNm2
area method.
20kN
60kN
1m
1m
20kN
1m
1m
[Answer : zero]
A
(3)
Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the propped cantilever
shown below. Indicate values.
20kN
1m
20kN
1m
Use moment-area methods

194
1m
(4)
A symmetrical beam carries two concentrated loads at its third span points. Prove
that the maximum deflection of the beam is 4.6 times greater when the ends of the
beam are simply supported compared to when they are fixed.
(5)
Show, using the principles of moment-area, that the fixed-end moments for an
encastr beam carrying concentrated loads of W at third points of the span L, are
2WL
9
(6)
Using moment-area methods, calculate the necessary values, and then draw the
dimensional shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam shown in the
figure. Also calculate the maximum bending moment in the span and the point of
contraflexure.
10 kN/m
4m
(7)
2m
A fixed-end beam spans 4m and carries a uniformly distributed load of 6 kN/m over
the left half-span. Use the principles of moment-area to determine dimensioned
bending moment and shear force diagrams for the beam. Also find the deflection of
the beam at midspan. I = 50 x 106 mm4. E = 200 GPa.
(8)
A beam spanning 12 m is fixed at one end and simply supported at the other and it
carries a uniformly distributed load of 4 kN/m over the whole span. The simply
supported end sinks 5 mm under load. Draw dimensional shear force and bending
moment diagrams for the beam. E = 210 GPa. I = 200 x 106 mm4.
(9)
(a)
Using the moment-area method, calculate the reaction and moment at A, for
the encastr beam loaded as shown in the figure, and draw the
force and bending moment diagrams.
195
dimensioned shear
(b)
For the same beam and loading calculate by how much the support at B must sink to
cause a bending moment at A of 30 kNm. EI = 10 000 kNm2
(NB. No rotation takes place at A or B)
10kN/m
10 kN
B
A
6m
(10)
2m
1m
An encastr beam of uniform EI is loaded as shown in the sketch. Determine the

value of a which will give the greatest bending moment at the fixed ends.
a
W
a
196
TST271Z
CHAPTER 6
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Define the term flexural rigidity of a beam and boundary conditions.
Derive and apply a differential equation that can be used for the calculation of the
slope and deflection at any section on a straight beam.

Use Macauleys notation method to determine the slope and deflection at any given
point on a beam that is statically determinate, statically indeterminate to the first

degree or built-in at both ends.
197
TST271Z
CHAPTER 6
CONTENTS
PAGE
6.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 199

6.2 DERIVATION OF FORMULAE ................................................................................. 200
6.3 THE MACAULEY NOTATION .................................................................................. 206
6.4 MACAULEY NOTATION : PARTIAL U.D.L. ........................................................ 210
6.5 MACAULEY NOTATION : TREATMENT OF APPLIED BENDING
MOMENT ....................................................................................................................... 212
6.6 MACAULEY NOTATION : SUMMARY................................................................... 214
6.7 BEAMS OF VARYING EI ........................................................................................... 215
6.8 EXAMPLES USING THE MACAULEY NOTATION ............................................. 217
6.9 BEAMS WITH REDUNDANT REACTIONS............................................................ 220
6.10 THE PROPPED CANTILEVER................................................................................ 221
6.11 THE ENCASTR BEAM ........................................................................................... 226
6.12 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................. 228
198
6.
6.1
INTRODUCTION
In the analysis that follows the following sign convention will be adopted.
Axes
y is positive upward
x is positive to the right
(Note The positive direction of x may be reversed if required for simplification of

calculations. The signs of the other variables must then be carefully considered.)
dx
Slope [ ]
dy
= dy/dx
Rotation is positive anticlockwise

Curvature and bending moment
1 d y
R , dx
[M]
Positive curvature and bending moment
are convex downward, or sagging
c
t
Shear force
[ S ] [Q]
Positive shear on an element

is up on left, down on right
Loading
[ w] [W ]
Deflection
[ y] [ ] Positive direction is upward
Positive direction is upward
199
6.2
DERIVATION OF FORMULAE
w/unit length
M + M
Q + Q
Q
B
x
Figure 6.1
Consider an element AB, length x, of a beam.

Let loading on the beam be w/unit length.
Let bending moment at A be M.
Then bending moment at B = M + M
Let shear force at A be Q
Then shear force at B = Q + Q
Consider the equilibrium of element x
V = 0 :
In the limit
MB = 0 :
Q - wx
= Q + Q
i.e.
=-
Q
x
=-
dQ
dx
M + Q x -
or Q = - wdx
w x. x
- (M + M) = 0
2
w( x )2
is of second order of smallness and = 0
2
200
M + Qx = (M + M) = 0
= Qx
dM
dX
In the limit Q =
or M = Qdx
At any point on the beam
y
= tan
x
In the limit =
=
=
(in radians) for small
dy
dx
or y = dx
x for small y
1
=
R x
x
x
But
1 M
=
R EI
In the limit
(Basic formula
M E
= = )
I
y R
M
=
x EI
M = EI
d
dx
or
M
dx
EI
The above relationships can be summarised as follows:

Load intensity = -w
201
Shear force Q = -wdx

Bending moment M = Q dx
Slope =
EI dx
Deflection y = dx
Alternatively, starting with deflection y:
y = deflection
dy
d
=
dx =
dx dx
d 2 y d
d M
M
=
=
dx =
2
dx dx EI
EI
dx
ie
EI
d2y
=M
dx 2
d 3y
d M d Q
Q
=
dx =
=
3
dx EI dx EI
EI
dx
d4y
d Q d
w
w
=
=
=
4
dx EI dx
EI
EI
dx
Example 6.2.1
Develop general expressions for shear force, bending moment, slope and deflection for a
simply supported beam of span L, loading w/unit length, and constant EI. Also find the
values of these at critical points.
w/unit length
wL
2
wL
2
202
SOLUTION
Q = wdx
wL
2
wL
At x = L , Q =
2
At x = 0, Q =
= wx + C1
At x = 0, Q =
Q=
wL
wL
= C1
2
2
wL
wx
2
M = Qdx
wL
= wx +
dx
2
wx 2 wL
x + C2
=
+
2
2
At x = 0, M = 0 C2 = 0
M=
At x =
L
wL2
, M=
2
8
wL
wx 2
x
2
2
EI dx
1 wL
wx 2
x
dx
2
EI 2
1 wLx 2 wx 3
+ C3
EI 4
6
L
, =0
2
wL3 wL3
ie 0 =
+ C3
16
48
wL3
C3 =
24
1 wLx 2 wx 3 wL3
=
EI 4
6
24
At x =
203
At x = 0, =
wL3
24 EI
At x = L , = +
wL3
24 EI
Y = dx
=
1 wLx 2 wx 3 wL3
dx
EI 4
6
24
1
EI
L
:
2
5wL4
y=
384 EI
wLx 3 wx 4 wL3 x
+
+ C4
24
24
12
At x =
At x = 0, y = 0 C4 = 0
y=
1 wLx 3 wx 4 wL3 x
EI 12
24
24
Example 6.2.2
Develop general expressions for shear force, bending moment, slope and deflection for a
cantilever of length L, loading w/unit length and constant EI. Also find the values of these at
critical points.
w/unit length
L
x
SOLUTION
Q = wdx
= wx + C1
At x = 0, Q = 0 C = 0
Q = wx
At x = L,Q = wL
204
M = Qdx
= wx dx
wx 2
+ C2
2
At x = 0, M = 0 C2 = 0
=
M=
At x = L , M =
wL2
2
wx 2
2
EI dx
1 wx 2
dx
EI 2
1 wx 3
=
+ C3
EI 6
At x = 0, =
wL3
6 EI
At x = L , = 0
wL3
0=
+ C3
6
wL3
ie C3 =
6
1 wx 3 wL3
=
+
EI 6
6
Simly :
y=
wL4
At x = 0, y =
8 EI
1 wx 4 wL3 x wL4
+
6
8
EI 24
205
6.3
THE MACAULEY NOTATION
Consider a uniform beam, simply supported, span l, with a point load on it as shown.
a
W (l a )
x>a
Wa
l
x<a
l
Figure 6.2
With origin at left-hand end, consider any section distant x from origin. There are two
possibilities : x > a and x < a.
x>a
d2y
la
=W
x
2
l
dx
dy
l a x2
=W
. +A
EI
2
dx
l
l a x3
. + Ax + B
EIy = W
l
6
EI
At x = a
x<a
EI
d2y
la
=W
x W[ x a ]
2
l
dx
l a x 2 W[ x a ]
dy
=W
+ A'
EI
.
2
2
dx
l
2
l a x 3 W[ x a ]
+ A' x + B'
.
6
6
l
3
EIy = W
At x = a
dx
l a a2
EI
. +A
=W
2
l
dy x = a
dx
l a a2
EI
. + A'
=W
2
l
dy x = a
A=A'
EI ( y) x = a = W
l a a3
. + Aa + B
l
6
EI ( y )x = a = W
B=B'
206
l a a3
. + A' a + B '
6
l
If [x-a] is put = 0 when x < a, the right-hand set of equations will give bending moment, shear
force, and y anywhere in the beam.
The use of the square brackets, and equating these to zero if x < a, is called the Macauley
Notation.
Rules for the use of the Macauley Notation
(1)
Take origin at left-hand end of beam
(2)
Define all positions by distance from origin.
(3)
Write down an expression for bending moment at a section x from origin, x being just
to the left of the right-hand end of the beam, and by considering loads and reactions to
the left of the section.
(4)
Write terms of the type (x-a), (x-a)2 etc. as [x-a], [x-a]2 etc, and equate these terms to
zero if x < a.
(5)
Integrate the square bracket terms in the following form :
]=
[ ]
[ ]2
2
3
[
]
=
etc.
(6)
Use the Macauley Notation only for beams of constant EI.
(7)
The Macauley Notation does not work for terms of the type (a-x)
Example 6.3.1
Find the maximum deflection in the beam shown below. EI is constant.
100 kN
2m
50
50
3m
2m
B
x
VA
3m
10m
207
SOLUTION
VA =
Find reactions
VB =
8
50 3
x100 +
+ x50 = 120kN
10
2 10
7
50 2
x50 +
+ x100 = 80kN
10
2 10
= 200kN
At section x from left-hand end :

EI
d2y
= 120x - 100 [x-2] - 50 [x-5] - 50 [x-7]
dx 2
EI
100[ x 2]
50[ x 5]
50[ x 7]
dy
= 60 x 2
+A
dx
2
2
2
2
EIy = 20 x
3
100[ x 2]
6
At x=0,
y=0
At x=10
y=0
ie. 0 = 20 x10 3
50[ x 5]
6
50[ x 7]
6
+ Ax + B
B=0
100 3 50 3 50 3
(8) (5) (3) + 10 A
6
6
6
giving A = -1020
The maximum deflection will occur where
dy
= 0 , and to find this position certain
dx
Macauley terms must be eliminated from the expression for
Assume
dy
= 0 where 2 < x < 5
dx
For this section of the beam :

100( x 2)
dy
EI
= 60 x 2
1020 = 0
dx
2
2
208
dy
dx
i.e. x2 + 20x - 122 = 0

giving x = -24.9
or
x = 4.9
x = 4.9 m falls within the chosen range,

Maximum deflection occurs at x = 4,9 m from left-hand end,
EIy = 20 x 3
100[ x 2]
6
50[ x 5]
6
50[ x 7]
6
At x = 4.9 m
EIy = 20(4.9 )
3
100
(2.9)3 1020(4.9)
6
= 3051.5
y max =
3051.5
EI
209
1020 x
6.4
MACAULEY NOTATION : PARTIAL U.D.L.
(1)
Load extending to extreme right-hand end.

a
w/unit length
x>a
x<a
R
L
Figure 6.3
x>a
EI
x<a
w( x a )
d2x
EI 2 = Rx
2
dx
d2x
= Rx
dx 2
Using the Macauley Notation :

w[ x a ]
d2x
EI 2 = Rx
2
dx
This will give the correct bending moment anywhere along the span subject to Macauley
rules.
(2)
Load not extending to right-hand end.
Add positive and negative load as shown

a
w/unit length
w/unit length down

x
w/unit length up
Figure 6.4
210
EI
w
w
d 2x
2
2
= Rx [x a ] [x (a + b )]
2
2
2
dx
Other combinations of loads are treated in a similar manner e.g.

d
d
c
c
b
a
a
w1
L
w2
=
Figure 6.5
211
b
w1
w
w1 w 1 2
w1 w1
L
w1+w2
w1+w2
6.5
MACAULEY NOTATION: TREATMENT OF APPLIED BENDING

