Field Guides: Visual Soil Assessment

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT FIELD GUIDES
VSA
V I S U A L
S O I L
A S S E S S M E N T
Field Guides
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D
The present publication on Visual Soil Assessment is a practical

guide to carry out a quantitative soil analysis with reproduceable results
using only very simple tools. Besides soil parameters, also crop parameters
for assessing soil conditions are presented for some selected crops. The
Visual Soil Assessment manuals consist of a series of separate booklets for
specific crop groups, collected in a binder. The publication addresses
scientists as well as field technicians and even farmers who want to analyse
their soil condition and observe changes over time.
G U I D E
VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT
Annual
Crops
G U I D E
Annual
Crops
Graham Shepherd, soil scientist,
F I E L D
BioAgriNomics.com, New Zealand
Fabio Stagnari, assistant researcher,

University of Teramo, Italy
Michele Pisante, professor,

Jos Benites, technical officer,

Land and Water Development Division, FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Rome, 2008
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information

product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part
of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the
legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specic
companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does
not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to
others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.
ISBN 978-92-5-105937-1
All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information
product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without
any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully
acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other
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Applications for such permission should be addressed to:
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Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch
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or by e-mail to:
copyright@fao.org
FAO 2008
VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE
Contents
Acknowledgements
List of acronyms
Visual Soil Assessment
vi
SOIL TEXTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL POROSITY
SOIL COLOUR
NUMBER AND COLOUR OF SOIL MOTTLES
10
EARTHWORMS
12
POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH

Identifying the presence of a hardpan
14
16
SURFACE PONDING
18
SURFACE CRUSTING AND SURFACE COVER
20
SOIL EROSION
22
SOIL MANAGEMENT OF ANNUAL CROPS
24
iii
List of tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
How to score soil texture

Visual scores for earthworms
Visual scores for potential rooting depth
Visual scores for surface ponding
3
13
15
19
List of figures
1. Soil scorecard visual indicators for assessing soil quality in annual crops
2. Soil texture classes and groups
1
3
List of plates
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
The VSA tool kit

How to score soil structure
How to score soil porosity
How to score soil colour
How to score soil mottles
(a): earthworms casts under crop residue; (b): yellow-tail earthworm
Sample for assessing earthworms
Hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth
Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan
Surface ponding in a field
How to score surface crusting and surface cover
How to score soil erosion
No-till drilling an annual crop into an erosion-prone field protected
by good residue cover
15. Strip-tillage planting of an annual crop protected by good residue cover
16. Harvesting an annual grain crop, followed immediately by no-till seeding
the next crop into stubble
iv
vii
5
7
9
11
13
13
15
16
17
19
21
23
25
25
25
Acknowledgements
This publication is adapted from the methodology developed in: Shepherd, T.G. 2008. Visual
Soil Assessment. Volume 1. Field guide for pastoral grazing and cropping on flat to rolling
country. 2nd edition. Palmerston North, New Zealand, Horizons Regional Council. 106 pp.
This publication is funded by FAO in collaboration with the Agronomy and Crop Science
Research and Education Center of the University of Teramo.
List of acronyms
AEC
Adenylate energy charge
Al
Aluminium
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
Boron
Ca
Calcium
CO2
Carbon dioxide
Cu
Copper
Fe
Iron
Potassium
Mg
Magnesium
Mn
Manganese
Mo
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
RSG
Restricted spring growth
Sulphur
VS
Visual score
VSA
Zn
Zinc

Introduction
The maintenance of good soil quality is vital for the environmental and economic sustainability
of annual cropping. A decline in soil quality has a marked impact on plant growth and yield, grain
quality, production costs and the increased risk of soil erosion. Therefore, it can have significant
consequences on society and the environment. A decline in soil physical properties in particular
takes considerable time and cost to correct. Safeguarding soil resources for future generations and
minimizing the ecological footprint of annual cropping are important tasks for land managers.
Often, not enough attention is given to:
< the basic role of soil quality in efficient and sustained production;
< the effect of the condition of the soil on the gross profit margin;
< the long-term planning needed to sustain good soil quality;
< the effect of land management decisions on soil quality.
Soil type and the effect of management on the condition of the soil are important determinants
of the character and quality of annual cropping and have profound effects on long-term
profits. Land managers need tools that are reliable, quick and easy to use in order to help
them assess the condition of their soils and their suitability for growing crops, and to make
informed decisions that will lead to sustainable land and environmental management. To this
end, Visual Soil Assessment (VSA) provides a quick and simple method to assess soil condition
and plant performance. It can also be used to assess the suitability and limitations of a soil for
annual crops. Soils with good VSA scores will usually give the best production with the lowest
establishment and operational costs.
The VSA method

Visual Soil Assessment is based on the visual assessment of key soil state and plant performance
indicators of soil quality, presented on a scorecard. With the exception of soil texture, the soil
indicators are dynamic indicators, i.e. capable of changing under different management regimes
and land-use pressures. Being sensitive to change, they are useful early warning indicators of
changes in soil condition and as such provide an effective monitoring tool.
Visual scoring
Each indicator is given a visual score (VS) of 0 (poor), 1 (moderate), or 2 (good), based on the
soil quality observed when comparing the soil sample with three photographs in the field guide
manual. The scoring is flexible, so if the sample you are assessing does not align clearly with any
one of the photographs but sits between two, an in-between score can be given, i.e. 0.5 or 1.5.
Because some soil indicators are relatively more important in the assessment of soil quality than
others, VSA provides a weighting factor of 1, 2 and 3. The total of the VS rankings gives the overall
Soil Quality Index score for the sample you are evaluating. Compare this with the rating scale at the
bottom of the scorecard to determine whether your soil is in good, moderate or poor condition.
vi
The VSA tool kit
PLATE 1 The VSA tool kit
The VSA tool kit (Plate 1) comprises:

