How Culture Shapes Nature:

Reflections on Ecomuseum Practices

Nunzia Borrelli and Peter Davis

ABSTRACT

This paper describes the main characteristics of ecomuseums as a prelude to

analyzing the ways in which they interpret the relationship between nature
and culture. It appears that ecomuseums have the capability to interpret this
relationship as a dynamic process. However, ecomuseum practices are not
simply dedicated to conserving aspects of heritage, but also provide a system of norms and values that contribute to shaping habitus and where genius loci or sense of place can manifest itself. If society is to contribute to
the preservation and valorization of nature, then frames of reference such
as the ecomuseum can seek to inform and change attitudes and perceptions of the nature-culture dynamic. Consequently, people, communities,
and democracy lie at the heart of ecomuseum philosophy, encouraging
groups and individuals to work together to contribute to improving the environment. Social actions and the negotiation of forms of capital are essential to the process.
KEYWORDS

ecomuseum, sense of place, participation, capacity building, governance

Introduction
The most recent and most accessible definition of an ecomuseum1
is a community-based museum or heritage project that supports sustainable development (Davis 2007: 116). Key ecomuseum characteristics include territoriality, holism, democracy, and an inclusive definition
of heritage (nature, culture, intangibles), in addition to the objective of
supporting sustainable development (Davis 1999; Corsane and Holleman 1993; Maggi 2006). Ecomuseum establishment is a dynamic
process through which communities are able to identify, conserve, interpret and manage their natural and cultural heritage resources for
sustainable development. An ecomuseum is based on a community
agreement and is often defined by a geographical territory, but one that
might cut across political boundaries. The term dynamic process
Nature and Culture 7(1), Spring 2012: 3147 Berghahn Journals
doi:10.3167/nc.2012.070103

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

demands flexibility and implies that there is no defined trajectory outlined in a written plan. Thus, rather than follow an imposed route leading to a defined solution, such a process encourages real actions
dialogue, debate, participation which are empowering and may
lead projects to unexpected yet pertinent solutions. Ultimately the
goal of such processes is to cherish places and to sustain the communities that live there. Community involvement does not mean that local administrations are irrelevant or excluded, but simply that professionals must involve local people in decision-making processes
and actions. In ecomuseology, the terms identify, conserve, interpret, and manage mean that caring for and communicating the
scope of local natural and cultural heritage resources should provide
new, more meaningful interpretations and raise territorial self-awareness and profile, while heritage reflects aspects of place, including the
natural environment, that have been given value by local people. It
includes the histories of inhabitants and all the sources of evidence,
tangible and intangible, that have been socially identified and constructed to be considered of lasting value. Community agreement implies mutual consent and democratic reciprocal commitments between all stakeholders with an invested interest in spatial planning
and environmental management.2
This paper describes the main characteristics of ecomuseums and
demonstrates how they interpret the relationship between nature and
culture as a dynamic process. Ecomuseum practices are not simply
dedicated to conserving aspects of heritage, but also provide a system
of norms and values that contribute to shape the habitus (Bourdieu
1992), i.e. a system of lasting, acquired schemes of perception,
thoughts, and actions that frame forma mentis or literally the shape
of the mind, and where genius loci or sense of place can manifest
itself (Hillier 2005). If society is to contribute to the preservation and
valorization of nature, then frames of reference such as the ecomuseum can seek to change attitudes and perceptions of the natureculture dynamic. Consequently, people, communities and democracy
lie at the heart of ecomuseum philosophy, encouraging groups and
individuals to work together to contribute to improving the environment. Social actions and the negotiation of forms of capital are essential to the process.
The following briefly describes ecomuseum origins, their geographical distribution, their aims, and their management systems. The
third section shows how the relationships between nature and culture

32

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

are demonstrated through a focus on the concept of sense of place.

Using examples from around the world, we discuss how sense of
place is negotiated through participation processes and how involvement in governance processes can contribute to capacity building.
The concluding section demonstrates how ecomuseums can contribute to develop dynamic relationships between nature and culture,
and explores their strengths and weaknesses.