MOMENT
a
R
L
M
RR =
M
RL =
l
M
l
Figure 6.6
M
l
ML = 0
:-
RR . l - M = 0
RR =
:-
RL + RR = 0
RL =
= 0
M ( l a)
M
l
R
Shear force diagram
L -
+
Ma
l
Figure 6.7
x>a
M x = EI
x<a
d2y
Mx
=
2
l
dx
M x = EI
212
d2y
Mx
=
+M
2
l
dx
Using the Macauley Notation :

d2y
Mx
=
2
l
dx
dy
M x2
= . +A
EI
dx
l 2
M x3
EIy = . + Ax + B
l 6
d2y
Mx
0
=
+ M[ x a]
2
l
dx
dy
M x2
1
= . + M[ x a ] + A1
EI
dx
l 2
EI
At x = a : EI
dy
Ma 2
=
+A
2l
dx
EI
M x 3 M[ x a]
+ A1 x + B 1
EIy = . +
2
l 6
2
At x = a : EI
dy
Ma 2
=
+ A1
2l
dx
A=A'
and EIy =
M a3
. + Aa + B
l 6
and EIy =
M a3
. + A 1a + B
l 6
B=B'
Thus, if the expression EI
d2y
Mx
0
=
+ M [ x a ] is used, subject to Macauley rules, M,
2
l
dx
dy
, y etc will be obtained anywhere in the beam.
dx
213
6.6
MACAULEY NOTATION: SUMMARY
W2
W1
w/unit length
a
b
c
d
e
x
Figure 6.8
w[ x c]
w[ x d ]
d2y
0
M x = EI 2 = Rx W1 [ x a ] W2 [ x b]
+
+ M [ x e]
2
2
dx
2
214
6.7
BEAMS OF VARYING EI
d2y
M
=
2
EI
dx
dy
M
=
dx + A
dx
EI
M
y =
dx dx + Ax + B
EI
(1)
If EI is a simple integrable function of x, then
dy
and y are obtained by integrating
dx
M
in the ordinary way.
EI
Example 6.7.1
Find the deflection and the slope at the end of the cantilever shown in the sketch.
E = 1.5 106 N/cm2
2 kN
12 cm
Elevation
100 cm
8 cm
x
SOLUTION
Ix =
1
1 8x
bd 3 =
.
.12 3 = 1152
, x cm 4
12
12 100
215
Plan
d2y M
2000 x
=
=
= 173.61( N ,cmunits )
2
I
11,52 x
dx
dy
E
= 173.61x + A
dx
dy
At
x = 100,
=0
dx
ie
which
gives A = 17361
0 = 17361 + A,
E
173.61x 2
+ 1736 x + B( N ,cmunits )
2
At
x = 100,
y=0
i.e.0 = 868050 + 1736100 + B
B = 868050
Ey =
1763.61x 2
+ 17361x 868050
2
868050
At x = 0
y=
cm = 0.579cm(i.e.down )
1.5 x10 6
dy
17361
=
= 0.0116radians
dx
1.5 x10 6
Ey =
(2)
If EI is not an integrable function,
M
must be integrated graphically, e.g. by moment
EI
area methods.
The majority of practical cases where EI is not constant are of this type, e.g. plate
girders with plates stopping short, flanged beams of variable depth, etc.
Figure 6.9
216
6.8
EXAMPLES USING THE MACAULEY NOTATION
Example 6.8.1
A simply supported beam consisting of a 533 210 109 I section spans 7m and is loaded as
shown. Using the double integration method (Macauley) calculate the deflection at the point
load. E = 200 GPa. Ignore the self-weight of the beam.
300 kN
40 kN/m
A
2m
5m
x
VA = 225.71 kN
SOLUTION
VA = 40 7 3 1/2 + 300 2
VA = 225.71 kN
d2y
40 x 2
=
M
=
225
.
71
x
300[x 5]
x
2
dx 2
2
dy 225.71x 2 40 x 3 300[x 5]
EI
=
+A
dx
2
6
2
3
225.71x 3 40 x 4 300[x 5]
EIy =
+ Ax + B
6
24
6
EI
At x = 0, y = 0 B = 0
At x = 7 y = 0
225.71(7 )
40(7 )
300(2)
0 =
+ 7A
6
24
6
3
which gives A = -1214.19

225.71x 3 40 x 4 300[x 5]
EI y =
1214,19 x
6
24
6
3
At x = 5m
225.71(5)
40(5)
(1214.19 )5
6
24
3
EI y
217
(y) x=5m =
2410,33
10 3 mm
200 10 668 10 6 10 12
6
(y) x=5m = -18.04 mm (i.e. down)
Example 6.8.2
A beam of constant EI is loaded as shown in the sketch below. Find the deflection at point C.
(See also example 5.2.5)
Total load W
C
B
A
L
2W
Add positive and equal negative u.d.l. as shown below

C
A
L
VA
C
L
/L kN/m
B
VB
2W
/L kN/m
L
Find VA
4 VA = 6W 4W + WL
Find VB
3W
+ VB = W = 2W + W
4
VA =
3W
4
1
VB = 3 W
4
W [ x 2 L]
W [ x 3 L]
d2y
3W
x L] Wx
= Mx =
+
[
2
L
L
4
2
2
dx
2
EI
dy 3W [ x L]
Wx 2 W [ x 2 L] W [ x 3 L]
EI
=
+
+A
dx
L
L
4
2
2
6
6
2
W [ x 3 L]
3W [ x L] Wx 3 W [ x 2 L]
EIy =
+
+ Ax + B
L
L
4
6
6
24
24
3
218
At x = L, y = 0
0 =
WL3
+ AL + B
6
At x = 3L, y = 0
0=
3W
W
W
(2 L) 3 (3L) 3
( L) 4 + 3AL + B
24
6
24 L
From 1 : B =
WL3
AL
6
Substitute in 2 :
9
WL3
WL3
0 = WL3 WL3
+ 3AL +
AL
2
24
6
0=
Substitute A =
B=
81WL3
27
+ 2AL, giving A =
WL2
24
16
27
WL2 in 1 :
16
WL3 27
WL3
6
16
giving B =
73
WL3
48
3W [ x L] Wx 3 W [ x 2 L] W [ x 3 L]
27
73
EIy =
+
+ WL2 x + WL3
L
L
4
6
6
24
24
16
48
3
At x = 2L
WL3 W
27
73
3
(2 L) + WL2 (2 L) WL3
8
6
16
48
62WL3
=
96
31WL3
( up )
( y) C =
48 EI
EIy =
219
6.9
BEAMS WITH REDUNDANT REACTIONS
The Macauley notation is also suitable for solving problems on structures with redundant
reactions. As in the previous chapter, we will deal with the propped cantilever and the
encastr beam.
220
6.10
THE PROPPED CANTILEVER
Consider the propped cantilever AB shown in fig. 6.10. EI is constant.

MA
w/unit length
B
A
x
VA
VB
At section x from left-hand end:

wx 2
d2y
V
x
M
=
A
A
2
dx 2
2
3
dy V A x
wx
EI
=
MAx
+A
dx
2
6
M x = EI
At x = 0,
dy
= 0
dx
EIy =
V A x 3 M A x 2 wx 4
+B
6
2
24
At x = 0, y = 0
EIy =
A = 0
B = 0
V A x 3 M A x 2 wx 4
6
2
24
At x = L, y = 0:
0=
VA L3 M A L2 wL4
6
2
24
M A L2 VA L3 wL4
i. e.
=0
2
6
24
i. e. 12 M A L2 4 VA L3 + wL2 = 0
221
Also MB = 0
wL2
=0
2
M A + VA . L
12:
3 + 1 :
12 M A + 12 VA . L
8V A . L
6wL2
=0
2
5wL2
=0
2
which gives V A =
V = 0 VB =
5
wL
8
3
wL
8
This result is the same as that obtained in paragraph 5.4 using moment-area methods, and the
fixing moment MA as well as the bending moment at any point can now easily be found.
Example 6.10.1
We will consider the same problem that was solved using moment-area analysis in Example
5.4.1. The question is repeated below.
(a)
A horizontal cantilever AC, of length 2,4 m is built-in at A. It carries a u.d.l. of 12

kN/m from the fixed end A to point B, which is 1,8 m from A. Determine the
deflection of the free end C in terms of EI.
(b)
If the cantilever is now propped at B, so that A and B are on the same level, determine
the reaction at the support B.
(c)
Determine the deflection of C in terms of EI, with the support B in position.
MA=
19.44 kNm
12 kN/m
1.8
B
0.6
2.4 m
VA
= 21.6 kN
222
SOLUTION
(a)
VA = 1.8 12
= 0:
MA = 0 :
VA = 21.6 kN
MA = 12 1.8 0.9 MA = 19.44 kNm
d 2 y 12[x 0.6]
M x = EI 2 =
2
dx
3
dy
6[x 0.6]
EI
=
+A
dx
6
dy
= 0
dx
At x = 2.4
0 = 2(2.4 0.6 ) + A
3
giving A = 11.664
2[x 0.6]
+ 11.664 x + B
4
4
EIy =
At x = 2.4 , y = 0
0
= - 1/2 (1.8)4 + 11.664 (2.4) + B

-5.2488 + 27.9936 + B
giving B = -22.7448
i,e, EI y
= -2 [x-0.6]4 + 11.664x 22.7748
At x = 0
y(x=0) =
22.7448
EI
Compare this with the answer to Example 5.4.1(a)
(b)
12 kN/m
MA
B
0.6
1.8
prop VB
x
223
d2y
12[x 0.6]
= VB [x 0.6]
2
2
dx
3
dy V B
EI
=
[x 0.6]2 6 [x 0.6] + A
dx
3
2
M x = EI
At x = 2.4 m ,
i.e.0 =
dy
= 0
dx
VB
(1.8)2 2(1.8)3 + A,
2
giving A = 11.664 1.62V B
dy V B
[x 0.6]2 2[x 0.6]3 + 11.664 1.62VB
=
2
dx
V B [x 0.6]3 2
4
EIy =
[x 0.6] + 11.664 x 1.62V B x + B
2
3
4
i.e.EI
At x = 0.6 m , y = 0
i.e.
= 11.664 (0.6) - 1.62 VB (0.6) + B
giving B
i.e. EIy =
= 0.972 VB - 6.9984
VB
1
3
4
x 0,6] [ x 0,6] + 11,664 x 1,62V B x + 0,972V B 6,9984
[
6
2
At x = 2,4 m , y = 0
i.e. 0 =
VB
(1.8)3 1 (1.8)4 + 11.664(2.4) (1.62)(2.4)VB + 0.972VB 6.9984
6
2
which gives
VB = 8.1 kN
Compare this with the answer to Example 5.4.1(b)

(c)
Find deflection at C
At x = 0
From equation A
above:
EI y = 0.972VB 6.9984
Substituting VB = 8.1 kN :
224
EI y
= 7.8732 6.9984
= 0.8748
y(x=0) =
0.8748
EI
Compare this with the answer to Example 5.4.1(c)
225
6.11
THE ENCASTR BEAM
We illustrate the use of the Macauley notation in the encastr beam by means of an example
that is also solved in the previous chapter, namely, Example 5.5.1.
Example 6.10.1
For the sake of clarity the question is repeated below.

An encastr beam AB spans 4 m and carries a point load of 100 kN at 1m from A. Use the
integration method to find the value of the fixing moments, and then draw the bending
moment diagram. EI = constant.
100 kN
MA
MB
A
B
1m
4m
x
SOLUTION
d2y
= V A x 100[ x 1] M A
dx 2
dy V A x 2
2
EI
=
50[ x 1] M A x + A
dx
2
M x = EI
At x = 0, =
EIy =
dy
=0
dx
V A x 3 50
M x2
3
[ x 1] A + B
6
3
2
At x = 0 , y = 0
At x = 4 ,
A=0
B=0
dy
=0
dx
226
3m
VB
VA
(4)2 - 50 (3)2 - MA (4)
2
i.e.
4MA - 8VA = -450
At x = 4 , y = 0
0 =
VA
(16)
50
(4) 3 (3) 3 M A
6
3
2
8M A
i.e.
1
2
- 3
32
VA = 450
3
8M A 16VA = 900
16
VA = 450
3
V = 0
which gives VA = 84.375 kNm

VB = 15.625 kNm
Substitute VA = 84.375 in equation 1 :

4 MA - 8 (84.375) = -450
which gives MA = 56.25 kNm
MB = 0 : 84.375 4 56.25 - 100 3 + MB = 0
which gives MB = 18.75 kNm

The bending moment diagram can now be drawn as for Example 5.5.1.
227
6.12
TUTORIAL
(1)
The figure shows a simply supported beam carrying three point loads. For what value
of W will the downward deflection of the beam under the three point loads be equal?
Use Macauleys method.
50
1m
50
2m
2m
1m
[92,86]
(2)
Determine the deflection of the free end A of the simply supported beam shown
below. Use the double integration method. Take EI = 5 MN m2
20kN
60kN
1m
A
(3)
1m
1m
1m
B
20kN
Sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the propped cantilever
shown below. Indicate values. Use Macauley's method.
20kN
1m
(4)
1m
20kN
1m
A symmetrical beam carries two concentrated loads at its third span points. Prove
that the maximum deflection of the beam is 4,6 times greater when the ends of the
beam are simply supported compared to when they are fixed.
228
(5)
Draw dimensioned bending moment and shear force diagrams for the encastr beam
shown in the figure. Also find the maximum deflection of the beam. Use the
Macauley method of integration. E = 210 GPa I = 5 106 mm4.
20 kN
(6)
1m
1m
1m
A
10 kN/m
Calculate the deflections of the free end A, as well as the midpoint of span BC, of the
beam in question 19 of Tutorial 4.6. Indicate whether the calculated deflections are
up or down. Take E = 200 GPa.
(7)
Use the Macauley integration method to find the reactions for the encastr beam
shown in the figure and then draw dimensioned bending moment and shear force
diagrams for the beam.
Also calculate the position and value of the maximum