< a spade to dig a soil pit and to take a
200-mm cube of soil for the drop shatter
soil structure test;
< a plastic basin (about 450 mm long x
350 mm wide x 250 mm deep) to contain
the soil during the drop shatter test;
< a hard square board (about 260x260
x20 mm) to fit in the bottom of the
plastic basin on to which the soil cube is
dropped for the shatter test;
< a heavy-duty plastic bag (about 750x
500 mm) on which to spread the soil,
after the drop shatter test has been
carried out;
< a knife (preferably 200 mm long) to
investigate the soil pit and potential rooting depth;
< a water bottle to assess the field soil textural class;
< a tape measure to measure the potential rooting depth;
< a VSA field guide to make the photographic comparisons;
< a pad of scorecards to record the VS for each indicator.
The procedure
When it should be carried out
The test should be carried out when the soils are moist and suitable for cultivation. If you are
not sure, apply the worm test. Roll a worm of soil on the palm of one hand with the fingers of
the other until it is 50 mm long and 4 mm thick. If the soil cracks before the worm is made, or
if you cannot form a worm (for example, if the soil is sandy), the soil is suitable for testing. If
you can make the worm, the soil is too wet to test.
Setting up
Time
Allow 25 minutes per site. For a representative assessment of soil quality, sample 4 sites over
a 5-ha area.
Reference sample
Take a small sample of soil (about 100x50x150 mm deep) from under a nearby fence or a
similar protected area. This provides an undisturbed sample required in order to assign the
correct score for the soil colour indicator. The sample also provides a reference point for
comparing soil structure and porosity.
vii
Sites
Select sites that are representative of the field. The condition of the soil in fields is site specific.
Avoid areas that may have had heavier traffic than the rest of the field and sample between
wheel traffic lanes. However, VSA can also be used to assess the effects of high traffic on soil
quality by selecting to sample along wheel traffic lanes. Always record the position of the sites
for future monitoring if required.
Site information
Complete the site information section at the top of the scorecard. Then record any special
aspects you think relevant in the notes section at the bottom of the plant indicator scorecard.
Carrying out the test

Initial observation
Dig a small hole about 200x200 mm square by 300 mm deep with a spade and observe the
topsoil (and upper subsoil if present) in terms of its uniformity, including whether it is soft and
friable or hard and firm. A knife is useful to help you assess this.
Take the test sample
If the topsoil appears uniform, dig out a 200-mm cube with the spade.
You can sample whatever depth of soil you wish, but ensure that you sample the equivalent of
a 200-mm cube of soil. If for example, the top 100 mm of the soil is compacted and you wish
to assess its condition, dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm with a spade. If the 100200mm depth is dominated by a tillage pan and you wish to assess its condition, remove the top
100 mm of soil and dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm. Note that taking a 200-mm cube
sample below the topsoil can also give valuable information about the condition of the subsoil
and its implications for plant growth and farm management practices.
The drop shatter test
Drop the test sample a maximum of three times from a height of 1 m onto the wooden square in
the plastic basin. The number of times the sample is dropped and the height it is dropped from,
is dependent on the texture of the soil and the degree to which the soil breaks up, as described
in the section on soil structure.
Systematically work through the scorecard, assigning a VS to each indicator by comparing it
with the photographs (or table) and description reported in the field guide.
Format of the booklet

The soil scorecard is given in Figure 1 and lists the ten key soil state indicators required in
order to assess soil quality. Each indicator is described on the following pages, with a section
on how to assess each indicator and an explanation of its importance and what it reveals
about the condition of the soil.
viii
soil texture
C Assessment
Take a small sample of soil (half the size of your thumb) from the topsoil and a sample (or
samples) that is (or are) representative of the subsoil.
Wet the soil with water, kneading and working it thoroughly on the palm of your hand with
your thumb and forefinger to the point of maximum stickiness.
Assess the texture of the soil according to the criteria given in Table 1 by attempting to
mould the soil into a ball.
With experience, a person can assess the texture directly by estimating the percentages
of sand, silt and clay by feel, and the textural class obtained by reference to the textural
diagram (Figure 2).
There are occasions when the assignment of a textural score will need to be modified
because of the nature of a textural qualifier. For example, if the soil has a reasonably high
content of organic matter, i.e. is humic with 1530 percent organic matter, raise the textural
score by one (e.g. from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 2). If the soil has a significant gravelly or stony
component, reduce the textural score by 0.5.
There are also occasions when the assignment of a textural score will need to be modified
because of the specific preference of a crop for a particular textural class. For example,
asparagus prefers a soil with a sandy loam texture and so the textural score is raised by 0.5
from a score of 1 to 1.5 based on the specific textural preference of the plant.
I Importance
SOIL TEXTURE defines the size of the mineral particles. Specifically, it refers to the relative
proportion of the various size-groups in the soil, i.e. sand, silt and clay. Sand is that
fraction that has a particle size >0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and
the particle size of clay is <0.002 mm. Texture influences soil behaviour in several ways,
notably through its effect on: water retention and availability; soil structure; aeration;
drainage; soil workability and trafficability; soil life; and the supply and retention of
nutrients.
A knowledge of both the textural class and potential rooting depth enables an approximate
assessment of the total water-holding capacity of the soil, one of the major drivers of crop
production.
FIGURE 2 Soil texture classes and groups
Textural classes.
Textural groups.
TABLE 1 How to score soil texture

Visual score
(VS)
Textural class
Description
2
[Good]
Silt loam
Smooth soapy feel, slightly sticky, no grittiness. Moulds into

a cohesive ball that fissures when pressed flat.
1.5
[Moderately good]
Clay loam
Very smooth, sticky and plastic. Moulds into a cohesive ball

that deforms without fissuring.
1
[Moderate]
Sandy loam
Slightly gritty, faint rasping sound. Moulds into a cohesive