Ecomuseums: An Overview
The roots of the ecomuseum movement can be traced back to the
1960s, although the word comuse only came into use in 1971 after being coined by Hugues de Varine (quoted in Davis 1999 and Hubert 1985). From the 1970s, the concept of the ecomuseum has
evolved further and has been adopted as a means of achieving community-heritage projects within a defined geographical territory in order to benefit local communities and conserve heritage assets. Early
ecomuseum definitions included that of Mayrand, who suggested that
the ecomuseum is a collective, a workshop extending over a territory
that a population has taken as its own. It is not an end to itself; it is
defined as an objective to be met (Mayrand 1982 quoted in Davis
1999: 69). Rivard (1985: 125) provided a useful comparison between
the traditional museum (building + collections + experts + public) and
the ecomuseum (territory + heritage + memory + population), whereas
de Varine suggested that the label ecomuseum was nothing more than
an opportunity to run with new ideas, to be imaginative, to initiate
new ways of working, even to be audacious (de Varine 1992, quoted
in Davis 1999: 69). Today, the concept of the ecomuseum is regarded
as an active expression of the school of thought known as New
Museology that emerged between the 1960s and 1970s; the original
new museology focused on how museums might assist disadvantaged
communities, becoming a social actor in a process of societal, cultural and environmental transformation. While traditional museums
have frequently favored high culture, ecomuseums encouraged an appreciation of the significance of the commonplace as local people
began to recognize value and interpret their own cultural and environmental resources, promoting the values of participation and community control of heritage. Today, more than 400 ecomuseums exist
around the world, the majority being in Europe (Table 1).

33

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

Table 1
The approximate number of ecomuseums in each country

(based on the database compiled by IRES, Turin (www.irespiemonte.it/ecomusei/)

State
Argentina
Australia
Brazil
Canadian
Chile
China
Costarica
Ecuador
India
Japan
Mexico
Senegal
USA
Venezuela
Vietnam
TOTAL

Number of
Ecomuseums
4
2
16
13
1
10
4
1
1
9
1
1
1
1
2
67

European
Union
Belgium
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Italy
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Slovakia
Spain
Sweden
Sweden
Sweden
Turkey
United Kingdom
TOTAL

Number of
Ecomuseums
4
4
4
1
87
2
1
143
1
2
22
13
1
43
12
12
12
1
3
348

Ecomuseums demonstrate huge variety in terms of the extent of their

geographical area, from the Kalyna Ecomuseum in Canada which
covers several thousand square kilometers of Alberta (and includes a
National Park as well as other wilderness areas) to the Hemp Ecomuseum in Carmagnola, Italy, an old rope works which is housed in small
outdoor space of a few square meters. An analysis of the ecomuseum
observatory database (www.irespiemonte.it/ecomusei/) indicates that
98% of ecomuseums are located in rural areas and emphasize the
link with local history, local landscapes, natural resources, biotopes,
and agricultural practices.
Ecomuseums also differ in terms of their management and governance practices. Although ecomuseum philosophy suggest they should
be initiated and managed by local communities, a significant proportion are either privately managed (11%) or have been created by pub34

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

lic bodies, such as National Park authorities or local government bodies (41%), to create a network of local heritage attractions; many of
these individual sites are volunteer-led. As a result, even in this latter
situation the involvement of local people is still significant. Ecomuseums jointly managed by local associations and public authorities are
also common.
Some examples indicate the variety of governance systems in ecomuseum projects. The Ecomuseo del Castillo de Ainsa (Spain), is a rural ecomuseum managed by the Fundacin por la conservacion del
Quebrantahuesos, a national nongovernmental organization which
carries out research, conservation, and public information, with the
objective of assisting the recovery of populations of the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) in the Spanish mountains. The Babia Gra
Ecomuseum in Malopolskie, Poland is a rural ecomuseum founded in
2003 and managed by a local association; it is a network of places of
interest, which specialize in conducting a wide array of educational
activities concerned with the regions natural and cultural heritage.3
The Ecomuse du Peuple Lebou, Senegal, is a rural ecomuseum that
was initiated as a follow-on project of the Third International EcoCities and Eco-Villages Conference, which took place in Yoff, Senegal,
in January 1996. The Conference adopted a manifesto for the Ecological Rebuilding Program, which serves as a platform from which the
project pledges to create a sustainable neighborhood by the year
2020.4 This program is now supported by the CRESP Sngal, a NGO
affiliated to the American NGO Center for Religion, Ethics and Social
Policy (CRESP), Ithaca, New York. The Ecomuse Daviaud in the Vende
region of France interprets the past ways of life of the people who inhabited this harsh and unforgiving low-lying area of salt marsh, an extraordinary environment consisting of a maze of canals and drainage
ditches rich in plant, insect, and bird life. The ecomuseum is an active member of the eco-Vende network managed jointly by the local
communes of Ocean-Marais de Monts. Each of these ecomuseums
seeks to demonstrate the relationship between nature and culture,
which is discussed further below.