I = 100 106 mm4.
deflection of the beam. E = 200 GPa

20kN
5 kN/m
4m
(8)
4m
2m
A beam spanning 12 m is fixed at one end and simply supported at the other end and
it carries a uniformly distributed load of 4 kN/m over the whole span. The simply
supported end sinks 5 mm under load. Draw dimensioned shear force and bending
moment diagrams for the beam. E = 210 GPa
(9)
(a)
I = 200 106 mm4.
Using the integration method, calculate the reaction and moment at A, for the
encastr beam loaded as shown in the figure, and draw the dimensioned shear force
and bending moment diagrams.
229
(b)
For the same beam and loading, calculate by how much the support at B must
sink to cause a bending moment at A of 30 kNm. EI = 10 000 kNm2. (N.B. No

rotation takes place at A or B).
10kN
10kN/m
A
3
6m
230
TST271Z
CHAPTER 7
ELASTIC REINFORCED CONCRETE THEORY
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Understand the basic concept of the combination of steel and concrete in reinforced
concrete design.
Understand the concrete stress diagram in deriving expressions for a balanced design.
Use basic design formulae for singly reinforced concrete beams and doubly reinforced
concrete beams.
Use the transformed section method to find the position of the neutral axis.
231
TST271Z
CHAPTER 7
ELASTIC REINFORCED CONCRETE THEORY
CONTENTS
PAGE
7.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 233

7.2 CONCRETE BEAMS.................................................................................................... 235
7.3 DERIVATION OF BASIC FORMULAE FOR A RECTANGULAR BEAM ......... 236
7.4 USE OF THE BASIC FORMULAE ............................................................................ 240
7.5 THE TRANSFORMED SECTION METHOD .......................................................... 245
7.6 DOUBLY REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS...................................................... 248
7.7 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................... 258
7.8 LIMIT STATES DESIGN............................................................................................. 259
232
7. ELASTIC REINFORCED CONCRETE THEORY

7.1
INTRODUCTION
The successful use of reinforced concrete (r.c.) because the coefficients of linear expansion
due to temperature change are almost the same for steel and concrete:
Steel:
= 0,0000065
Concrete:
= 0,0000060
In elastic r.c. design it is assumed that steel and concrete are perfectly elastic. Within the
working values of steel this is true, but for concrete it is not. For a sustained loading two
deformations occur in concrete:
(i)
Immediate elastic strain
(ii)
Inelastic strain known as creep, which continues for some time after the load is
applied, and which remains in the concrete as a permanent set.
The rate of creep decreases with time, but total amount of creep may be considerably greater
than the elastic deformation.
A
Stress-strain curve for concrete
Stress
Strain
Figure 7.1
Instantaneous modular ratio = m =
Effective modular ratio
ES
EC
ES
= 10
tan
E
Tan at X ( say )
233
The tangent at X decreases with time, and thus the modular ratio increases. This tends to
increase the stress in the steel and reduce that in the concrete. To take care of this transfer of
stress, m is arbitrarily increased to 15.
234
7.2
CONCRETE BEAMS
Steel is placed near the tension edge of the beam to take all the tensile stresses caused by
bending.
R.C. design of beams (and slabs) is now carried out, assuming that the concrete above the n.a.
is working at its maximum permissible stress in compression and that the steel below the n.a.
is simultaneously working at its maximum permissible stress in tension. Both sides are,
therefore, stressed to their fullest permissible extent, and the section calculated on this basis is
termed the economic or balanced section.
BALANCED DESIGN
Concrete and steel fails
Concrete understressed
Steel overstressed
Steel fails in
tension
Concrete fails
in compression
Concrete overstressed
Steel understressed
Figure 7.2
Design expressions for a balanced design will be obtained using the equivalent concrete
stress diagram.
235
7.3
DERIVATION OF BASIC FORMULAE FOR A RECTANGULAR BEAM
c =
dn
d
d1
pcb
EC
pcb
dn
3
pcb
la
d1-dn
p
S = st
ES
pst
m
Strain
Equivalent
Force
Diagram
Concrete
Diagram
Stress Diagram
Figure 7.3
Let
= beam breadth, d = overall beam depth
d1
= effective depth of beam
dn
= neutral axis depth
= modular ratio
Ast
= area of tensile reinforcement
pst
= permissible tensile stress in steel
pcb
= permissible compressive stress in concrete in bending
= ratio of stress
= steel to concrete area ratio =
ES
EC
pst
pcb
A st
bd 1
236
Mr
= resistance moment of beam
= applied moment on beam
From similar ' s:
dn
mpcb
=
d1 d n
pst
pst d n = mpcb ( d 1 d n )
pst d n + mpcb d n = mpcb d 1
mpcb
d1
giving d n =
pst + mpcb
mpcb
pcb
m
=
d1 =
d1
pst mpcb
t +m
+
pcb
pcb
giving n. a . depth d n = n1d 1
where n1 =
m
t+m
Total compression in concrete above n.a. = C =

Total tension in steel
Leverarm
p cb
.bd n
2
= T = Astpst
la = d 1
dn
3
n1d 1
3
n
= d1 1 1
3
= d1
giving leverarm
where
la = a1d 1
a1 = 1
n1
3
Moment of resistance Mr = Cla or Tla
237
(1)
Mr = Cla
1
pcb .bd n la
2
1
= pcb .b(n1d 1 )( a1d 1 )
2
1
= pcb n1a1bd 12
2
Mr =
giving moment of resistance

Mr = kbd12
where k = 1/2 pcbn1a1
(2)
Mr = Tla
giving moment of resistance
Mr = Astpstla
Steel ratio
=r=
area of steel in tension Ast

=
Effective cornc. area
bd 1
Substitute
Ast =
Mr
pst la
r=
( from
Mr
bd 1 pst la
1
pcb .bd n la
2
1
1
pcb bd n la
pcb d n
r = 2
= 2
bd 1 pst la
pst d 1
But
But
Mr =
p cb 1
and
=
pst
t
r =
d n = n1d 1
n1d 1 n1
=
2td 1 2t
238
or, if expressed as a % : -
r=
50n1
n1
100 =
2t
t
r (% ) =
Steel ratio (%)
Summary :
50n1
t
Fundamental Formulae : -
ES
EC
n1
m
t+m
a1
= 1
= 1/2pcbn1a1
r%
dn
= n1 d1
la
= a1d1
Mr
= kbd12
Mr
= Astpstla or Ast =
pst
pcb
n1
3
50n1
t
Mr
pst la
239
7.4
USE OF THE BASIC FORMULAE
In order to be able to commence with reinforced concrete (r.c.) design, three basic quantities
must be known:
(1)
Allowable stress in concrete in bending pcb
(2)
Allowable tensile stress in steel pst
(3)
Modules ratio m
Example 7.4.1: Balanced design

(singly reinforced rectangular beams)
Find the position of the n.a., the economic (balanced) percentage of steel and the moment of
resistance in terms of b and d1 given
b
pcb = 7 N/mm2
pst = 140 N/mm2
m
dn
d1
= 15
SOLUTION
t=
pst 140
=
= 20
7
pcb
m
15
=
= 0.429
t + m 20 + 15
n
0.429
a1 = 1 1 = 1
= 0.857
3
3
n1 =
Depth of n.a.
dn = n1 d1
dn
= 0.429 d1
Leverarm
la = a1d1
la
= 0.857 d1
Economic. % steel
r% =
50n1 50 0,429
=
r % = 1.07%
t
20
240
Moment of resistance
M r = kbd12
1
1
p cb n1 a1 = 7 = 0.429 0.857 = 1.29 N / mm 2
2
2
M r = 1.29 N / mm 2 bd12
k=
Since Mr must = Applied bending moment M : = 1.29 N/mm2 bd12
giving giving d1 =
M
1.29 N / mm 2 b
Also
Mr = Astpstla
M = Astpstla
Ast =
(Equation
M
pst la
M
140 0.857d1
Expression A
and B
enable the dimensions of the cross section and the required area of
steel to be calculated once the applied bending moment is known.
Example 7.4.2
A simply supported beam spans 5 m and carries an all-inclusive load of 50 kN/m over the
whole span. If pst = 140 N/mm2
pcb = 7 N/mm2
m = 15
determine suitable dimensions and the amount of tensile reinforcement required if

b = 0.4 d1
50 kN/m
5m
241
SOLUTION
wl 2 50(5)
=
= 156.25kNm
8
8
2
M =
t=
pst 140
=
= 20
pcb
7
n1 =
15
m
=
= 0.429
t + m 20 + 15
a1 = 1
n1
0,429
= 1
= 0.857
3
3
1
1
p cb n1 a1 = 7 0.429 0.857 = 1.29
2
2
2
M = kbd1
k=
156.25 10 6
= 121.124 10 6 mm 3
1.29
3
0.4d1 = 121.124 10 6
bd12 =
121.124 106
= 302.81 10 6 mm 3
0 .4
d1 = 671mm
d13 =
b = 0.4 671 = 268.4mm
Amount of tensile reinforcement

50n1 50 0.429
=
= 1.0725%
t
20
1.0725
Ast = rbd1 =
268.4 671 = 1931.5mm 2
100
r=
Alternatively
Ast =
M
M
=
p st l a
p st a1 d1
12 1/2
156.25 10 6
= 1940.8mm 2
140 0.857 671
Ast = 4 25 = 1963mm 2
25
d = 671 + 38 = 709mm
242
Suitable dimensions: b = 270 mm

d = 710 mm
425
Tensile reinforcement
Example 7.4.3
A simply supported beam span 6m and carries a load of 60 kN/m not including the selfweight of the beam. The steel and concrete stresses are 140 and 7 N/mm2 respectively.
Calculate the required dimensions and amount of tensile reinforcement
60 kN/m
6m
SOLUTION
M sup erimp load

M selfwt
wl 2 60 6 2
=
=
= 270kNm
8
8
= 52 kNm(20% assumed )
= 322 kNm
M total
t=
Design constants
n1 =
pst 140
=
= 20
pcb
7
m
15
=
= 0.429
t + m 20 + 15
a1 = 1
k=
n1
0.429
= 1
= 0.857
3
3
1
1
p cb n1 a1 = 7 0.429 0.857 = 1.29 N / mm 2
2
2
r% =
50n1 50 0.429
=
= 1.07%
20
t
243
m = 15
M = kbd 12 i.e.bd 12 =
M 322 10 6
=
= 249.6 10 6 mm 3
k
1.29
d1 2
d1
200
1 248 000
1117
300
832 000
912
400
642 000
790
500
499 200
706.5
600
416 000
645
Moment due to self-weight, wt =
850
wl 2 0.4 0.85 24 6 2
=
= 36.7 kNm (which is less than
8
8
assumed)
1.07
.400.790 = 3381mm 2
100
306.7 10 6
M
=
= 3235mm 2
or Ast =
p st a1 d1 140 0.857 790
Ast = rbd 1 =
7 25 = 3436mm 2
244
7.5
THE TRANSFORMED SECTION METHOD
This method is used to find the position of the n.a. if the beam is fully defined, i.e. the
dimensions, effective depth and Ast are all known.
The equivalent concrete area of the incorporated steel is found by multiplying Ast by m.
Ast
m Ast
Example 7.5 (Singly reinforced rect. Beams)
A simply supported beam spans 8m and is reinforced using 425 mild steel bars at an
effective depth of 450 mm. The breadth of the beam is 250 mm and the o.a. depth = 490 mm
If pst = 140 N/mm2 and pcb = 7 N/mm2, what load (u.d.l) may be carried at m = 15.
w/m
250
8m
dn
490
450
425 = 1963 mm2
t=
r=
pst 140
=
= 20
pcb
7
Ast
1963
=
= 0.0160
bd 1 250 490
n1 =
m
15
=
= 0.429
t + m 20 + 15
r for balanced section =
245
n1 0.429
=
= 0.0107
2t
40
Actual r > balanced r concrete will reach its maximum stress first.
Calculate the position of n.a. by using the transformed section method.
Taking moments about n.a. : -
250d n2
= 15 1963(450 d n )
2
125d n2 + 29445d n 13250250 = 0
2
d n + 235.56d n 106002 = 0
dn =
235.6 +
(235.6)2 + 4(106002)
2
= 228.4mm
228.4 = 76.13
228.4
152.3
450 228.4
= 221.6
T
Ast = 1963
If concrete is stressed to maximum of 7 N/mm2 : -
228.4
6
M r (c ) = Cl a = 250 7
(152.3 + 221.6 ) 10 = 74.7 kNm
2
If steel is stressed to maximum of 140 N/mm2 : M r ( s ) = Tl a = 1963 140 (152.3 + 221.6 ) 10 6 = 102.7 kNm
The concrete governs a Mr of beam = 74.7 kNm
Alternatively : 1
(250)(228.4)3 + 15(1963)(450 228.4)2
3
= 2438845.6 10 3 mm 4
I=
246
= 2438845.6 103 mm4

M =
fI
y
M (c ) =
7 2438845.6 10 3
10 6 = 74.7 kNm
228.4
M (s ) =
140 2438845.6 10 3
10 6 = 102.7 kNm
221.6 15
Mr of beam = 74.7 kNm
M =
wl 2
w(8)
74.7 =
8
8
w = 9.34kN / m
giving
deduct
selfwt = 2.94kN / m
Allowable superimposed load
= 6.4 kN/m
247
7.6
DOUBLY REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
When the size of a beam of rectangular cross section is restricted, the required bending
strength may be achieved by the following methods: (1)
Providing extra tension steel, i.e. the n.a. moves down.