ball that fissures when pressed flat.
0.5
[Moderately poor]
Loamy sand
Silty clay
Clay
Loamy sand: Gritty and rasping sound. Will almost mould into
a ball but disintegrates when pressed flat.
Silty clay, clay: Very smooth, very sticky, very plastic. Moulds
into a cohesive ball that deforms without fissuring.
0
[Poor]
Sand
Gritty and rasping sound. Cannot be moulded into a ball.
soil structure
C Assessment
Remove a 200-mm cube of topsoil with a spade (between or along wheel tracks).
Drop the soil sample a maximum of three times from a height of 1 m onto the firm base
in the plastic basin. If large clods break away after the first or second drop, drop them
individually again once or twice. If a clod shatters into small (primary structural) units after
the first or second drop, it does not need dropping again. Do not drop any piece of soil
more than three times. For soils with a sandy loam texture (Table 1), drop the cube of soil
just once only from a height of 0.5 m.
Transfer the soil onto the large plastic bag.
For soils with a loamy sand or sand texture, drop the cube of soil still sitting on the spade (once)
from a height of just 50 mm, and then roll the spade over, spilling the soil onto the plastic bag.
Applying only very gently pressure, attempt to part each clod by hand along any exposed
cracks or fissures. If the clod does not part easily, do not apply further pressure (because
the cracks and fissures are probably not continuous and, therefore, are unable to readily
conduct oxygen, air and water).
Move the coarsest fractions to one end and the finest to the other end. Arrange the distribution
of aggregates on the plastic bag so that the height of the soil is roughly the same over the whole
surface area of the bag. This provides a measure of the aggregate-size distribution. Compare the
resulting distribution of aggregates with the three photographs in Plate 2 and the criteria given.
The method is valid for a wide range of moisture conditions but is best carried out when the
soil is moist to slightly moist; avoid dry and wet conditions.
I Importance
SOIL STRUCTURE is extremely important for arable cropping. It regulates:
< soil aeration and gaseous exchange rates;
< soil temperature;
< soil infiltration and erosion;
< the movement and storage of water;
< nutrient supply;
< root penetration and development;
< soil workability;
< soil trafficability;
< the resistance of soils to structural degradation.
Good soil structure reduces the susceptibility to compaction under wheel traffic and
increases the window of opportunity for vehicle access and for carrying out no-till,
minimum-till or conventional cultivation between rows under optimal soil conditions.
Soil structure is ranked on the size, shape, firmness, porosity and relative abundance of soil
aggregates and clods. Soils with good structure have friable, fine, porous, subangular and
subrounded (nutty) aggregates. Those with poor structure have large, dense, very firm, angular
or subangular blocky clods that fit and pack closely together and have a high tensile strength.
4
PLATE 2 How to score soil structure
GOOD CONDITION VS = 2
Soil dominated by friable, fine
aggregates with no significant clodding.
Aggregates are generally subrounded
(nutty) and often quite porous.
MODERATE CONDITION VS = 1
Soil contains significant proportions
(50%) of both coarse clods and friable
fine aggregates. The coarse clods are
firm, subangular or angular in shape and
have few or no pores.
POOR CONDITION VS = 0
Soil dominated by coarse clods
with very few finer aggregates. The
coarse clods are very firm, angular or
subangular in shape and have very few
or no pores.
soil porosity
C Assessment
Remove a spade slice of soil (about 100 mm wide, 150 mm long and 200 mm deep) from the
side of the hole and break it in half.
Examine the exposed fresh face of the sample for soil porosity by comparing against the
three photographs in Plate 3. Look for the spaces, gaps, holes, cracks and fissures between
and within soil aggregates and clods.
Examine also the porosity of a number of the large clods from the soil structure test. This
provides important additional information as to the porosity of the individual clods (the
intra-aggregate porosity).
I Importance
It is important to assess SOIL POROSITY along with the structure of the soil. Soil porosity,
and particularly macroporosity (or large pores), influences the movement of air and water
in the soil. Soils with good structure have a high porosity between and within aggregates,
but soils with poor structure may not have macropores and coarse micropores within the
large clods, restricting their drainage and aeration.
Poor aeration leads to the build up of carbon dioxide, methane and sulphide gases,
and reduces the ability of plants to take up water and nutrients, particularly nitrogen
(N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulphur (S). Plants can only utilize S and N in
the oxygenated sulphate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) forms. Therefore,
plants require aerated soils for the efficient uptake and utilization of S and N. The number,
activity and biodiversity of micro-organisms and earthworms are also greatest in wellaerated soils and they are able to decompose and cycle organic matter and nutrients more
efficiently.
The presence of soil pores enables the development and proliferation of the superficial (or
feeder) roots throughout the soil. Roots are unable to penetrate and grow through firm,
tight, compacted soils, severely restricting the ability of the plant to utilize the available
water and nutrients in the soil. A high penetration resistance not only limits plant uptake
of water and nutrients, it also reduces fertilizer efficiency considerably and increases the
susceptibility of the plant to root diseases.
Soils with good porosity will also tend to produce lower amounts of greenhouse gases.
The greater the porosity, the better the drainage, and, therefore, the less likely it is that
the soil pores will be water-filled to the critical levels required to accelerate the production
of greenhouse gases. Aim to keep the soil porosity score above 1.
PLATE 3 How to score soil porosity
Soils have many macropores and coarse
micropores between and within aggregates
associated with good soil structure.
Soil macropores and coarse micropores
between and within aggregates have declined
significantly but are present on close
examination in parts of the soil. The soil shows
a moderate amount of consolidation.
No soil macropores and coarse micropores
are visually apparent within compact,
massive structureless clods. The clod
surface is smooth with few or no cracks or
holes, and can have sharp angles.
soil colour
C Assessment
Compare the colour of a handful of soil from the field site with soil taken from under the
nearest fenceline or a similar protected area.
Using the three photographs and criteria given (Plate 4), compare the relative change in soil
colour that has occurred.
As topsoil colour can vary markedly between soil types, the photographs illustrate the
degree of change in colour rather than the absolute colour of the soil.
I Importance
SOIL COLOUR is a very useful indicator of soil quality because it can provide an indirect
measure of other more useful properties of the soil that are not assessed so easily and
accurately. In general, the darker the colour is, the greater is the amount of organic matter
in the soil. A change in colour can give a general indication of a change in organic matter
under a particular land use or management. Soil organic matter plays an important role
in regulating most biological, chemical and physical processes in soil, which collectively
determine soil health. It promotes infiltration and retention of water, helps to develop
and stabilize soil structure, cushions the impact of wheel traffic and cultivators, reduces
the potential for wind and water erosion, and indicates whether the soil is functioning
as a carbon sink or as a source of greenhouse gases. Organic matter also provides an
important food resource for soil organisms and is an important source of, and major
reservoir of, plant nutrients. Its decline reduces the fertility and nutrient-supplying
potential of the soil; N, P, K and S requirements of crops increase markedly, and other
major and minor elements are leached more readily. The result is an increased dependency
on fertilizer input to maintain nutrient status.
Soil colour can also be a useful indicator of soil drainage and the degree of soil aeration.
In addition to organic matter, soil colour is influenced markedly by the chemical form (or
oxidation state) of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Brown, yellow-brown, reddish-brown
and red soils without mottles indicate well-aerated, well-drained conditions where Fe and
Mn occur in the oxidized form of ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) oxides. Grey-blue colours
can indicate that the soil is poorly drained or waterlogged and poorly aerated for long
periods, conditions that reduce Fe and Mn to ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) oxides.
Poor aeration and prolonged waterlogging give rise to a further series of chemical and
biochemical reduction reactions that produce toxins, such as hydrogen sulphide, carbon
dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, that damage the root system.
This reduces the ability of plants to take up water and nutrients, causing poor vigour
and ill-thrift. Decay and dieback of roots can also occur as a result of pests and diseases,
including Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot in soils prone to waterlogging.
PLATE 4 How to score soil colour
Dark coloured topsoil that is not too
dissimilar to that under the fenceline.
The colour of the topsoil is somewhat