Ecomuseums: Strengthening Sense of Place

by Developing Reflexive Habitus and Capacity Building
Theoretical discourse about ecomuseums frequently makes connections to concepts of place and sense of place. Sense of place is de35

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

pendent on human engagement for its existence. Feelings about place

may be derived from the natural environment, but are more often made
up of a cocktail of natural and cultural features, and includes people
who occupy the place (Tuan 1977; Buttimer and Seamon 1980).5
Davis (1999) claimed that a major objective of ecomuseums was to
strengthen sense of place and to promote a positive and dynamic relationship between communities and their environment. Similarly,
Hillier (2005), using the term habitus, rather than sense of place,
suggested that the development of reflexive habitus i.e. the potential to reconsider behaviors and develop new practices towards our
environment is essential in order to create positive relationships between nature and culture.
One major feature in recent years has been the development of
the alternative heritage discourse which has given a new role to local
people as local guardians of their own heritage, preserving the distinctive characters of their place (Smith 2006). Globalization and cultural homogenization have been factors in this rediscovery of local
heritage and territorial identity. Other values have emerged, including
the role of inhabitants in the regeneration of places, the perception of
the importance of place by local communities, the need to conserve
and manage places, and the benefits of taking responsibility. Such
trends are evident in the findings of some researchers (Magnaghi 2000;
Dematteis 1999; Coaffee and Healey 2003) and are referred to in several UNESCO Conventions, particularly in the European Landscape
Convention guidelines, which emphasize the interrelationships between local people and their environment and specify that territorial
development policies require specific awareness-raising and education policies.
Hillier highlights that strengthening sense of place demands reflexive habitus to promote dynamic and positive relationships between human beings and their natural environment (Hillier 2005: 399).
Habitus, a set of structures and habitual ways of understanding characteristic and constitutive of a society or a group, can be changed by
new experience, education or training. In other words it tends to perpetuate, to reproduce itself, but is also subject to change (Bourdieu
1992: 133). To effectively strengthen sense of place, reflexive habitus
should not only concern local stakeholders and encourage them to
become aware of their territorys assets (including their heritage), but
also territorial governance systems. Painter has demonstrated that
thanks to reflexive habitus, territorial governance systems could be recharacterized by capacity building, a continuing process in which all
36

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

stakeholders participate (Painter 2005: 140). This system aims, on the

one hand, to create an enabling environment with appropriate policy
and legal frameworks, and, on the other hand, to promote institutional
development, including community participation, human resources
development and strengthening of managerial systems (Cuthill 2005).
In ecomuseum projects, by means of reflexive habitus and capacity building, a sense of place strengthening and positive relationships
between nature and culture are carried out at two levels, firstly at a
local level implementing participation processes and secondly at a
government level involving the ecomuseum in governance processes.
In other words, an ecomuseum might be initially created by a group
of local heritage activists, but in order to be sustainable it requires an
interface with local authorities and other experts for financial support
and knowledge guidance. The nature of such relationships will depend on local experiences and circumstances.

Participation as a Tool for Developing Reflexive Habitus

The development of reflexive habitus in ecomuseums occurs mainly
through participative processes. However, people need realistic opportunities to participate. According to Fareri, participation can be defined as a local event whose main target is the production and use of
knowledge and/or the development of learning processes of the involved stakeholders in order to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the decision-making process. While this theoretical standpoint is useful, the notion of participation is central to ecomuseum
philosophy and is much more than gaining knowledge or having a
more effective process. Participation in ecomuseum terms has more
concrete goals linked to conserving heritage and communities6 (Fareri
2000: 68). The following examples explain the role of participation
processes in ecomuseums.
Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam is part of an archipelago of
thousands of limestone pinnacles, an area of outstanding natural beauty
that supports an exceptionally wide range of animals and plants. It
was declared a World Heritage Site in 1994. Not without its problems
tourism, overfishing, urbanization, mineral extraction the development of the ecomuseum was seen as a way of considering these issues (Schwartz, 2001). In the ecomuseum, community participation is
one of the main functions of the ecomuseums main building (its Ecomuseum Centre), as it provides both a setting and opportunities for
the local fishing community to actively take part in the development
37