[For balanced design Mr = kbd12
i.e. bd 12 =
If (bd12) actual < (bd12) economic
M
k
the concrete stress governs and the steel is given
by: 2
Ast =
bd n2
3d
6M
3d
whered n = 1 1
Pcb .b
2m(d1 d n )
2
2
M (c ) =
7 2438845.6 10 3
10 6 = 74.7 kNm
228.4
If (bd12) actual > (bd12) economic
then the steel stress governs and the steel is
given as for a balanced section:-
Ast =
(2)
M
]
pst a1d 1
Using compression steel as well as tension steel (usually more economical than (1)
above). The compression steel helps the concrete to take the compression.
In the elastic theory method of design the compressive steel stress is taken as m x the stress in
the concrete at the same distance from the n.a. The method is sufficiently accurate when the
calculated area of compression steel does not exceed the calculated area of the tensile steel.
248
Example 7.6.1
(doubly reinforced concrete beam)
A simply supported rectangular beam is required to resist a bending moment of 117 kNm.
The beam size is limited to b = 300 mm, d1 = 500 mm. Assume that the centre of the tensile
and compressive steel is 50 mm from the bottom and top faces respectively and calculate the
required reinforcement using 1:2:4 min and m.s. bars (i.e. Pcb = 7 , Pst = 140 N/mm2).
m = 15.
SOLUTION
(a)
By using compressed steel
Step 1
Calculate the design constants for balanced design.
t=
pst 140
=
= 20
7
pcb
n1 =
m
15
=
= 0.429
t + m 20 + 15
a1 = 1
k=
Step 2
n1
0,429
= 1
= 0.857
3
3
1
1
p cb n1 a1 = 7 0.429 0.857 = 1.29 N / mm 2
2
2
Assume tensile reinforcement only and balanced design.
Then M e = kbd12 = 1.29 300(500 ) 10 6 = 96.75kNm

2
Ast =
M
96.75 10 6
=
= 1613mm 2
p st a1 d1 140 0.857 500
[i.e. for an applied moment of 96.75 kNm the concrete and the above quantity of steel will
both reach their maximum permissible stresses. The actual moment, however, is 117 kNm,
249
therefore the concrete as well as the balanced Ast will be overstressed. Additional tensile as
well as compressed steel is therefore required due to the excess moment
M - Me = 117-96.75 = 20.25 kNm]
Calculate the additional tensile steel A1st required due to the excess moment
Step 3
M-Me , by considering the steel couple : -
d2 = 50
C1
Asc
d1 = 500
T = A1st pst
A1st
Ast pst (d1 - d2) = M - Me

M Me
20.25 10 6
=
= 321mm 2
Ast =
p st (d1 d 2 ) 140 450
Total Ast required = 1613 + 321 = 1934mm 2
[ALTERNATIVELY THIS TOTAL MAY BE FOUND DIRECT: Ast =
M
117 10 6
=
= 1950mm 2 ]
p st a1 d1 140 0.857 500
Step 4
(1)
Calculate the total compression C1 in the compressed steel by considering the steel
couple: C1 (d1 - d2-) = M - Me
250
C1 =
(2)
M M e 20.25 10 6
=
= 45kN
d1 d 2
450
Calculate the stress in the concrete immediately surrounding the compressed steel.
pcb=7
d2 = 50
n
dn
Asc
d1 = 500
Ast
dn = n1d1 = 0.429 500 = 214.5 mm
From similar s :
f cb =
dn d2
p cb
dn
==
214.5 50
7 = 5.37 N / mm 2
214.5
Steel stress in this position fsc = (m-1) 5.37

= 14 5.37 = 75.18 N/mm2
Asc =
Summary :
C 1 45 10 3
=
= 599mm 2
f sc
75.18
Total Ast = 1934 mm2

Total Asc =
599 mm2
Alternatively
The following formulae may be applied : -
251
fcb
Asc =
M Me
(m 1) pcb d n d 2
dn
(d1 d 2 )
20.25 10 6
= 599mm 2
214
50
14 7
(500 50 )
214
(b)
By using tensile steel only
The same size beam can be made safe by using tensile reinforcement only : Ast =
bd n2
where
2m(d1 d n )
2
3d
6M
3d
dn = 1 1
2
p cb .b
2
2
3 500
6 117 10 6
3 500
=

2
7 300
2
= 272.3mm
300(272.3)
= 3256mm 2
2(15)(500 272.3)
2
Ast =
This is considerably more than when compression reinforcement is used.
[Check
Find n.a.
300
dn
300d n2
= 15(3256 )(500 d n )
2
150d n2 + 48840d n 24420000 = 0
which gives d n = 272.3mm
3256
252
Find I
I = 1/3 (300) (272.3)3 + 15 (3256) (500 272.3)2
= 2019 106 + 2532 106 = 4551 106 mm4
M r (c ) =
fI 7 4551 10 6 10 6
=
= 117 kNm
y
272.3
M r (s ) =
140 4551 10 6 10 6
= 187 kNm
15 227.7
M r = 117 kNm
Example 7.6.2
(a)
A rectangular r.c. beam 600 x 250 mm is reinforced with 320 bars with centre 40
mm from the upper face and with 520 bars with centre 75 mm from the bottom face.
Determine the moment of resistance of the beam if the stresses in the concrete and the
steel must not exceed 7 and 140 N/mm2 respectively. m = 15.
(b)
Also find the depth of a beam of the same breadth that would have the same moment
of resistance without compression reinforcement.
(a)
In this type of problem (fully defined beam: - dimensions, Ast , Asc known) the
transformed section method is used to determine the position of the n.a.
SOLUTION
Step 1
Find the position of the n.a. using the transformed section method.
Asc = 942
d2 = 40
320 : - Asc = 942 mm2
dn
d1 = 525
d = 600
d1 - dn
Ast = 1571
253
520 : - Ast = 1571 mm2
Take moments about n.a. : -
d
bd n n + (m 1) Asc (d n d 2 ) = mAst (d 1 d n )
2
125d n2 + 14(d n 40)( 942) = 15(1571)(525 d n )

d n2 + 294d n 103193 = 0
giving d n = 206mm
Step 2
Calculate the position of the n.a. for a critical (balanced) singly reinforced section : dnc = n1d1 = 0,429 525 = 225 mm
dn = 206
dnc = 225
If dn is below dnc the maximum permissible concrete stress is reached first.

If dn is above dnc the maximum permissible steel stress is reached first.
In this case dn < dnc and pst is reached first.
Step 3
Calculate the stress in the concrete at the compression steel level.
d2 = 40
pcb
fcb
dn=206
254
From similar ' s :
f cb
d d2
= n
p cb
dn
206 40
2
f cb = 7
= 5.64 N / mm
206
Step 4
Find the magnitude and position of the resultant compressive force.
206
= 68,7mm
7 3
R
137,3
C1 = 14 5.64 942 10-3
= 74.38 kN
C = 7/2 (206) (250) 10-3
= 180.25 kN
= 254.63 kN
254.63 y = 180.25 137.3 + 74. 38 166
y=
24748 + 12347
= 145.7 mm
254.63
Step 5
R = 254.63
255
If concrete reaches maximum permissible stress first : Mr = 254.63 0.4647 = 118.3 kNm
If steel reaches maximum permissible stress first : Mr = 1571 140 464.7 10-6 = 102.2 kNm
ALTERNATIVELY
Once the n.a. position has been found, the I of the beam is calculated.
Asc = 942
a
206
Ast = 1571
I = [1/3 (250) (206)3 + 14(942) (206 - 40)2 + 15(1511) (525 - 206)2] 10-4 cm4
= 72848 + 36341 + 239800
= 348989 cm4
M=
fI
y
7 348989 10 4
M r (c ) =
10 6 kNm = 118.6kNm
206
140 348989 10 4
M r (s ) =
10 6 kNm = 102.1kNm
(525 206) 15
256
250
(b)
dn
la
d1
T
1571
M = 102.1 kNm
Find d1
Mr = 1.29 bd12
102.1 10 6
= 562.4mm
1.29 250
AlsoM r = Ast p st l a = 102.1kNm
d1 =
102.1 10 6
p st =
= 134.8 < 140
1571 0.857 562.4
taked1 = 562.4mm
Make overall depth D = 605 mm
257
dn/3
7.7
TUTORIAL
(1)
A beam is simply supported across a span of 6m and is to carry a load of 20 kN/m,

including the weight of the beam. If the allowable working stresses are steel 120
N/mm2 , concrete 6 N/mm2 , m = 12, : (a) Determine suitable dimensions and area of steel required for a balanced design.
(b) If the beam of the above dimensions had the steel ratio changed to : (i)
r = 0.0078
(ii) r = 0.0042,
what moments could the beam safely carry?
(2)
A beam, 200 mm wide and 300 mm effective depth, has a moment of 10 kNm applied
to it. If m = 15, and the stresses are not to exceed pst = 140 N/mm2 pcb = 7 N/mm2,
what area of tensile steel is required. For this area, determine the actual stress in the
concrete.
(3)
A rectangular concrete beam has a width of 300 mm and is 450 mm deep to the steel
reinforcement, which consists of two 25 mm diameter bars. Calculate the permissible
bending moment if the stresses are limited to 115 MPa and 6.5 MPa in the steel and
concrete respectively, and if the modular ratio = 15.
(4)
A rectangular concrete beam, 300 mm wide, is reinforced on the tension side with
four 25 mm diameter steel rods at a depth of 450 mm, and on the compression side
with two 25 mm rods at a depth of 50 mm. Calculate the permissible bending
moment if the stress in the concrete is not to exceed 6.5 MPa and in the steel 115
MPa. Take m = 15.
258
7.8
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
The elastic methods are no longer used in reinforced concrete design, having been superseded
by limit states design. In elastic design the permissible concrete and steel stresses are much
lower than yield strength, thus a high factor of safety is automatically introduced. In limit
states design characteristic strengths are used, being the cube strength for concrete and yield
or proof stress for steel, and (relatively low) partial safety factors are applied (1.5 for concrete
and 1.15 for steel reinforcement). Furthermore, to allow for uncertainties and to ensure
safety and serviceability, each characteristic load (given in SANS 0160) is multiplied by its
own partial safety factor, and the loads are added to produce a design load. Loads on a
structure are classified as:
(1)
dead loads - the weight of the structure (Gk)
(2)
imposed loads - furniture, occupants etc (Qk)
(3)
wind loads (Wk)
For any limit state the design load is given by the sum of the characteristic loads each
multiplied by its own partial safety factor.
At the ultimate limit state the important consideration is strength, and the partial safety
factors >> 1.
At the serviceability limit states k < 1 since deflection and cracking must be considered at
normal working loads.
We do not deal further with limit states design in this chapter, as it is covered fully in the
Reinforced Concrete Design syllabus and in Structural Analysis II .
It must be stressed however, that in order to grasp limit states design properly, it is essential
that the student should study and fully understand the elastic theory of reinforced concrete.
259
TST271Z
CHAPTER 8
STATICALLY DETERMINATE PIN-JOINTED FRAMES
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Identify a statically determinate beam and two-dimensional pin-jointed structure.
Apply conditions of static equilibrium to obtain the force and/or moment at the
support(s) of any statically determinate body subjected to various kinds of loads.