paler than that under the fenceline, but
not markedly so.
Soil colour has become significantly paler
compared with that under the fenceline.
number and colour of soil mottles
C Assessment
Take a sample of soil (about 100 mm wide 150 mm long 200 mm deep) from the side
of the hole and compare with the three photographs (Plate 5) and the percentage chart to
determine the percentage of the soil occupied by mottles.
Mottles are spots or blotches of different colour interspersed with the dominant soil colour.
I Importance
The NUMBER AND COLOUR OF SOIL MOTTLES provide a good indication of how well the
soil is drained and how well it is aerated. They are also an early warning of a decline in
soil structure caused by compaction under wheel traffic and overcultivation. The loss of
soil structure reduces the number of channels and pores that conduct water and air and,
as a consequence, can result in waterlogging and a deficiency of oxygen for a prolonged
period. The development of anaerobic (deoxygenated) conditions reduces Fe and Mn from
their brown/orange oxidized ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) form to grey ferrous (Fe2+)
and manganous (Mn2+) oxides. Mottles develop as various shades of orange and grey
owing to varying degrees of oxidation and reduction of Fe and Mn. As oxygen depletion
increases, orange, and ultimately grey, mottles predominate. An abundance of grey
mottles indicates the soil is poorly drained and poorly aerated for a significant part of the
year. The presence of only common orange and grey mottles (1025 percent) indicates the
soil is imperfectly drained with only periodic waterlogging. Soil with only few to common
orange mottles indicates the soil is moderately well drained, and the absence of mottles
indicates good drainage.
Poor aeration reduces the uptake of water by plants and can induce wilting. It can also
reduce the uptake of plant nutrients, particularly N, P, K, S and Cu. Moreover, poor aeration
retards the breakdown of organic residues, and can cause chemical and biochemical
reduction reactions that produce sulphide gases, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and
ethylene, which are toxic to plant roots. In addition, decay and dieback of roots can occur
as a result of fungal diseases such as Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot, foot rot
and crown rot in soils that are strongly mottled and poorly aerated. Fungal diseases and
reduced nutrient and water uptake give rise to poor plant vigour and ill-thrift. If your visual
score for mottles is 1, you need to aerate the soil.
10
PLATE 5 How to score soil mottles
Mottles are generally absent.
Soil has common (1025%) fine and
medium orange and grey mottles.
Soil has abundant to profuse (>50%)
medium and coarse orange and particularly
grey mottles.
11
earthworms
C Assessment
Count the earthworms by hand, sorting through the soil sample used to assess soil structure
(Plate 7) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Earthworms vary in size and number
depending on the species and the season. Therefore, for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm
counts must be made at the same time of year when soil moisture and temperature levels are
good. Earthworm numbers are reported as the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm
numbers are commonly reported on a square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is
equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to
convert to numbers per square metre.
I Importance
EARTHWORMS provide a good indicator of the biological health and condition of
the soil because their population density and species are affected by soil properties
and management practices. Through their burrowing, feeding, digestion and casting,
earthworms have a major effect on the chemical, physical and biological properties of the
soil. They shred and decompose plant residues, converting them to organic matter, and so
releasing mineral nutrients. Compared with uningested soil, earthworm casts can contain
5 times as much plant available N, 37 times as much P, 11 times as much K, and 3 times
as much Mg. They can also contain more Ca and plant-available Mo, and have a higher pH,
organic matter and water content. Moreover, earthworms act as biological aerators and
physical conditioners of the soil, improving:
< soil porosity;
< aeration;
< soil structure and the stability of soil aggregates;
< water retention;
< water infiltration;
< drainage.
They also reduce surface runoff and erosion. They further promote plant growth by
secreting plant-growth hormones and increasing root density and root development by
the rapid growth of roots down nutrient-enriched worm channels. While earthworms can
deposit about 2530 tonnes of casts/ha/year on the surface, 70 percent of their casts are
deposited below the surface of the soil. Therefore, earthworms play an important role in
cropping soils and can increase growth rates, crop yield and protein levels significantly.
Earthworms also increase the population, activity and diversity of soil microbes.
Actinomycetes increase 67 times during the passage of soil through the digestive tract
of the worm and, along with other microbes, play an important role in the decomposition
of organic matter to humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role
in the supply of nutrients, digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as
P, that are fixed by the soil. Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their
12
PLATE 6 (a): earthworm casts under crop residue; (b): yellow-tail earthworm (Octolasion cyaneum)
biomass, releasing them when they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones
and compounds that stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and
water-holding capacity of the soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of pests
and diseases. The collective benefits of microbes can increase crop production markedly while at the
same time reducing fertilizer requirements.
Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic matter and
soil microbes, as determined by the crops grown, the amount and quality of surface residues (Plate 6a),
the use of cover crops and the method of tillage. Earthworm populations can be up to three times higher
under no-tillage than conventional cultivation. Earthworm numbers are also governed by: soil moisture,
temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the type and amount of
fertilizer and N used. The overuse of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous ammonia and ammoniabased products, and some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce earthworm numbers.
Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface feeders
that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoil-dwelling species that
burrow, ingest and mix the top 200300 mm of soil;
PLATE 7 Sample for assessing earthworms
and (iii) deep-burrowing species that pull down and
mix plant litter and organic matter at depth.
Earthworms species can further indicate the overall
condition of the soil. For example, significant numbers
of yellow-tail earthworms (Octolasion cyaneum
Plate 6b) can indicate adverse soil conditions.
TABLE 2 Visual scores for earthworms
Visual score
(VS)
Earthworm numbers
(per 200-mm cube of soil)
2
[Good]
> 30 (with preferably 3 or more species)
1
[Moderate]
1530 (with preferably 2 or more species)
0
[Poor]
< 15 (with predominantly 1 species)
13
potential rooting depth
C Assessment
Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present (Plate 8), and
compare with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the presence of roots
and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which roots can extend.
Note also whether there is an over-thickening of roots (a result of a high penetration
resistance), and whether the roots are being forced to grow horizontally, otherwise known
as right-angle syndrome. Moreover, note the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the
soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a
hardpan present such as a human-induced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an
iron, siliceous or calcitic pan (pp 1617). An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material
to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A rough estimate of
the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties in a nearby road
cutting or an open drain.
I Importance
The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially
exploit before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to
provide a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater
is the available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can
access larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival
of non-irrigated crops. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that
they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the
growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the crop. Conversely, soils with a restricted
rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as
a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing
roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer
efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root penetration
can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover,
hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last
increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash.
The potential rooting depth can be restricted further by:
< an abrupt textural change;
< pH;
< aluminium (Al) toxicity;
< nutrient deficiencies;
< salinity;
< sodicity;
< a high or fluctuating water table;
< low oxygen levels.
14
Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions caused by deoxygenation and prolonged waterlogging restrict