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

of their natural and cultural assets. Capacity-building in relation to

cultural heritage management, environmental management, and operational management of the Centre itself strengthens the participation aspect of the project. Efforts are being made to conserve heritage
for future generations by re-establishing traditional approaches to
managing fish stocks and enhancing community awareness in their
use all cultural and natural resources in order to reanimate the region.
In Spain, near Valencia, the Ecomuseu Val Vernissa established the
so called Catalog de Patrimoni (Heritage List), an agreement reached
with the local farmers, producers, and inhabitants to encourage them
to take care of their heritage and to make it available to the rest of the
community. The first agreement of the heritage list was made between a farm, the Moll de la Creu de Gandia, the Ecomuseu de la
Val del Vernissa, and a local environmental association called Neroli,
with expertise in organic farming. According to the agreement, the
farm will be converted to organic farming and a discovery trail (History of the crops of the Valencia country) will be created and managed by the farm. The Ecomuseum will enable the farm to receive
some 12,000 euros over a two-year period as recompense for its adoption of green practices and its new role.
In Italy, two good examples can be found at Cortemilia Ecomuseum in Southern Piedmont and in Casentino Ecomuseum in Tuscany.
In Cortemilia there had been progressive abandonment of the terraced landscape, which was producing extensive damage leading to
hillside erosion. The efforts of the local Ecomuseum of the Terraces
and the Vine led to the restoration of an old farm (figure 1) and giving
it a renewed purpose as a center for community activities and a place
for tourists to stay, along with the rescue and cultivation of some terraces and finally to the successful launch of a quality red wine for a
niche market. This example was then followed by other local farmers,
resulting in production for a larger market and the restoration of many
terraces and the ultimate revitalization of the terraced landscape.7
The Casentino Ecomuseum in Tuscany followed a similar path.
Here the former local economy, based on forestry and woodland
management, but especially on the harvesting of sweet chestnuts, was
in crisis because of the abandonment of the land, the aging of the inhabitants, and the loss of woodland craft skills. A renewed interest in
chestnut cropping was achieved after patient and prolonged work by
ecomuseum activists with the inhabitants. Some old trails used by the
woodsmen were re-established, and an ancient stone dryer for chestnuts was renovated. Elegant chestnut and chestnut flour packs are
38

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

Figure 1
Ecomuseum of the Terraces and the Vine (Cortemilia, Italy)

(Source: Donatella Murtas, used by permission)

now sold for a niche market; chestnut wood chips are burned in the
dryer and also used in the collective energy plant of the village. A new
quality restaurant recently opened in Raggiolo village, an indicator of
a healthier economy, while the establishment of a group of young
adults with an interest in culture and heritage in the village (the Raggiolo Brigade) provides evidence for new social structures and renewed vitality.
In England, Parish maps have been promoted as good participation tools. The technique of the Parish Map,8 introduced by Common
Ground in 1996, results in an expression of the main cultural features
of a defined territory. Because the tool was developed in England the
selected territory was the Parish the smallest area of local government and hence these maps are termed Parish maps. Parish maps
identify the peculiarities of a territory in a pictorial map; they are not
cartographic maps and are rarely accurate in scale. However, they are
a means of obtaining a consensus view about territorial identity and
also allow for the development of local leadership. They are the start
of the empowerment process. Parish maps portray existing heritage
but can be used both to analyze the status quo and to project the
future, being the start of an action plan (Clifford and King 1993; Clifford, Maggi, and Murtas, 2007).9 An interesting experience of parish
39

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

map implementation is in Brazil at the Ecomuseu do Santa Cruz. This

is an urban ecomuseum with its participatory inventory (a sort of
Parish map), its active samba school, and its street theatre performances providing an effective example of community involvement in
the protection of tangible and intangible heritage in an urban context
in a populous quarter of Rio de Janeiro.10

Ecomuseums and Governance Processes:

Instruments for Capacity Building
When ecomuseums are involved in governance processes, they can
help to implement a culture of territorial governance governmentality that pays attention to issues related to local development.
Governmentality suggests that knowledge is not simply a tool or a
resource of central government but an opportunity for self-governance.
Hence it indicates the art of government in the widest sense, i.e. with
a concept of government that is not limited to state or local politics
but includes a wide range of actors and control techniques. Combining the idea of government and mentality, it refers in particular to
the relationship between the practices of government and local knowledge of governments objectives (Painter 2005:134). Ecomuseums, by
encouraging a culture of democratic territorial governance, promote
responsible behaviors of both local stakeholders and individual people. Such efforts to embrace wider systems of governance are crucial
to strengthen sense of place, to promote participation, and lead to the
conservation of the natural and cultural environment. When ecomuseums start being part of spatial governance process (as described below) they can reinforce a mentality of governance oriented to communities and their environment at local/regional and national levels.
Ha Long Bay Ecomuseum in Vietnam was launched by an agreement between the Vietnamese government and UNESCO, with the
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) as a
funding partner. Officially opened in 2003, it is part of the Master
Plan for the Development of Ha Long Bay to the Year 2020. In order
to address the challenges of sustainable tourism, the Management
Department of Ha Long Bay and the Quang Ninh Peoples Committee (the provincial authority) have jointly developed this Master Plan,
which was ratified by the prime minister in January 2001. It will provide a coordinated planning framework to control development that
could affect not only the Bay but also those areas that lie beyond the
protection of the World Heritage Site and the area of national protec40

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

tion. Nevertheless, many current and potential future activities conflict with efforts to manage the sustainable development of the marine
resources and World Heritage values of Ha Long Bay. Clearly identifiable examples of direct conflicts are the impacts of increasing numbers of tourists and the corresponding demand for wider access to
caves and grottoes, expansion of commercial shipping and tourist
vessels, fishing by using explosives and other illegal methods, as well
as coal mining. In addressing these conflicts between conservation and
development, in July 2000 the official and community stakeholder
groups adopted the mediation processes embedded in the philosophical frameworks of ecomuseology. The directive was that both conservation and development were non-negotiable and that the Ha Long
Bay Management Department had to develop the best possible approach to establish a way forward (Galla 2002:56).
The Miramichi Ecomuseum in Canada was conceived in 1999 as
part of the Miramichi Riverfront Strategic Plan, aiming to strengthen
the bonds between the people and the river and to foster a stronger
sense of community in the newly amalgamated City of Miramichi.
The core of the ecomuseum is the eleven inaugural, independent, cultural heritage, and natural sites along a 55-kilometer stretch of the Miramichi River, all linked via a water taxi system and trail network. The
objectives are to preserve and to share with others the natural beauty
and lifestyle of the place; to keep the special local neighborhood heritage; to revitalize the economy with tourism, small manufacturing,
agriculture, service and knowledge-based industries, and encourage
local young people to remain in the city.
Relevant examples can also be found in Italy, notably in EmiliaRomagna and Puglia, in central and southern Italy. In Ferrara (EmiliaRomagna), where new urban development had been created after
major land reclamation in the 1930s, the authorities decided to adopt
a participative approach to spatial planning; as a new town it had a
short history, no real traditions or local gastronomy, and no legends or
stories. The Argenta Ecomuseum became a crucial partner in this planning process, utilizing parish maps as a consultative tool in a consultative process to identify natural and cultural heritage assets. It will
probably be the first spatial planning process in Italy to incorporate
Parish maps results. A similar, larger-scale initiative is being undertaken in Puglia, where the three Salento Ecomuseums began to work
on Parish maps. They were then contacted by the regional planning
office, which wished to profit from their participative experience and
to include their bottom-up approach within the top-down official
41

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

Plan. How this will be achieved is still debatable; how a marriage between ecomuseum activities and local plans will be achieved in other
places in Italy is arguably the main challenge on the Italian ecomuseums agenda.
Independently from the nature of their governments, all countries
experiencing deep transformation of their public spaces identify problems in collective decision-making. However, there is some potential
for the application of the participative tools and landscape interpretation methodologies tested and promoted by ecomuseums. How to
make them work in practice is an intriguing intellectual challenge in
the framework of active spatial governance.