Draw the free body diagram of a statically determinate structure.
Apply the methods of joint, section, graphical and tension coefficient to determine the
internal forces in a three-dimensional, statically determinate, pin-jointed structure.
260
TST271Z
CHAPTER 8
CONTENTS
PAGE
8.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 262

8.2 REACTIONS .................................................................................................................. 263
8.3 CONDITIONS FOR DETERMINANCY .................................................................... 264
8.4 TYPES OF FRAMES .................................................................................................... 267
8.5 DETERMINATION OF FORCES IN MEMBERS OF A FRAME ......................... 268
8.6 GRAPHICAL METHOD .............................................................................................. 269
8.7 ANALYTICAL METHODS ......................................................................................... 273
8.8 METHOD OF SECTIONS............................................................................................ 275
8.9 METHOD OF RESOLUTION OF FORCES AT A JOINT...................................... 279
8.10 METHOD OF TENSION COEFFICIENTS ............................................................. 285
8.11 SIMPLE SPACE FRAMES ........................................................................................ 291
8.12 EQUIVALENT TENSION COEFFICIENTS........................................................... 295
8.13 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................. 296
261
8.
8.1
INTRODUCTION
A pin-jointed frame is a structure consisting of straight members joined together at their ends
by pins or hinges. Since the joints can rotate, no bending moments can occur at the joints,
and no bending moments can be transmitted. In the ideal frame the joints are assumed to be
frictionless and the loads are applied at the joints. In practice the ideal condition is seldom
attained due to friction, continuity of members and riveted or bolted connections, which do
not allow free rotation at the joints. Furthermore, it is not always possible to apply the loads
at the joints. Generally the self-weight of a frame is small compared to the applied load, and
is neglected in the calculations.
The configuration of a frame is important. Consider the following four arrangements of pin
jointed members, where m = number of members, and j = number of joints.
(a) Stable
m = 2j - 3
(b) Unstable
(c) Stable
m < 2j -3
m = 2j - 3
(d) Redundant member

m > 2j - 3
Figure 8.1
The triangle is the basic stable shape. The rectangle in figure 8.1(b) is unstable since a small
force at any joint will cause collapse. The addition of a diagonal member shown in figure
8.1(c) stabilises the rectangular shape. A further diagonal makes the rectangle over-stiff,
having one redundant member.
The following equation is used to establish the stability of an isolated-frame, i.e. one not
attached to or supported by a foundation:
m = 2j - 3
where m = number of members
and j = number of joints.
262
8.2
REACTIONS
A pin-jointed frame will usually be supported at two joints, although there may be more.
There are two kinds of supports:
H
V
V
(a) Pinned reaction
TWO REACTION ELEMENTS
(b) Roller reaction

ONE REACTION ELEMENT
Figure 8.2
The pinned reaction in figure 8.2(a) can resist a force on it in any direction. Thus the pinned
reaction may have a V and an H component. It has two reaction elements.
The roller reaction in figure 8.2(b) cannot resist a force in the direction in which it rolls.
Thus a roller can only provide a reaction perpendicular to the direction in which it rolls. It
has only one reaction element.
263
8.3
CONDITIONS FOR DETERMINANCY
Provided the members of the frame are satisfactorily arranged, the frame will be statically
determinate if the following equation is satisfied:
m + r = 2j
where m = Number of members
r = possible number of reaction elements
j = number of joints (including reaction points)
In general, the members should be arranged to form triangles.
Examples of statically determinate frames
m=3
r=3
j=3
m=4
m + r = 2j
r =4
m=7
m + r = 2j
j=4
r=3
j=5
Figure 8.3
264
m + r = 2j
Examples of frames with redundant members
m=3
r=4
m = 10
m + r - 2j - l
j=4
r=3
m = 10
m + r - 2j = l
m + r - 2j = 2
j=6
r=6
j=7
Figure 8.4
Examples of unstable (or deficient) frames
m = 10
r =3
m = 12
m + r - 2j = -1
j =7
r=3
m=7
m + r - 2j = -1
j=8
r=4
m + r - 2j = -1
j=6
Figure 8.5
It is clear that the addition of one member (shown dotted) will make each of the above frames
stable and statically determinate.
265
Examples of frames satisfying the equation m + r = 2j , yet unstable
m=9
r =3
m=1
m + r - 2j = 0
r=3
j =6
m + r - 2j = 0
j=7
Figure 8.6
In the above two frames the equation m + r = 2j is satisfied. It is clear that the arrangement
of members is not satisfactory.
266
8.4
TYPES OF FRAMES
There are two types of frames :

(1)
Plane frames : all members lie in one plane (i.e. two-dimensional)
(2)
Space frames : members do not lie in one plane (i.e. three-dimensional)
A frame spanning an opening is called a truss (e.g. bridge truss, roof truss).
267
8.5
DETERMINATION OF FORCES IN MEMBERS OF A FRAME
The forces in members may be found either graphically or analytically. The methods used to
find the forces are summarised as follows:
(1)
Graphical method
(2)
Analytical methods
(i)
The method of sections
(ii)
The method of resolution of forces at a joint
(iii)
The method of tension coefficients.

(This method is indispensable in the analysis of space frames.)
268
8.6
GRAPHICAL METHOD
The procedure is as follows:

(1)
Draw a diagram of the frame to a suitable scale with the loads shown acting at the
joints, and the reactions indicated.
(2)
Letter the spaces between the external loads using block capitals, and counting the
reactions as external loads, and then number the spaces in the frame. (This is termed
Bows notation).
(3)
Draw the load line using small letters for the forces, they correspond with the frame
diagram.
(4)
Find the reactions (if there are two supports) by means of the link polygon or by
calculation.
(5)
Draw the triangle or polygon of forces for each joint in turn, remembering that we can
only use joints at which there are no more than two unknown forces can be dealt with.
(6)
Immediately each polygon for a joint is completed, insert arrows on the frame
diagram to show the sense of the forces at that joint by taking the order of the letters
and numbers round the joint from the frame diagram and referring to the force
diagram to obtain the direction of the force.
(7)
Tabulate the forces in the bars by scaling from the force diagram and state if
compressive (+) or tensile (-).
269
Example 8.6.1
Draw the force diagram for the Belgian truss shown below.
1 250 N
1 250 N
625 N
1 250 N
1 250 N
1 250 N
625 N
1m
18 m
3 750 N
3 750 N
Members
Force (Newtons)
Tensions or Comp.
B1 and G7
9 000
C2 and F6
7 450
D3 and E5
7 670
1.2 and 6.7
1 430
2.3 and 5.6
1 320
3.4 and 4.5
4 150
4.K
1 020
1.K and 7.K
7 940
270
Notes
(1)
Loads on frame members between joints.

wl
W/unit length
wl
wl
wl
wl
=
a b
W
VL
VL
L = 4xl
VR
Wb
l
Wa
l
VR
Figure 8.7
The loaded member is treated as if it is a simply supported beam and the reactions are found,
as shown in figure 8.7. It must be emphasised, however, that the loaded member as well as
adjacent members must be further strengthened to provide for the beam action.
(2)
Trusses in which the force diagram cannot be completed owing to the arrangement of
members
In certain frames (e.g. the Fink truss), at a certain stage of drawing the force diagram, no joint
can be found with less than three unknowns. We may then proceed by using the method of
substitution of bars.
In the Fink truss below (fig 8.8) the force diagram can be completed up to points X and Y,
but here we have three unknown forces at each joint. Remove members 4-5 and 5-6, and
replace these two with a single member XZ. The internal arrangement of members in the
left-hand portion of the truss will not affect the force in member 7-L. The force diagram is
completed to this point. Members 4-5 and 5-6 are now replaced and the force diagram
completed.
271
50kN
E
50kN
D
50kN
300
Z
50kN C
6
Y
25kN
B
A
30
5
4
F 50kN
50kN
G
9
10
11
L
16 m span
Figure 8.8
272
50kN
H
25kN
J
12
13
K
8.7
ANALYTICAL METHODS
Before we commence with the three analytical methods listed in paragraph 8.5, let us first
consider the concept of a free body diagram.
Structure as a whole is a body in equilibrium. Any part of a structure is also a body in
equilibrium. A portion of a structure can (in theory) be cut free from the whole, and this
portion will be in equilibrium under the action of the applied loads acting on it and of the
internal forces in the members that have been cut.
Consider the following truss :

W2
F
(a) Loaded frame
B
VL
D
W3
W1
1
W2
F
FCF
FCG
FGH
FCH
FCH
FCB
FCD
FCD
W1
D
W3
E
VR
(b)
Free body diagram for joint C
(c)
Free body diagram for portion

of the structure to the right of cut
Figure 8.9
273
Figure 8.9(b) shows the free body diagram of joint C of the frame shown in figure 8.9(a).
Figure 8.9(c) shows the free body diagram for the portion of the structure to the right of cut
1
Both free bodies are in equilibrium, and the usual conditions for static equilibrium apply:
V = 0
H = 0
M = 0
In most cases we can, by applying these conditions, set up two equations with two unknowns,
and by solving, find these unknown forces.
Note: In figure 8.9(a) we can, by inspection, see that FBF = FGH = 0 and FDH = W3.
274
8.8
METHOD OF SECTIONS

(1)
Calculate the reactions in the usual way.
(2)
Construct a free body diagram, cutting the frame through the members for which the
forces are required.
(3)
By applying the conditions for static equilibrium, equations can now be set up and
solved to find the unknown forces.
Example 8.8.1
Find the forces in DE, EN and PL in the truss shown in the figure.
R = 80
10 kN
20 kN
20 kN
20 kN
10 kN
SOLUTION
(1)
Calculate the reactions VA and VJ
MA
= 0 : 16 VJ = 10(AE) + 20(AD) + 20(AC) + 20(AB)
or more simply 16VJ = 80(AC)
275
AX
= 8 2
= 9.24m
3
cos 30
80 9.24
VJ =
= 23.1kN
16
2
AE =
= 0 : 80 cos 30 - VA - VJ = 0
V A = 80
3
23.1 = 46.2kN
2
= 0 : HA = 80sin30 = 80 x 1/2 = 40 kN
(2)
Make cut 1
through DE, EN and PL and consider the free body diagram to the left
of cut.1
10 kN
20 kN
20 kN
20 kN
10 kN
40 kN
23,1 kN
46,2 kN
(3)
Take moments about the intersection of two unknown forces :
Mp
= 0 : 46,2 (AP) - 10 (AC) - 20 (BC) + 20 (CD) + FDE (CP) = 0

AC
= 4.62 2
= 5.33m
3
cos 30
AC 9,24
BC = CD =
=
= 2.31
2
4
CP = AC tan 30 = 4.62 1
= 2.667 m
3
AP =
276
46.2 5.33 - 10 4.62 - 20 2.31 + 20 2.31 + FDE 2.667 = 0

which gives FDE = -75 kN
(The negative sign means that the arrow was chosen in the wrong direction.)
FDE = 75 kN Compression
ME
= 0 : 46.2 (AX) + 40 (EX) - 10(AE) - 20 (BE) - 20 (CE) - 20 (DE) - FPL (EX) = 0
EX = 8 tan 30 = 8
= 4.62m
46.2 8 - 40 4.62 - 10 9.24 - 20 (3 3.31) - 20 4.62 - 20 2.31 - FPL 4.62 = 0

which gives FPL = +40 kN
(The positive sign means that the arrow was chosen in the correct direction.)
FPL = 40 kN tension
We can find FNE by taking moments about A (MA = 0).
But it will be quicker using V = 0
From inspection LPE = 60
V = 0 :
46.2 - (10 + 20 + 20 + 20) cos 30 + FNE sin 60 - FDE Sin 30 = 0
3
3
1
+ FNE
75 = 0
46.2 70
2
2
2
which gives FNE

FNE
= +60kN
= 60 kN tension
Notes
(1)
If pinned at J, the frame becomes redundant and is not statically determinate.
(2)
Normal notation is used (not Bows).
(3)
Forces in other members can be found by making another cut.