the rooting depth as a result of the accumulation of toxic levels of hydrogen sulphide, ferrous
sulphide, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, by-products of
chemical and biochemical reduction reactions.
Crops with a deep, vigorous root system help to raise soil organic matter levels and soil life
at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce, promote
soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. A deep, dense root
system provides huge scope for raising production while at the same time having significant
environmental benefits. Crops are less reliant on frequent and high application rates of
fertilizer and N to generate growth, and available nutrients are more likely to be taken up, so
reducing losses by leaching into the environment.
PLATE 8 Hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth
The potential rooting depth extends to

the bottom of the arrow, below which the
soil is extremely firm and very tight with
no roots or old root channels, no worm
channels and no cracks and fissures down
which roots can extend.
TABLE 3 Visual scores for potential rooting depth

VSA score
(VS)
Potential rooting depth

(m)
2.0
[Good]
> 0.8
1.5
[Moderately good]
0.60.8
1.0
[Moderate]
0.40.6
0.5
[Moderately poor]
0.20.4
0
[Poor]
< 0.2
15

Assessment
Examine for the presence of a hardpan by rapidly jabbing the side of the soil profile
(that was dug to assess the potential rooting depth) with a knife, starting at the top and
progressing systematically and quickly down to the bottom of the hole (Plate 9). Note how
easy or difficult it is to jab the knife into the soil as you move rapidly down the profile. A
strongly developed hardpan is very tight and extremely firm, and it has a high penetration
resistance to the knife. Pay particular attention to the lower topsoil and upper subsoil where
tillage pans and plough pans commonly occur if present (Plate 10).
Having identified the possible presence of a hardpan by a significant increase in penetration
resistance to the point of a knife, gauge how strongly developed the hardpan is. Remove
a large hand-sized sample and assess its structure, porosity and the number and colour of
soil mottles (Plates 2, 3 and 5), and also look for the presence of roots. Compare with the
photographs and criteria given in Plate 10.
PLATE 9 Using a knife to determine the presence or absence of a hardpan
16
PLATE 10 Identifying the presence of a hardpan
NO HARDPAN
The soil has a low penetration resistance
to the knife. Roots, old root channels,
worm channels, cracks and fissures may be
common. Topsoils are friable with a readily
apparent structure and have a soil porosity
score of 1.5.
MODERATELY DEVELOPED HARDPAN

The soil has a moderate penetration
resistance to the knife. It is firm (hard)
with a weakly apparent soil structure and
has a soil porosity score of 0.51. There
are few roots and old root channels,
few worm channels, and few cracks
and fissures. The pan may have few to
common orange and grey mottles. Note
the moderately developed tillage pan in
the lower half of the topsoil (arrowed).
STRONGLY DEVELOPED HARDPAN

The soil has a high penetration resistance
to the knife. It is very tight, extremely
firm (very hard) and massive (i.e. with no
apparent soil structure) and has a soil
porosity score of 0. There are no roots or
old root channels, no worm channels or
cracks or fissures. The pan may have many
orange and grey mottles. Note the strongly
developed tillage pan in the lower half of
the topsoil (arrowed).
17
surface ponding
C Assessment
Assess the degree of surface ponding (Plate 11) based on your observation or general
recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the spring,
and compare with the class limits in Table 4.
I Importance
SURFACE PONDING and the length of time water remains on the surface can indicate
the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the soil
remains saturated. Prolonged waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic
(anoxic) conditions that induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth of
roots. Roots need oxygen for respiration. They are most vulnerable to surface ponding and
saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are actively growing
at a time when respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are
high. They are also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are
highest. Moreover, waterlogging causes the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient
and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the crop is transpiring actively causes leaf
desiccation and the plant to wilt. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of
pests and diseases, including Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot, and reduces
the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Plant
stress induced by poor aeration and prolonged soil saturation can render crops less
resistant to insect pest attack such as aphids, armyworm, cutworm and wireworm. Crops
decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and
stunted growth, become discoloured and die.
Waterlogging and deoxygenation also results in a series of undesirable chemical and
biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to roots. Plantavailable nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-) is reduced by denitrification to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous
oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is
reduced to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and zinc
sulphide (ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and Mn to manganous (Mn2+)
ions. Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction in the amount of
plant-available N and S. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms also produces carbon
dioxide and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas, ethanol, acetaldehyde and
ethylene, all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in the soil. Unlike aerobic
respiration, anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial and root/shoot
growth.
18
The tolerance of the root system to surface ponding and waterlogging is dependent on a
number of factors, including the time of year and the type of crop. Tolerance of waterlogging is
also dependent on: soil and air temperatures; soil type; the condition of the soil; fluctuating
water tables; and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed
by the initial soil oxygen content and oxygen consumption rate.
Prolonged surface ponding makes the soil more susceptible to damage under wheel traffic,
so reducing vehicle access. As a consequence, waterlogging can delay ground preparation
and sowing dates significantly. Sowing can further be delayed because the seed bed is below
the crop-specific critical temperature. Increases in the temperature of saturated soils can be
delayed as long as water is evaporating.
PLATE 11 Surface ponding in a field
TABLE 4 Visual scores for surface ponding