Nature and Culture: Opportunities and

Potential Problems in Ecomuseum Projects
The main aims of ecomuseums are to improve local resources by encouraging local actors, i.e. inhabitants and other stakeholders, to take
responsibility for their natural and cultural environment. Reflecting on
ecomuseum practices in various countries (see Davis 2011), it is recognized that these institutions aim to guide local people to rediscover
their cultural and natural heritages, trigger participation processes
with local stakeholders, and develop relationships between different
local authorities and local stakeholders in order to ensure integrated
governance.
Ecomuseum philosophies and practices consider not only the conservation of heritage values, but take into account the relationships
between different actors and between actors and place. Place is a
complex notion in ecomuseum projects. It has multiple integrated components (physical, environmental, economic, social, cultural, and political), emphasizing the role of local actors in increasing the values
of territorial capital. This people-centered point of view has resonance
with the more recent definitions of landscape, i.e. definitions that recognize the values of the natural-physical peculiarity of a territory but
at the same time attributes a core value to the communities within
that geographical space. The role of the individual is elaborated further by taking into account that territory mediates human actions
(Raffestin 1981), affirms that individual behavior is influenced by representation of the landscape (Dematteis 1995), and emphasizes the
perceptions and the representations of the individual (Dematteis 1995).
In the European Landscape Convention, landscape is defined as an
42

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors (European Landscape Convention, 2000). These ideas of landscape, and the territory
supported by ecomuseums, encapsulate both a physical reality and
personal subjectivity. Landscape becomes more closely related to the
concept of inscape, an internal landscape where physical space is
filtered through the cultural knowledge of the people living there.
Participation among local actors, like learning processes, permits
the growth of the local populations awareness about the importance
of local heritage assets. Moreover, participation processes encourage
people to work together and make decisions. In general, ecomuseums
pursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage a
common ideology but also to provide an opportunity for individuals
to become a territorial guardian. As noted above, participation processes develop local community habitus. In addition, stimulating actors
to recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows the improvement of cultural capital. At the same time, participation processes encourage local people to organize themselves, strengthening the trust
among actors and their social relationships, and therefore consolidating social capital. Finally, participation processes, helping to identify
the values of a territory and empower local actors, improve capacity
building and the formation of institutional capital.
Moreover, ecomuseums are processes that can contribute to governance because they aim to start social actions in which local actors
are involved in democratic and participative decision-making processes. They involve the local community, empower local people, encourage learning, and seek to identify sustainable development strategies within a defined geographical space, spaces that often have
high wildlife values.
However, it must be acknowledged that ecomuseums also have
weaknesses; they are not a panacea for all environmental concerns.
They cannot necessarily resolve, for example, conflicts between conservation and development, or environmental protection and economic interests, or the conflicting interests of communities and ambitious politicians or developers. Such issues may require interventions
by recognized authorities or legal decisions. In addition, although there
is now some clarity with regard to the definition of ecomuseum principles, ecomuseums vary considerably in terms of their governance,
the landscapes in which they are located, and their individual aims
and objectives. Every ecomuseum is different; consequently it is impossible to declare universal principles. It is important to accept and
43

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

recognize their individual peculiarities. Ecomuseums could be important opportunities for territories, but it is important not to regard them
as a romantic ideal. Conserving heritage demands not just a set of principles; it is a process embedded in a social system totally shaped by local culture and political economy. Ecomuseums are also not immune
to the realities of national and local fiscal economies; in Italy recent
drastic funding cuts for cultural heritage have stopped the development
of important ecomuseum projects in Piedmont, Campania, and Lazio.


Nunzia Borrelli obtained her PhD in 2004 in Spatial Planning and Local
Development at Turin Polytechnic, Italy, with a thesis on Urban and Territorial Governance. In 2007, she spent several months as a visiting researcher
and lecturer at the International Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies at
Newcastle University, UK. In 20092010 she was a Fulbright research
scholar at Loyola University Chicago, IL, USA. Currently, she is a contract
Lecturer in Urban Sociology at the Second University of Naples and works
as a consultant. Address: Via Paestum, 30 00174 Rome, Italy. Email:
nunzia.borrelli@gmail.com.
Peter Davis is Professor of Museology at Newcastle University. His research
interests include the history of museums, the history of natural history and
environmentalism, the interaction between heritage and concepts of place,
and ecomuseums. He is the author of several books including Museums and
the Natural Environment (1996), Ecomuseums: A Sense of Place (1999; 2nd
edition 2011) and, with Christine Jackson, Sir William Jardine: A Life in Natural History (2001). Address: International Centre for Cultural and Heritage
Studies, 18 Windsor Terrace, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne
NE1 7RU, UK. E-mail: peter.davis@ncl.ac.uk.