277
(4)
It would have been easier to consider the free body diagram to the right of cut (1), as
there are fewer forces. You should do this as an exercise.
Example 8.8.2
Find the forces in members HG, CD and GC by means of the method of sections.
FHG
A
4m
Va=90kN
4m
60kN
FCD
4m
60kN
60kN
4m
VE=90kN
From inspection VA = VE = 90 kN
Consider the free body diagram to the right of cut (1) A :
MC = 0 :
FHG 3 = 90 8 - 60 4
FHG
MG = 0 :
= 0:
= 160 kN compression
FCD 3 = 90 4
FCD
= 120 kN tension
FGC cos = 90 - 60
FGC 3/5 = 30
FGC
FG
= 50 kN tension
Note: The three arrows were chosen in the correct directions.
278
8.9
METHOD OF RESOLUTION OF FORCES AT A JOINT

(1)
Calculate the reactions in the usual way.
(2)
Draw the free body diagram for each joint, indicating known and unknown forces,
and resolve the forces vertically and horizontally. Then V = 0 and H = 0.
Example 8.9.1
Find the forces in the frame shown using the method of resolution of forces at a joint.
0,5M
B
0,5M 0,5M
0,81 C
D
5
A 0,56 H 0,56 G
4m
4m
3m
F
3m
32
VE=0,75MN
VA=0,75MN
From inspection
VA = VE = 0,75 MN
From inspection
FBH = (= FDF) = 0
From inspection
FCG = 0.5 MN compression
Joint A
Joint H
FAB
From inspection FHG = GAH = 0.562 MN
FAH
0.75MN
279
=0:
FAB sin = 0.75
FAB = 0.75 5/4 = 0.938 MN compression

H
= 0 : FAB cos + FAH = 0

FAH = -0.938 3/5 = -0.562 MN (arrow chosen wrongly)
i.e.
FAH = 0.562 MN tension
Joint B
0.5MN
FBC
FBG
=0:
0.5 + FBG sin - 0.938 sin = 0
FBG
1
2
= 0.938
4
0.5 = 0.25
5
FBG = 0.25 2 = 0.54 MN
=0:
FBc = 0.354 1
+ 0.938
3
= 0.813MN
5
Joint G (as a check)
280
0.354MN 0.5MN 0.354M
0.562MN
V = 0: 0.5 2(0.354 ) 1
H
0.562 (from symmetry)
= 0.5 0.5 = 0
= 0 : from inspection
Member
Force (MN)
Tension or Compression
AB, DE
0.938
compression
BC, CD
0.813
compression
AH, HG, GF, FE
0.562
tension
BD, DG
0.354
tension
BH, DF
CG
0.5
compression
Example 8.9.2
Calculate the reactions, and the forces in all the members of the plane frame shown in the
figure. Indicate tension or compression.
281
2MN
C
1MN
HA=2MN
1 MN
4 ,25
0,5
2
A
2m
2m
VA=1,5MN
VB=0,5MN
Reactions
H
= 0
HA = 1 + 1 = 2 MN
MB = 0
4VA = 2 x 2 + 1 + 2 = 6
VA = 1.5 MN
VA + VB = 2 VB = 2 1.5
VB = 0.5 MN
= 0
Joint A
FAC
FAD
2
1.5
0,5
= 1.5
V = 0 :FAC sin 45 0 + FAD
4.25
2
= 2
H = 0 :FAC cos 45 + FAD
4.25
1
0 .5 2
= 0.5
FAD
4.25
0 .5
FAD = 4.25
1 .5
FAD = 0.687 MN
282
Substitute for FAD in 2 :

2
1
FAC
= 2 0.687
2
4.25
= 2 0.6665 = 1.3335MN
FAC = 1.886 MN
Joint D
FDC
0.687MN
FDB
H = 0 :
From inspection
V = 0 :
0 .5
FDC = 2 0.687
= 0.333MN
4.25
FDB = 0.687 MN
Joint B
FBC
0.687MN
1MN
0.5MN
0 .5
1
V = 0.5 FBC
= 0
0.687
2
4.25
0 .5
1
FBC
0.5 = 0.333
= 0.687
2
4.25
FBC = 0.471MN
283
Joint C (as a check)
2MN
1 MN
1.886 MN
1
1
H =1.886
0.471
1 = 0
2
2
1.334 0.333 1 = 0
0.471 MN
Member
Force (MN)
Tension/Compression
AD DB
0.687
Compression
AC
1.886
Compression
BC
0.471
Compression
CD
0.333
Compression
284
8.10
METHOD OF TENSION COEFFICIENTS
This method is of particular value in space frames. The fundamentals will, however, be
illustrated using a plane frame.
y
y
y
x
B
TAB
x
x
Figure 8.10
Consider member AB, length lAB , carrying a tensile force TAB . Let the positive x and y
directions be as shown in figure 8.10.
Consider end A
x
Component of TAB in (+) ve X direction = TAB cos = = TAB
l AB
y
Component of TAB in (+) ve Y direction = TAB sin = = TAB
l AB
Let tAB =
TAB
where tAB = tension coefficient for member AB
l AB
Now : Component of TAB in (+) ve X direction = tAB x

and
Component of TAB in (+) ve Y direction = tAB y
Consider end B
Similarly:
Component of TAB in (+) ve X direction = -tAB x
285
and
Component of TAB in (+) ve Y direction = -tAB y
Equilibrium of a joint
If several members AB, AC, AD .... and external forces X, Y in the X and Y directions all
meet at A :
For equilibrium V = 0 and H = 0
tAB xAB + tAC xAC + tAD xAD + ..... + X = 0

(x is (+) ve to the right)
and
tAB yAB + tAC yAC + tAD yAD + ..... + Y = 0
(y is (+) ve upward)
Important
x and y must have the appropriate sign in each case. If A is to the left of the other end of
the member, than x is (+) ve and vice versa. If A is at the lower end of the bar, then y is
(+) ve and vice versa.
Similar pairs of equations can be set up for each joint in the frame. This will give sufficient
equations to solve for the tension coefficients for all the members, plus the reactions, in a
statically determinate frame.
If the reactions are found by other methods, the extra equations can be used as a check.
Having solved the equations and thus found the tension coefficients, the forces in the
members are:
tAB lAB , tBC lAC , tAD lAD ....... etc.
286
Note : tAB =
TAB
l AB
If the member is in compression, the tension coefficient will be (-) ve.

Procedure for a plane frame
(1)
Make a diagram of the frame with the external forces acting on it.
(2)
Mark all the reaction elements on the frame, i.e. two for a pinned reaction and one for
a roller reaction, in the positive x- and y- directions if the reactions are to be found by
tension coefficients, or in the directions they actually occur, with values, if they are
found first by other methods.
(3)
Write down the equations for each joint in the frame for the x- and y- directions,
taking care that x and y have the correct sign. Note that since each member has
two ends, tAB is the same as tBA but x must be (+) ve at one end and (-) ve at the
other end. This also applies to y.
(4)
Check to ensure that each tension coefficient appears twice with the same value
behind it, but of opposite sign. (See (3) above.) It is useful at this stage, seeing there
is no difference between tAB and tBA, to change all subscripts of t into the same order,
e.g. tBC and tCB both become tBC etc.
(5)
Solve the equations for the tension coefficients.
(6)
Calculate forces : F = tl
Example 8.10.1
5m
5m
5m
1MN
A
2MN D
1MN
2MN
B
VA
C
E
8m
VB=1.8MN
287
HA=4MN
Use the method of tension coefficients to find the forces in the members of the frame shown.
SOLUTION
The reaction elements are calculated:

H = 0 :
HA = 4 MN
MA = 0 :
15 VB = 1 10 + 1 5 + 2 x4 + 2 2 = 27 MNm
VB = 1.8 MN
V = 0 :
VA = 2 1.8
VA = 0.2 MN
Set up the equations for each joint in a table as follows, checking before solving as in
procedure (4) above. For convenience AB has been used in place of tAB to denote the tension
coefficients. Complete the last column as the tension coefficients are obtained.
288
Joint
Direction
Equations
- 5 AD - 7 AE - 4 = 0
AE = 0.818
- 2 AD - 5 AE + 0,2 = 0
AD = -1.948
+ 5 AD - 5CD - 2DE + 2 = 0.............. 3
CD = -1.22
+ 2 AD - 2DC - 3DE - 1 = 0............... 4
DE = 0.818
+ 5 CD - 5 BC + 3 CE + 2 = 0 ..............
CE = -0.815
+ 2 CD - 2 BC - 1 CE - 1 = 0 ...............6
+ 5 BC + 8 BE = 0 ............................... 7
BC = -1.31
+ 2 BC + 1 BE + 1,8 = 0....................8
BE = 0.82
+ 7 AE + 2 DE - 3 CE - 8 BE = 0 ......... 9
AE = 0.82
+ 5 AE + 3 DE + 1 CE - 1 BE = 0.. 10
Tension Coefficient
Solving the equations

1
2:
-10 AD - 14 AE - 8 = 0
11
5:
-10 AD - 25AE + 1 = 0
12
11
- 12 :
11 AE - 9 = 0
AE
Substitute in 1 :
giving
= 0.818
-10 AD - 14 (0.818) - 8 = 0
AD
= -1.948
In order to find the forces, the tension coefficients are multiplied by the lengths of the
relevant members. Negative values indicate compression. A table is again convenient.
289
Member
Length (m)
Tension
Force (MN)
Coefficient
AD
52 + 22 = 5.4
DC
Compression
or Tension
- 1.948
10.5
= 5.4
- 1.22
6.6
DB
= 5.4
- 1.31
7.06
AE
52 + 72 = 8.6
+ 0.82
7.05
BE
12 + 82 = 8.06
+ 0.82
6.6
CE
12 +32 = 3.16
- 0.815
2.57
DE
32 + 22 = 3.61
- 0.818
2.95
290
8.11
SIMPLE SPACE FRAMES
Space frames are three-dimensional pin-jointed structures. The simplest space frame is the
tetrahedron, which can be extended by tying each additional joint to the initial frame by three
additional members, as shown in figure 8.11.
New joint
Initial
Three new members
Figure 8.11
Free space frame
The relationship between the number of members and joints for a free space frame is :
n = 3j - 6
where n = number of members
and
j = number of joints
Generally a space frame is pinned to three supports, as shown in figure 8.11.
Figure 8.12
Space frame with pinned supports
For a space frame with pinned supports the relationship is n = 3jf

291
where n = number of members

jf = number of free joints, i.e. joints outside the pinned supports.
Although the forces in the members of a loaded space frame can be found graphically or
using the sections method, the method of tension coefficients is by far the most useful.
In space frames each joint has three co-ordinates, and the forces have components in three
directions x, y and z. Thus, if there are j joints in the space frame, the consideration of
equilibrium in the x, y and z directions, produces 3j equations, containing n unknown tension
coefficients. But n = 3j - 6, hence there are six superfluous equations. These can be used
either to determine the reactions or to check the values of the tension coefficients.
The procedure for analysing space frames is as follows:
(1)
Choose positive directions for x, y and z.
(2)
Assume that all members are in tension.
(3)
Write down the equations for each joint in the frame. The terms are positive or
negative accordingly, as they tend to move the joints in the positive or negative
directions of x, y or z. It should be noted that the whole build-up of equations
contains terms such as tAB (xB - xA) and tAB (xA - xB). Thus a simple check is to note
that a positive coefficient to one of the unknowns must be accompanied by an equal
negative coefficient.
(4)
Solve the equations for the unknown tension coefficients.
(5)
Check values for tAB from equations of static equilibrium.
(6)
Calculate TAB = LAB tAB
Example 8.11.1
The space frame shown in plan in the figure has pinned supports A, B and C at the same
level. DE is horizontal and at a height of 2m above the plane of the supports. Calculate the
292
forces in the members when the frame carries loads of 24 kN and 12 kN acting in a horizontal
plane at E and D respectively.
1m
2m
1m
12 kN
2m
24 kN
Z (down)
y
x
2m
Joint
Directio
Equilibrium equations
Tension Coefficients
- 2 AD + 2 CD = 0
CD = AD = 0
+ 1 AD - 1 CD - 2 DE + 12 = 0
+ 2 AD + 2 CD = 0
+ 2 CE - 2 AE - 2 BE + 24 = 0
DE = +6
CE = -6
1 + 3 :
+ 2 DE + 3 AE + 1 CE - 1 BE = 0 6
AE = 0
+ 2 BE + 2 CE + 2 AE = 0
BE = +6
4 CD = 0
Substitute CD = 0 in
CD = 0
1 :
AD = 0
293
Substitute CD = AD = 0 in 2 :
DE = 6
+ 6 : 4 CE + 24 = 0 :
CE = -6
Substitute CE = -6 in 4 :
-2 AE - 2 BE + 12 = 0
Substitute CE = -6 and DE = +6 in
5 :
+3 AE - 1 BE + 6 = 0
8 2
7 - 9
+6 AE - 2 BE + 12 = 0
-8 AE = 0
i.e.
AE = 0
Substitute AE = 0, CE = -6 in 6 :
2 BE - 12 + 0 = 0
i.e.
BE = 6
The forces in the members can now be tabulated:

Member Length (m)
Tension
Force (kN)
coefficient
Tension
compression
AD
12 + 22 + 22 = 3
CD
=3
BE
=3
+6
18
CE
=3
-6
18
+6
12
AE
DE
22 + 22 + 32 = 4,12
=2
294
or
8.12
EQUIVALENT TENSION COEFFICIENTS
In example 8.11.1 the externally applied forces act in the directions of two of the principal
axes (x and y). In example 8.11.2 the externally applied force acts in a horizontal plane, and
can therefore be easily resolved in the direction of two principle axes, as was actually done.
Now consider an arbitrary force in space. It is required to find the components of this force
in the x, y and z directions, in order to use the method of tension coefficients.
If the line of action of the force passes through a point of which the x, y and z co-ordinates
are known, it is a fairly simple matter to resolve the force into the three principle directions.
Let the point of application of force P be at the origin 0 and let the line of action of P pass
through a point A of known co-ordinates (x, y, z) as shown in figure 8.13.
A (x, y, x)
Figure 8.13
Equivalent tension coefficient teq = applied force

distance OA
=
P
x + y 2 + z2
2
Then component of P in the x direction = x teq

component of P in the y direction = y teq
component of P in the z direction = z teq
295
y
x
8.13
TUTORIAL
Determine the forces in the labelled members and the reactions at the supports for trusses 1
and 2.
1.
B
A
10KN
450
D
C
35KN
[ Ans : FAB = 60 kN (T); FBC = 49.5 kN (T); FCD = 35 kN (S); FDB = 49.5 kN (S); RA = 60 kN;
RD = 78.26 kN at 26.5o to horizontal]
8 kN
2. (a)
C
5 kN
3 kN
E
H
2m
G
2m
F
2m
2m
[ Ans : FAB = 17 kN (S); FCD = FBC = 12 kN (S); FFG = 13 kN (T); FHG = FAH = 14.72 kN (T);
RA = 8.5 kN; RE = 7.5 kN ]
(b) Explain why the forces in BH and DF will be equal to zero.
3. Determine the forces in the simple space truss below.