VSA score
(VS)
Surface ponding due to soil saturation

Number of days
of ponding *
Description
2
[Good]
No surface ponding of water evident after 1 day following

heavy rainfall on soils that were at or near saturation.
1
[Moderate]
24
Moderate surface ponding occurs for 24 days after heavy

rainfall on soils that were at or near saturation.
0
[Poor]
>5
Significant surface ponding occurs for longer than 5 days

after heavy rainfall on soils that were at or near saturation.
* Assuming little or no air is trapped in the soil at the time of ponding.
19
surface crusting and surface cover
20
C Assessment
Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare Plate 12 and the
criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of
drying, and before cultivation.
I Importance
SURFACE CRUSTING reduces infiltration of water and water storage in the soil and
increases runoff. Surface crusting also reduces aeration, causing anaerobic conditions,
and prolongs water retention near the surface, which can hamper access by machinery for
months. Crusting is most pronounced in fine-textured, poorly structured soils with a low
aggregate stability and a dispersive clay mineralogy.
SURFACE COVER after harvesting and prior to canopy closure of the next crop helps to
prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface by rain or irrigation. It
also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets before they can strike
and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system return organic matter
to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers and activity. The physical
action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote the development
of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break up surface crusting. As a
result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the soil increase, decreasing
runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover also reduces soil erosion
by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash and saltation. It further
serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it to infiltrate into the soil.
Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the soil surface, holding
the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality downstream is
improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content. The adoption of
conservation tillage can reduce soil erosion by up to 90 percent and water runoff by up
to 40 percent. The surface needs to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good
protection, while 30 percent cover provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces
the risk of wind erosion markedly.
PLATE 12 How to score surface crusting and surface cover
Little or no surface crusting is present; or
surface cover is 70%.
Surface crusting is 23 mm thick and is
broken by significant cracking; or surface
cover is >30% and <70%.
Surface crusting is >5 mm thick and is
virtually continuous with little cracking;
or surface cover is 30%.
Surface cover photos: courtesy of A. Leys
21
soil erosion
C Assessment
Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and on your knowledge
of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 13.
I Importance
SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of soils through nutrient losses, loss
of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding
capacity. Soil erosion can also have significant off-site effects, including reduced water
quality through increased sediment, nutrient and coliform loading in streams and rivers.
Overcultivation can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the loss of soil
organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage pans, and
decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing increased
surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large quantities of
soil can be water eroded by gullying, rilling and sheet wash. The cost of restoration, often
requiring heavy machinery, can be prohibitively expensive.
The water erodibility of soil on sloping ground is governed by a number of factors including:
< the percentage of vegetative cover on the soil surface;
< the amount and intensity of rainfall;
< the soil infiltration rate and permeability of water through the soil;
< the slope and the nature of the underlying subsoil strata and bedrock.
The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation can also give rise
to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground.
22
PLATE 13 How to score soil erosion
Little or no water erosion. Topsoil depths in
the footslope areas are <150 mm deeper
than on the crest.
Wind erosion is not a concern; only small
dust plumes emanate from the cultivator
on a windy day. Most wind-eroded material is
contained in the field.
Water erosion is a moderate concern with
a significant amount of rilling and sheet
erosion. Topsoil depths in the footslope
areas are 150300 mm greater than on
crests, and sediment input into drains/
streams may be significant.
Wind erosion is of moderate concern
where significant dust plumes can
emanate from the cultivator on windy
days. A considerable amount of material
is blown off the field but is contained
within the farm.
Water erosion is a major concern with
severe gullying, rilling and sheet erosion
occurring. Topsoils in footslope areas are
more than 300 mm deeper than on the
streams may be high.
Wind erosion is a major concern. Large
dust clouds can occur when cultivating
on windy days. A substantial amount
of topsoil can be lost from the field and
deposited elsewhere in the district.
Water erosion photos: courtesy of J. Quinton and A. Leys
23
Soil management of annual crops

Good soil management practices are needed in order to maintain optimal growth conditions
for producing high crop yields, especially during the crucial periods of plant development. To
achieve this, management practices need to maintain soil conditions that are good for plant
growth, particularly aeration, temperature, nutrient and water supply. The soil needs to have
a soil structure that promotes an effective root system that can maximize water and nutrient
utilization. Good soil structure also promotes infiltration and movement of water into and
through the soil, minimizing surface ponding, runoff and soil erosion.
Conservation tillage practices, including no-tillage and minimum tillage that incorporate the
establishment of temporary cover crops and crop residues on the surface (Plates 1416),
provide soil management systems that conserve the environment, minimize the risk of soil
degradation, enhance the resilience and quality of the soil, and reduce production costs.
Conservation tillage protects the soil surface, reducing water runoff and soil erosion. It
reduces wheel traffic, which lessens wheel traffic compaction and does not create tillage
pans or plough pans. It improves soil trafficability and provides opportunities to optimize
sowing time, being less dependent on climate conditions in spring and autumn. It improves
soil physical characteristics, encourages soil life and biological activity (including earthworm
numbers), and increases micro-organism biodiversity. Unlike conventional tillage, conservation
tillage also enables the soil to retain a greater proportion of soil carbon sequestered from
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), enabling the soil to act as a sink for CO2. Consequently, soil
organic matter levels build up and, therefore, the potential to gain carbon credits. Moreover,
conservation tillage uses smaller mounts of fossils fuels, generates lower greenhouse gas
emissions and has a smaller ecological footprint on a region, thereby raising marketplace
acceptance of produce.
On the other hand, conventional tillage can have a negative impact on the environment, with
a greater food eco-footprint on a region and a country. It reduces the organic matter content
of the soil by microbial oxidation, increases greenhouse gas emissions (including the release
of 5times more CO2), and uses more fossil fuels (i.e., 6times more consumption of fuel). It
degrades soil structure, increases soil erosion, and alters microflora and microfauna adversely
by reducing both the number of species and their biomass. The fundamental difference
between conventional tillage and conservation tillage is their relative environmental and
economic sustainability. The long-term affects of conventional tillage are cumulatively
negative whereas the long-term affects of conservation tillage are cumulatively positive.
24
PLATE 14 No-till drilling an annual crop into an erosion-prone field