Notes
1. In order to understand better the meaning of the term ecomuseum, it is important to explain the eco prefix. The terms ecology and economy are derived from the
Greek word oikos, which means a house or living place. In 1866 the German biologist Ernst Haeckel began to use the word in connection with the study of the interrelationships between different organisms and the components making up their particular habitats, hence ecology. Similarly, in ecomuseology the word environment
needs to be viewed holistically, embracing both natural and human aspects within a
very intricate and interconnected system. This network encompasses both biophysical
features and those elements which have been manipulated, modified or constructed
by people, as well as intangibles such as economic, social, cultural and political dimensions which are also an integral part of our environment (Davis 1999: 20).
2. Further info can be found at: www.irespiemonte.it/ecomusei.

44

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

3. In Poland, where 22 ecomuseums exist, a very important role in their management is played by EPCE, Environmental Partnership for Central Europe. It is an independent and self-governing foundation whose mission is to promote, support, help,
and implement environmental protection activities undertaken by not-for-profit organizations and local communities.
4. Culture and Religion; Food Security and Economy; Education and Training;
Population, Health and Nutrition, Environment, Infrastructure and Geographic Information Systems. The first issue of this program included an ecomuseum.
5. To understand sense of place, the geographic concept of place needs first to
be defined. Geographic space is the space that encircles the planet, through which biological life moves. It is differentiated from outer space and inner space (inside
the mind). One definition of place, proposed by Tuan is that a place comes into existence when humans give meaning to a part of the larger, undifferentiated geographic
space. Any time a location is identified or given a name, it is separated from the undefined space that surrounds it. Some places, however, have been given stronger
meanings, names or definitions by society than others. These are the places that are
said to have a strong sense of place. (Tuan 1977: 47)
6. This participation definition centers also with a governance concept. Governance indicates the new government procedures, which is characterized by the involvement of public and private actors belonging to different organizations and by the
building of a network of social relationships.
7. For further information: www.osservatorioecomusei.net/PDF/UK/TRAINING/
krete.pdf
8. According to Common Ground, a charity that introduced this method in the
80s, Parish Maps allow people to chart the things that they value locally, to make their
voice heard amongst professionals and developers, to inform and assert their need for
nature and culture on their own terms, and to begin to take action and some control
in shaping the future of their place (Common Ground 1996).
9. Parish Maps can be considered as a slow approach that permits the growth
of the awareness of the local population about the importance of territorial values.
They also permit progressive capacity-building to manage the territory and to get people used to working together and making decisions. By taking collective responsibility, communities can avoid waiting for external help and direction. In general, ecomuseums also pursue the task of improving participation not only to encourage a
common ideology but also to give responsibility of territorial guardian to the local
population. Stimulating actors to recognize and to evaluate cultural resources allows
the improvement of cultural capital, and this is true for ecomuseums (Davis 2011). Education, such an important focal point in ecomuseum projects, is inspired by Paulo
Freires principles of constructivism, training consisting of horizontal learning based
on a working together approach (Freire 2002).
10. The Matadouro itself is an old slaughterhouse, restored by volunteers.

References
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1992. Risposte. Per unantropologia riflessiva. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri.
Buttimer, Ann, and David Seamon, eds. 1980. The Human Experience of Space and
Place. London: Croom Helm.