296
[Ans: FAD = 4.974 kN (S); FBD = 6.47 kN (S); FCD = 9.373 kN (S)]
297
TST271Z
CHAPTER 9
IMPACT LOADING
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Distinguish between a gradually applied load, an impact load and a suddenly applied
load.
Derive a formula for and determine the strain energy stored in a bar that is subjected
to a gradually applied load.

Determine the proof resilience of a material.
Determine the modulus of resilience of a material.
Solve problems relating to a gradually applied load, an impact load and a suddenly
applied load.
298
TST271Z
CHAPTER 9
IMPACT LOADING
CONTENTS
PAGE
9.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 300

9.2 SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD .................................................................................... 301
9.3 EQUIVALENT STATIC LOAD .................................................................................. 304
9.4 FALLING LOADS......................................................................................................... 306
9.5 TUTORIAL .................................................................................................................... 312
299
9. IMPACT LOADING
9.1
INTRODUCTION
When a load is static or applied slowly:

Stress load and thus also
strain load.
However, if a load is applied suddenly, i.e. in infinitesimal time, or with an initial velocity,
oscillations will result, with maximum stress and strain sometimes far greater than that
resulting from a static load.
The accurate calculation of the stresses resulting from impact loading is complex, involving
the rate of propagation of a wave of stress in a material. We only consider approximate
methods, which may be out as much as 40% in their predictions under certain conditions.
However, they serve as a starting point and are useful as long as their limitations are kept in
mind.
300
9.2
SUDDENLY APPLIED LOAD
When a load is applied gradually, its initial value is zero and its value is increased
proportional to the strain. The average value of the load = 1/2 x the maximum value of the
load.
Load
P
l
Extension
Figure 9.1
Let the gradually applied load = P and let the final extension = l.
The work done
= average load distance travelled

=
/2 P l
This is represented by the shaded area in fig. 9.1.
The work done is stored in the body as strain energy or resilience, which will be released
when it returns to its original dimensions, provided the elastic limit has not been exceeded.
Thus strain energy U = 1/2 P l
The proof resilience is the maximum amount of strain energy a body can absorb without
suffering permanent deformation. The Modulus of resilience is the maximum amount of
strain energy a body can absorb per unit volume without suffering permanent deformation.
We know that l =
Pl
AE
301
Ul =
P2l
2 AE
2
U =
1 P
Al
2E A
2
2E
(volume of body )
If p = stress at elastic limit of the material of the body, then :

Proof resilience of the material =
and
Modulus of resilience
2p
2E
x volume
2p
2E
Suppose now a load P1 is suddenly applied, and immediately reaches the same
deflection as load P above, namely l, then
Work done = P1l
But work done to produce a given deflection or extension must always be the same
1/2 Pl = P1l
i.e. P1 = 1/2 P
i.e. load required to produce a given deflection when applied suddenly is half the load
required when applied gradually
OR
when applied suddenly, a load will produce twice the deflection or extension it produces
when it is applied gradually.
Since stress strain, the stress will also be doubled, provided the elastic limit is not passed.
302
Impact stresses are fluctuating stresses, which may produce fatigue. Fatigue causes eventual
failure at considerably lower than normal stresses. The allowable stresses for impact loading
are therefore reduced considerably, by as much as 50% by some authorities.
303
9.3
EQUIVALENT STATIC LOAD
The equivalent static load is that load which would produce the same maximum stress as the
impact load plus any existing static load. For a suddenly applied load alone, the equivalent
static load = 2 suddenly applied load.
Example 9.3.1
A cantilever is 2 cm wide 4 cm deep 2.5 m long. If it is made of steel of density 7250
kg/m3, find the maximum mass which may be suddenly applied at the end if the allowable
stress for impact loading may not exceed 55% of the allowable static stress, which is
155 MPa.
E = 200 GPa.
2cm
58N/m
4 cm
2.5 m
Weight of cantilever per m
= 0.02 0.04 7250 10 N/m

= 58 N/m.
Maximum bending moment due to self-weight

wl 2
2
2
58(2.5)
=
= 181Nm
2
2
bd 2 0.02 (0.04 )
Z=
=
10 9 = 5.33 10 3 mm 3
6
6
181 10 3
M
=
=
= 34 N / mm 2
3
Z
5.33 10
=
Allowable stress for impact load
= 55% 155 MPa

= 85.25 MPa
304
Stress which may be produced by suddenly applied load = 85.25 - 34 = 51.25 N/mm2
Maximum bending moment due to point load at end of cantilever = Wl = 2.5W Nm
51.25 =
M 2.5W 10 3
=
Z 5.333 10 3
But W = 2W1, where W1 = suddenly applied load

51.25 =
2.5 2W 10 3
N
5.333 10 3
which gives
W = 54.7 N
Maximum Mass =
54.7
= 5.47 kg
10
305
9.4
FALLING LOADS
A falling load is an impact load, i.e. a load that is dropped from a height onto a body.
If a load is allowed to fall a distance h onto a member, the work done by the falling load =
work done in extending or deflecting the member (ignoring losses).
Consider a uniform rod of cross section A, length l. Let weight W fall through distance h
onto a rigid stop without rebound.
l
h
Figure 9.2
Let rod extend l.

Distance through which falling load drops = h + l.
Potential energy lost = Work done
Potential energy lost = W (h + l)
Work done :
Let maximum stress in rod =
Then average force on rod =
Work done on rod
A
2
= Average force l
306
But l =
W (h + l ) =
=
Al
2
A l

2 E
2 Al
2E
If l is small compared with h :

Wh =
2 Al
2E
i . e. = 2 =
2WhE
Al
This gives us approximately the maximum stress caused by a weight W falling through a
height h.
If h is not large and l is not negligible in comparison:
From 1 : =
and
becomes W ( h + l ) =
i . e. h + l =
lE
l
(l ) 2 AE
2l
(l ) 2 AE
2lW
The only unknown is l, which may be found by solving the quadratic equation
307
h + l
(l ) 2 AE
2lW
re arranging:
which gives l =
=0
(l ) 2
1
AE
l h = 0
2lW
(1) 2 +
4 AEh
2lW
2 AE
2lW
Since E is very large, the term under the root sign will be negligibly different if (1)2 is left
out.
A becomesl =
2 AEh
lW
AE
lW
The minus sign before the root indicates a minimum value and may be ignored.
l =
Now
l
E
lW
AE
l
AE
2 AEh
1 +
lW
W
2 AEh
1 +
A
lW
and the instantaneous elongation l =
Note : From equation A
l
E
, if the (1)2 under the square root sign is not ignored, and h = 0,
i.e. we now get a suddenly applied load : -
AE
= W (1 + 1) = 2W
l
i . e. F = 2W
308
This confirms that the stress produced by a suddenly applied load = 2 static stress, as shown
in paragraph 9.2.
Example 9.4.1
(a)
Find the percentage difference in the maximum stress found by the formulae given
above for a bar 8 m long and 20 mm diameter, which is suspended from a rigid
support, when a 600 kg mass falls 5 cm onto a rigid stop at the end of the bar.
(b)
Find the extension when the system has come to rest.
(c)
Find the percentage difference as in (a) if the bar is 1m long.

E = 210 GPa
SOLUTION
(a)
2 =
Using the formula
=
2
2WhE
:
Al
2 600 10 0.05 210 10 9
(0.02)
(N / m )
= 5.01 1016 (N/m2)2
= 2.24 108 N/m2
= 224 MPa
309
2 2
W
2 AEh
1 +
:
A
lW

2
2 (0.02 ) 200 10 9 (0.05)
600 10
4
N / m2
=
1+
8 600 10
(0.02)2
6000
=
1 + 137
10 4
= 243 10 6 N / m 2 = 243MPa
243 224
100 = 8.4%
%difference=
224
u sin g the formula =
(b)
When the system has come to rest, the stress is the normal static stress:
(rest ) =
l =
(c)
l
E
W
600 10
=
= 19.1MPa
2
A
(0.02)
4
=
19.1 10 6 8
10 3 = 0.727 mm
9
210 10
The only difference from (a) is length. Since l appears at the bottom of the equations,
if we multiply the relevant portions by 8 (lengths are in proportion of 1:8) much time
is saved.
First formula :
giving
Second formula :
giving
2 = 5.01 106 (N/m2)2 8
= 634 MPa
= =
60 10 6
[1 +
= 651 MPa
310
137 8
% difference =
651 634
100 = 2.7%
634
Note that in the shorter member the stresses are very much higher. In fact, for this analysis to
be valid, even approximately, the rod must be of special alloy steel, since the ultimate stress
of even high tensile steel has been exceeded. Also note that for the short member, the
difference in the stress given by the two formulas is less. The maximum stress is in any case
much greater than that produced by a suddenly applied load which is not moving (i.e. falling).
Example 9.4.2
What is the equivalent static load in the (a) part of the previous example for each formula?
SOLUTION
Formula 1
= 223 MPa
Equivalent static load = load required to produce this stress

= 223 106 /4 (0.02)2 N
= 0.070 MN = 70 kN
Formula 2
= 243 MPa
Equivalent static load =
243
0.070
223
= 0.076 MN = 76 kN
311
9.5 TUTORIAL
1. A suddenly applied load stores 2 J of strain energy in a 300 mm long aluminium bar with a
30 mm square cross section. Calculate the maximum stress induced in the bar (E = 70GPa).
[Ans: 32.2MPa]
2. A 40 mm diameter rod of a certain material is 1.2 m long and has a collar fitted to one end.
The rod is held vertically and a weight of 20 kN is gradually lowered onto the collar,
producing an extension of 0.253 mm. Calculate the height from which this load could be
dropped onto the collar if the maximum stress in the bar is to be 100 MPa.
[Ans: 3.404 mm]
3. Two elastic bars of the same material are to absorb the same maximum amount of energy.
The first rod has a length l and a cross sectional area of A. The second rod has a cross
sectional area of 2A for three quarters of its length l and A for the remainder of its length.
Neglecting any stress concentrations, find the ratio of the maximum stress induced in the
second rod to the maximum stress induced in the first rod.
[Ans: 2 = 1.265 1]
4. A suddenly applied compressive load induces in a 250 mm long steel bar a maximum
stress of 200 MPa. If the bar has a cross sectional area of 800 mm2 for half of its length and a
cross sectional area of 500 mm2 for the remaining half, calculate (a) the magnitude of the
load; (b) the energy absorbed; and (c) the instantaneous extension of the bar. (Take E as 200
GPa)
[Ans: 50 KN; 10.156 J; 0.2 mm]
312
TST271Z
CHAPTER 10
ANALYSIS OF STRESS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Explain a plane stress condition.
Distinguish between uniaxial and biaxial stress conditions.
Determine from first principles and/or with the aid of formulae the direct and shear
stresses, the orientation and magnitude of the principal stresses and maximum shear
stress at any point in a material in a plane stress condition.
Construct Mohrs circle to determine graphically the direct and shear stresses, the
orientation and magnitude of the principal stresses, and maximum shear stress at any
point in a material in a plane stress condition.
313
TST271Z
CHAPTER 10
ANALYSIS OF STRESS
CONTENTS
PAGE
10.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................315
10.2 SHEAR STRESS IN A BAR IN DIRECT TENSION..............................................316
10.3 FAILURE OF MATERIALS IN COMPRESSION..................................................319
10.4 GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM..........................................320
10.5 STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANE..........................................................................322
10.6 VALUES OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE STRESSES...............................................324
10.7 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS....................................................................................326
10.8 MOHR'S CIRCLE OF STRESS.................................................................................328
10.9 TUTORIAL...................................................................................................................331
314
10. ANALYSIS OF STRESS

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Up to now we have only dealt with direct stress (tensile or compressive) and bending stress,
and we have touched upon shear stress. As torsional stress falls largely within the field of
mechanical engineering, we have only mentioned it briefly. In most practical problems we
have to deal with a combination of these stresses.
315
10.2 SHEAR STRESS IN A BAR IN DIRECT TENSION

Consider a uniform bar of cross-sectional area A, the edges of the bar being parallel to the
OX, OY and OZ axes.
Let the bar be uniformly stressed with a tensile stress x as shown
Now consider forces parallel and perpendicular to the inclined cross section:
The result at the end of the cross section of the bar is P = Ax, acting parallel to OX.
For equilibrium an equal and opposite force must act on the inclined cross section.
The two components of this force acting perpendicular and parallel to the inclined plane will
be Axcos and Axsin respectively.
316
Stresses and will be
A x cos
= x cos 2 (1)
A sec
and
A x sin
= x cos sin (2)
A sec
1
= x sin 2 (2a )
2
Where = direct stress on inclined plane

= shear stress on inclined plane
At = 0o, = 0
increases as increases until it attains a maximum value at = 45o. then diminishes as
increases further, until it is again zero at = 90O.