protected by herbicided pasture [BAKER NO-TILLAGE LTD]
PLATE 15 Strip-tillage planting of an annual crop protected by good residue cover
PLATE 16 Harvesting an annual grain crop followed immediately by

no-till seeding the next crop into stubble [BAKER NO-TILLAGE LTD]
25
References
Shepherd, T. G., Stagnari, F., Pisante, M. and Benites, J. 2008. Visual Soil Assessment
Field guide for annual crops. FAO, Rome, Italy.
26
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Annual
Crops
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Olive
Orchards
G U I D E
Olive
Orchards
F I E L D




Rome, 2008

ISBN 978-92-5-105938-8
Chief
FAO
or by e-mail to:
copyright@fao.org
FAO 2008
Contents
Acknowledgements
List of acronyms
vi
SOIL TEXTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL POROSITY
SOIL COLOUR
10
EARTHWORMS
12

14
16
SURFACE PONDING
18
20
SOIL EROSION
22
CANOPY VOLUME
26
CANOPY DENSITY
28
SHOOT LENGTH
30
FLOWERING
32
LEAF COLOUR
34
YIELD
36
VARIABILITY OF TREE PERFORMANCE ALONG THE ROW
38
SOIL MANAGEMENT IN OLIVE ORCHARDS
40
iii
List of tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Visual scores for variability of tree performance along the row
3
13
15
19
38
List of figures
1. Soil scorecard visual indicators for assessing soil quality in olive orchards
1
3
3. Plant scorecard visual indicators for assessing plant performance in olive orchards 25
List of plates
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
iv
The VSA tool kit

Root system of an olive tree
Generic drawing of an olive tree
Surface ponding in an olive orchard
How to score canopy volume
How to score canopy density
How to score shoot length
How to score flowering
How to score leaf colour
How to score yield
Effect of soil texture and available water on tree performance along the row
Effect of soil aeration and drainage on tree performance along the row
vii
5
7
9
11
13
15
15
16
17
19
21
23
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
39
Acknowledgements
The review of the manuscript and input provided by Professor P. Fiorino and Dr A. Lang are also
gratefully acknowledged.
Cover photograph: M. Pastor, CiFA-IFAPA.
List of acronyms
AEC
Al
Aluminium
ATP
Boron
Ca
Calcium
CO2
Carbon dioxide
Cu
Copper
Fe
Iron
Potassium
Mg
Magnesium
Mn
Manganese
Mo
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
RSG
Sulphur
VS
Visual score
VSA
Zn
Zinc

Introduction
of orchards. A decline in soil quality has a marked impact on tree growth, olive production and
the character and quality of olive oil, production costs and the risk of soil erosion. Therefore, it
can have significant consequences on society and the environment. A decline in soil physical
properties in particular takes considerable time and cost to correct. Safeguarding soil resources
for future generations and minimizing the ecological footprint of olive orchards are important
tasks for land managers.
of the productive performance of olive orchards, and have profound effects on long-term
profits. Land managers need tools that are reliable, quick and easy to use in order to help them
assess the condition of their soils and their suitability for growing olives, and to make informed
decisions that lead to sustainable land and environmental management. To this end, Visual
Soil Assessment (VSA) provides a quick and simple method to assess soil condition and plant
performance. It can also be used to assess the suitability and limitations of a soil for olives. Soils
with good VSA scores will usually give the best production with the lowest establishment and
operational costs.
The VSA method

Visual Soil Assessment is based on the visual assessment of key soil state and plant
performance indicators of soil quality, presented on a scorecard. Soil quality is ranked by
assessment of the soil indicators alone. Plant indicators require knowledge of the growing
history of the crop. This knowledge will facilitate the satisfactory and rapid completion of the
plant scorecard. With the exception of soil texture, the soil and plant indicators are dynamic
indicators, i.e. capable of changing under different management regimes and land-use
pressures. Being sensitive to change, they are useful early warning indicators of changes in soil
condition and plant performance and as such provide an effective monitoring tool.
Plant indicators allow you to make cause-and-effect links between management practices and
soil characteristics. By looking at both the soil and plant indicators, VSA links the natural resource
(soil) with plant performance and farm enterprise profitability. Because of this, the soil quality
vi
assessment is not a combination of the soil and plant scores. Rather, the scores should be
looked at separately, and compared.
Visual scoring
soil quality and plant performance observed when comparing the soil and plant with three
photographs in the field guide manual. The scoring is flexible, so if the sample you are assessing
does not align clearly with any one of the photographs but sits between two, an in-between
score can be given, i.e. 0.5 or 1.5. Because some soil and plant indicators are relatively more
important in the assessment of soil quality and plant performance than others, VSA provides a
weighting factor of 1, 2 and 3. The total of the VS rankings gives the overall Soil Quality Index and
Plant Performance Index for the site. Compare these with the rating scale at the bottom of the
scorecard to determine whether your soil and plants are in good, moderate or poor condition.
Placing the soil and plant assessments side by side at the bottom of the plant indicator
scorecard should prompt you to look for reasons if there is a significant discrepancy between
the soil and plant indicators.
The VSA tool kit

carried out;
vii
The procedure
Setting up
Time
a 5-ha area.
Reference sample
Sites
Select sites that are representative of the orchard. The condition of the soil in olive orchards is
site specific. Sample sites that have had little or no wheel traffic (e.g. near the olive tree). The
VSA method can also be used to assess compacted areas by selecting to sample along wheel
traffic lanes. Always record the position of the sites for future monitoring if required.
Site information

Initial observation
to assess its condition, dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm with a spade. If the 100200mm depth is dominated by a tillage pan and you wish to assess its condition, remove the top
100 mm of soil and dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm. Note that taking a 200-mm cube
sample below the topsoil can also give valuable information about the condition of the subsoil
and its implications for plant growth and farm management practices.
viii

The plant indicators

Many plant indicators cannot be assessed at the same time as the soil indicators. Ideally, the
plant performance indicators should be observed at the appropriate time during the season.
The plant indicators are scored and ranked in the same way as soil indicators: a weighting
factor is used to indicate the relative importance of each indicator, with each contributing to
the final determination of plant performance. The Plant Performance Index is the total of the
individual VS rankings in the right-hand column.