45

NUNZIA BORRELLI AND PETER DAVIS

Clifford, Sue, and Angela King, eds. 1993. Local Distinctiveness: Place, Particularity
and Identity. London: Common Ground.
Clifford, Sue, Maurizio Maggi, and Donatella Murtas, eds. 2007. GENIUS LOCI. Perch, quando e come realizzare una mappa di comunit. Torino: Strumentires n.
10/2007.
Coaffee, Jon, and Patsy Healey. 2003. My Voice: My place: Tracking Transformations
in Urban Governance. Urban Studies 40(10): 19791999.
Common Ground. 1996. Promotional Leaflet. Common Ground. London: Common
Ground.
Corsane, Gerard, and W. Holleman. 1993. Ecomuseums: A Brief Evaluation. Pp.
111125 in Museums and the Environment, eds. Rienk De Jong. Pretoria: South
African Museums Association.
Cuthill, Micheal, and John Fien. 2005. Capacity Building: Facilitating Citizen Participation in Local Governance. Australian Journal of Public Administration 64 (4):
6380.
Davis, Peter. 1999. Ecomuseums: A Sense of Place. London: Leicester University Press.
Davis, Peter. 2007. Ecomuseums and Sustainability in Italy, Japan and China: Concept Adaptation Through Implementation. Pp. 198214 in Museum Revolutions:
How Museums Change and are Changed, eds. Simon Hnell, Suzanne MacLeod
and Sheila Watson. London: Routledge.
Davis, Peter. 2008. New Museologies and the Ecomuseum. Pp. 397414 in The Ashgate Research Reader in Heritage and Identity, eds. Brian Grahamand and Peter
Howard. Alderhot: Ashgate.
Davis, Peter. 2011 (1999). Ecomuseums: A Sense of Place (2nd Edition). New York:
Continuum.
Dematteis, Giuseppe. 1995. Progetto implicito. Il contributo della geografia umana
alle scienze del territorio. Milano: Francoangeli.
Dematteis, Giuseppe. 1999. Sul crocevia della territorialit urbana. Pp. 117128 in
I futuri della citt. Tesi a confronto, eds. Giuseppe Dematteis, Francesco Indovina, Alberto Magnaghi, Elio Piroddi, Enzo Scandurra, e Bernanrdo Secchi. Milano: Francoangeli.
De Varine, Hugues. 1988.Rethinking the Museum Concept. Pp. 3340 in komuseumsboka identitet, kologi, deltakelse, eds. John Aage Gjestrum and Marc
Maure. Norway: ICOM, Troms.
European Landscape Convention. 2000. European Treaty Series - No. 176, Florence,
20.10.2000.
Fareri, Paolo. 2000. Relente. Notes sur lapproche partecipative du point de vue de
lAnalyse des politiques publiques. in Lusage du project. Pratiques sociales et
conception du project urbain et architectural, eds. Soderstrom, Cogato Lanza,
Barbey, Lawrence. Lausanne: Payot.
Freire, Paulo. 2002 [1971]. La pedagogia degli oppressi. Torino, Italy: EGA.
Galla, Amaresw. 2002. Culture and Heritage in Development. Ha Long Ecomuseum.
A Case Study from Vietnam. Humanities Research 9 (1): 6376.
Healey, Patsy. 2001. Place, Identity and Governance: Transforming Discourses and
Practices. Pp. 173202 in Habitus: A Sense of Place, eds. Jean Hillier and Emma
Rooksby. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Hillier, Jean. 2005. Habitus. A Sense of Place. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.

46

HOW CULTURE SHAPES NATURE: REFLECTIONS ON ECOMUSEUM PRACTICES

Hubert, Francois. 1985. Ecomuseums in France: Contradictions and Distortions.

Museum 37(4): 186190.
Maggi, Maurizio. 2006. Ecomuseums Worldwide: Converging Routes among similar
Obstacles. Chinese Museum 3: 3133.
Magnaghi, Alberto. 2000. Il progetto locale. Torino, Italy: Bollati Boringhieri.
Painter, Joe. 2005. Governmentality and Regional Economic Strategies. Pp. 131157
in Habitus: A Sense of Place, eds. Jean Hillier and Emma Rooksby. Aldershot:
Ashgate.
Raffestin, Claude. 1981. Pour une gographie du pouvoir. Paris: LITEC.
Rivard, Ren. 1985. Ecomuseums in Quebec. Museum 37 (4): 202205.
Schwartz, Aprile. 2001. Sustainable development in a World Heritage Area: The Ha
Long Bay Ecomuseum. Http://www.csiwisepractices.org/?read=372 (accessed 9
March 2010)
Smith, Laurajane. 2006. Uses of Heritage. London: Routlege.
Tuan, Yi-Fu. 1977. Space and Place the Perspective of Experience. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

47