Therefore on any inclined cross-section of a bar in direct tension, shear stresses are always
present. The shear stresses reach maximum values on planes at 45o to the longitudinal axis of
the bar.
Example 10.2.1
A bar with cross section 2 cm x 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 16 kN. Calculate the
normal stress and the shear stress on a plane at an angle of 60o with the axis of the bar, the
plane being perpendicular to one face of the bar.
= x cos 2
=
16 x10 3
cos 2 60 0 N / m 2 = 10 x10 6 Pa
2
6
(20) x10
Normal:
= 10 MPa
317
1
2
= x sin 2
=
Tangential:
1 16 x10 3
sin 120 0 N / m 2 = 17.32 x10 6 Pa
2 (20) 2 x10 6
= 17.32 MPa
318
10.3 FAILURE OF MATERIALS IN COMPRESSION

Shear stresses are also developed in a bar under axial compression. The failure of some
materials in compression is caused by the development of critical shear stresses on p-lanes at
approximately 45o to the longitudinal axis. This can be seen clearly even when a test
specimen is tested to destruction under compression.
319
10.4. GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRESS SYSTEM

A two-dimensional stress system is one in which the stresses at any point in a body act in the
same plane.
Consider a rectangular block of material ABCD, of thickness unity, two faces of which are
parallel to the XY plane. A two-dimensional state of stress exists if the stresses on the
remaining four faces are parallel to the YX plane.
Now replace the system of forces by its equivalent system of stresses. Let the lengths of the
two sides be a and b. Consider the equilibrium of the block.
320
Take moment about D:
xy (ax1)b = yx (bx1)a
i.e xy = yx
Shear stresses on perpendicular planes are equal and complementary.
321
10.5 STRESSES ON INCLINED PLANE

Now consider the stresses on an inclined plane making an angle with OY.
Resolve forces normal and parallel to face c.

Normal
(cx1) = x (c cos . cos ) + y (c sin . sin ) + xy (c cos . sin ) + xy (c sin cos )

i.e
= x cos 2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy sin cos
i.e
= 1 2 ( x + y ) + 1 2 ( x y ) cos 2 + xy sin 2 (1)
Parallel
(cx1) = x (c cos . cos ) + y (c sin . sin ) + xy (c cos . sin ) + xy (c sin sin )

i.e
= x cos sin + y sin cos + xy (cos 2 sin 2 )
i.e
= 1 2 ( x y ) sin 2 + xy cos 2 (2)
322
Note: In the calculation above the following trigonometric identities were used:
sin 2 = 1 (1 cos 2 )
2
2
1
cos =
(1 + cos 2 )
2
sin cos = 1 sin 2
2
The shear stress = 0 when 1 ( x y ) sin 2 = xy cos 2
2
i.e. when tan 2 =
2 xy
x y
i.e. when 2 = tan 1
i.e. when =
( A)
2 xy
x y
2 xy
1
tan 1
2
x y
or
or
tan 1
2 xy
x y
+ 180 0
2 xy
1
+ 90 0
tan 1
2
x y
In a two-dimensional stress system there are two planes, separated by 90o, on which the shear
stress = 0. These planes are called the principle planes, and the corresponding values of are
called the principle stresses.
The direct stress is a maximum when
d
= ( x y ) sin 2 + 2 xy cos 2 = 0
d
i.e when tan 2 =
2 xy
x y
i.e when = 0 see
equation ( A)
Thus the principle stresses are also the maximum and minimum direct stresses in the
material.
323
10.6 VALUES OF MAXIMUM PRINCIPLE STRESSES

The direction of the principle planes are given by equation (A). For any two-dimensional
stress system in which the values of x, y and xy are known, tan2 can be calculated from
(A). Two values of , separated by 90o are obtained. The principle stresses are then
calculated by substituting these values in equation (1).
Alternatively the principle stresses can be calculated more directly without first finding the
principle planes. We define a principle plane as one on which there is no shear stress, i.e.
= 0.
For equilibrium
(c cos ) x (c cos ) = xy c sin
H = 0:
i.e.
x = xy tan (3)
and V = 0: (c sin ) y (c sin ) = xy c cos

i.e.
y = xy cot (4)
Eliminate from equations (3) and (4) by (3) x (4):

( x )( y ) = 2 xy
324
This is a quadratic equation in :
2 ( x y ) + x y xy 2 = 0
Solving gives
1
2
1
2
( x y ) 2 + 4 xy (5)
2
1
2
1
2
( x y ) 2 + 4 xy (6)
2
1 = ( x + y ) +
2 = ( x + y )
1 and 2 are the values of the principle stresses, and they occur on mutually perpendicular
planes.
325
10.7 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS

The principle planes define directions of zero shear stress. On some intermediate plane the
shear stress attains a maximum value.
From equation (2):
= 1 2 ( x y ) sin 2 + xy cos 2 (2)

For maximum
i.e cot 2 =
d
=0
d
2 xy
x y
The planes of maximum shear stress are thus inclined at 45o to the principle planes.
Substituting this value of cot2 in equation (2):
max = [ 1 2 ( x y )]2 + xy 2 (7)

But from (5) and (6):
1 ( ) 2 + 2 = 1 ( + )
y
xy
1
y
2 x
2 x
and
1 ( x y ) 2 + xy 2 = 1 ( x + y ) 2
2
2
2
adding: 2 1 ( x y ) 2 + xy = 1 2
2
i.e (7) becomes max = 1 ( 1 2 ) (8)

2
Maximum shear stress = x difference between principle stresses of the systems.
Example 10.7.1
At a point in a material the two-dimensional stress system is defined by:
326
x = 60MPa tensile
y = 45 MPa compressive
xy = 37.5 MPa shear
where these stresses refer to fig. 10.5. Evaluate the values and directions of the principle
stresses, and calculate the greatest shear stress.
Principle stresses
1
2
= ( x + y )
1
2
( x y ) 2 + 4 xy
2
1
1
(60 45) +
(60 + 45) 2 + 4(37 .5) 2
2
2
= 7.5 + 64 .5 = +72 MPa
2 = 7.5 64.5 = 57 MPa
tan 2 =
2 xy
x y
2 = 35.5 0
= 17.8 0
or
2(37.5)
= 0.714
60 + 45
215.5 0
or 107.8 0
max = 1 ( 1 2 )
2
= 1 (72 + 57)
2
max = 64.5MPa
327
10.8 MOHRS CIRCLE OF STRESS

Consider equations (1) and (2) in paragraph 10.5.
= 1 2 ( x + y ) + 1 2 ( x y ) cos 2 + xy sin 2
and
= 1 2 ( x y ) sin 2 + xy cos 2
Take two mutually perpendicular axes 0 and 0. On this co-ordinate system plot the points
having the co-ordinates (x, xy) and (y, -xy), corresponding to the known stresses in the x
and y directions.
The line PQ joining these two points is bisected by the 0 axis at 01. With centre 01 construct
a circle passing through P and Q. The stresses and on a plane at any angle to 0 are
found by drawing a radius of the circle at an angle 2 to PQ, 2 being measured in a
clockwise direction from 01P. The co-ordinates of point P (, ) give the direct and shear
stress on the plane.
The above two equations may be written in the following form:
328
1 2 ( x + y ) = 1 2 ( x y ) cos 2 + xy sin 2
and
= 1 ( x y ) sin 2 xy cos 2
2
Squaring each equation and adding, we get
[ 1 ( x y )]2 + 2 = [ 1 ( x y )]2 + [ xy ] 2
2
2
Compare this with the general form for the equation of a circle:
( x a ) 2 ( y b) 2 = r 2
The corresponding values of the variables and , therefore, lie on a circle of radius
[ 1 ( x y )] 2 + [ xy ] 2
2
With its centre at the point ((x y), 0)

This circle, defining all possible states of stress is known as MOHRS circle of stress. The
principle stresses are defined by points A and B, where = 0, while the maximum shear stress
is given by point C, i.e. the radius of the circle.
Example 10.8.1
At a point in a material the stresses forming a two-dimensional stress system are :
x = 50 MPa
y = 30 MPa
xy = 20 MPa
Draw a Mohrs circle of stress, and deduce the values of the principle stresses and the
maximum shear stress in the plane of the stresses.
329
SOLUTION
1 = 62.4 MPa (scaled)

2 = 17.6 MPa (scaled)
max = radius of the circle
= (62.4 -17.6) = 22.4 MPa
{[ 1 ( x y )] 2 + 2 = [ 1 ( x y )]2 + [ xy ] 2 }
2
2
330
TUTORIAL
1) Use the formulae to calculate the direct and shear stress on the oblique planes shown in the
following Figures (a), (b) and (c).
17 MPa
35 MPa
60 MPa
16 MPa
20 MPa
400
250
90 MPa
350
20 MPa
(a)
(b)
30 MPa
(c)
[Ans: (22.43 MPa (T); 10.78MPa); (30.2MPa (T); 1.15 MPa); (31.52 MPa (C); 79.07MPa)]
2) Calculate the principal stresses, the maximum shearing stresses and their orientation for
the stress system shown in Figures (a), (b) and (c) shown in question (1) above. Sketch these
stresses. Check your answer with Mohrs circle.
[Ans: (24.32 MPa (T); 39.32MPa(C); 31.82 MPa); (30.23MPa (T); 13.23 MPa(C);
21.73MPa); (65.78 MPa (T); 95.78MPa(C); 80.78 MPa)]
3) For the stress system shown below, calculate the magnitude of the shear stress, xy, and the
angle .
100 MPa
50 MPa
60 MPa
xy
70 MPa
[Ans: 72 MPa; 69.250]

331
REFERENCES
Strength of materials for technicians
By Jan Drotsky
ISBN 0796210373
ISBN 978 079621 0371
Third edition Heinemann Publishers 2005
Structural analysis, Fourth edition
By Aslam Kassimali
ISBN-13:978-0-495-29567-9
ISBN-10:0-495-29567-1
332

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Department of Civil and Chemical Engineering

STRESSES AND STRAINS

THEORY OF ELASTIC BENDING

MOMENT-AREA METHOD OF ANALYSIS

MATHEMATICAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS

ELASTIC REINFORCED CONCRETE THEORY 231

STATICALLY DETERMINATE PIN-JOINTED

1.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 7

STRESSES AND STRAINS

Graphical representation of a force of 4 kN acting horizontally from left or right

Stress is defined as force per unit area.

The basic unit of stress is the Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Stress may be due to any of the following:

Direct or axial force

DIRECT STRESS AND STRAIN: YOUNGS MODULUS

Direct stress may be either tensile or compressive

direct axial force (either tensile or compressive)

cross sectional area

Strain is defined as change of length per unit length:

Youngs modulus E (or Modulus of direct elasticity)

E is termed Youngs Modulus and since strain is dimensionless, E is usually expressed in

Structural grade timber:

1 000 000 000 Pa

1 000 000 000 N/m2

= 210 kN mm 2 (or = 210GPa )

Let x be smaller side

Dimensions of post are 140 mm 70mm

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

Ultimate stress ult

lower yield stress y

Stress-strain curve for mild steel

) until fracture occurs at F.

For mild steel and other ductile materials:

Nominal fracture stress

True fracture stress

max imum load

The tensile stress at yield point

The ultimate tensile stress

The nominal fracture stress

The true fracture stress

Nominal tensile stress at yield point

where A0 = original cross sec tional area

Ultimate tensile stress

Nominal fracture stress

Fmax 150 x10 3

True fracture stress

WORKING STRESS, STRESS FACTOR AND LOAD FACTOR

Stress factor against yielding =

A mass of 200 kg is suspended from a metal rod of 5 mm diameter and 14 m long.

Whereas the stress factor on yielding is

/w for mild steel, it is more convenient to use the

term proof stress for high tensile steel.

0,2% proof stress

Let = applied stress

The value of is found experimentally and for metals it is approximately 0,3.

Although we might well apply a positive or negative sign to

A cube of 12 cm sides and made of material for which E = 80 GPa, is subjected to a

. Also calculate the new dimensions.

Consider the force in the x direction. Fx = 2000 kN compression

= 1.74 10 3 120mml x = 0.209mm(decrease)

Consider the force in the y direction. Fy = 1500 kN tension

l y = y l y = 1.3 10 3 120mml y = 0.156mm(increase )