The soil and plant scorecards are given in Figures 1 and 3, respectively, and list the key
indicators required in order to assess soil quality and plant performance. Each indicator
is described on the following pages, with a section on how to assess the indicator and an
explanation of its importance and what it reveals about the condition of the soil and about
plant performance.
ix
soil texture
C Assessment
diagram (Figure 2).
I Importance
drainage; soil trafficability; soil life; and the supply and retention of nutrients.
production.
Textural classes.
Textural groups.

Visual score
(VS)
Textural class
Description
2
[Good]
Silt loam

1.5
[Moderately good]
Clay loam

1
[Moderate]
Sandy loam

0.5
[Moderately poor]
Loamy sand
Silty clay
Clay
0
[Poor]
Sand
soil structure
C Assessment
I Importance
SOIL STRUCTURE is extremely important for olive orchards. It regulates:
< soil temperature;
< nutrient supply;
< soil workability;
4
or no pores.
soil porosity
C Assessment
I Importance
efficiently.
soil colour
C Assessment
I Importance
determine soil health. It promotes infiltration and retention of water, helps to develop and
stabilize soil structure, cushions the impact of wheel traffic and cultivators, reduces the
potential for wind and water erosion, and maintains the soil carbon sink. Organic matter
also provides an important food resource for soil organisms and is an important source
of, and major reservoir of, plant nutrients. Its decline reduces the fertility and nutrientsupplying potential of the soil; N, P, K and S requirements of trees increase markedly,
and other major and minor elements are leached more readily. The result is an increased
dependency on fertilizer input to maintain nutrient status.
and red soils without mottles indicate well-aerated, well-drained conditions where Fe
and Mn occur in the oxidized form of ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) oxides. Grey-blue
colours can indicate that the soil is poorly drained or waterlogged and poorly aerated for
long periods, conditions that reduce Fe and Mn to ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+)
oxides. Poor aeration and prolonged waterlogging give rise to a further series of chemical
and biochemical reduction reactions that produce toxins, such as hydrogen sulphide,
methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, that damage the root system. This reduces
the ability of plants to take up water and nutrients, causing poor vigour and ill-thrift. Decay
and dieback of roots can also occur as a result of fungal diseases such as Phytophthora
root and crown rot in soils prone to waterlogging. Trees exhibit reduced growth, have thin
canopies, and eventually die.
not markedly so.
C Assessment
I Importance
soil structure decreases and blocks the number of channels and pores that conduct water
and air and, as a consequence, can result in waterlogging and a deficiency of oxygen for
a prolonged period. The development of anaerobic (deoxygenated) conditions reduces Fe
and Mn from their brown/orange oxidized ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) form to grey
ferrous (Fe2+) and manganous (Mn2+) oxides. Mottles develop as various shades of orange
and grey owing to varying degrees of oxidation and reduction of Fe and Mn. As oxygen
depletion increases, orange, and ultimately grey, mottles predominate. An abundance
of grey mottles indicates the soil is poorly drained and poorly aerated for a significant
part of the year. The presence of only common orange and grey mottles (1025 percent)
indicates the soil is imperfectly drained with only periodic waterlogging. Soil with only few
to common orange mottles indicates the soil is moderately well drained, and the absence
of mottles indicates good drainage.
reduce the uptake of plant nutrients, particularly N, P, K and S. Moreover, poor aeration
ethylene, which are toxic to plant roots. Decay and dieback of roots can also occur as a
result of fungal diseases such as Phytophthora root and crown rot in strongly mottled,
poorly aerated soils. Root rot and reduced nutrient and water uptake give rise to poor
plant vigour and ill-thrift. Trees exhibit reduced growth, have thin canopies, and eventually
die. If your visual score for mottles is 1, you need to aerate the soil.
10
Soil has abundant to profuse (>50%)
grey mottles.
11
earthworms
C Assessment
I Importance
< soil porosity;
< aeration;
< water retention;
< drainage.
olive orchards and can increase growth rates and production significantly.
of organic matter to humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role in
12
the supply of nutrients, digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as P, that
are fixed by the soil. Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their biomass,
releasing them when they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones and
compounds that stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and
water-holding capacity of the soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of
pests and diseases. The collective benefits of microbes reduce fertilizer requirements and
improve trees and olive production.
Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic
matter and soil microbes, as determined by the amount and quality of surface residue, the use
of cover crops including legumes, and the cultivation of interrows. Earthworm populations can
be up to three times higher in undisturbed soils compared with cultivated soils. Earthworm
numbers are also governed by: soil moisture, temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil
nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the type and amount of fertilizer and N used. The overuse
of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous ammonia and ammonia-based products, and
some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce earthworm numbers.
Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface
feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoildwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200300 mm of soil; and (iii) deepburrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth.

Visual score
(VS)
Earthworm numbers
2
[Good]
1
[Moderate]
0
[Poor]
13
C Assessment
Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present, and compare
with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the presence of roots (Plates 7
and 8) and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which roots can
extend. Note also the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly
gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a hardpan present such as a
human-induced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic
pan. An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will
also limit root development. A rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be made by
noting the above properties in a nearby road cutting, gully, slip, earth slump or an open drain.
I Importance
The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially exploit
before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to provide
a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater is the
available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can access
larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival of nonirrigated olive orchards. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means
that they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating
the growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the olives. Conversely, soils with a
restricted rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance
such as a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development,
causing roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces
fertilizer efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases crop yield. A high resistance to
root penetration can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root
diseases. Moreover, hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the
soil profile, the last increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and
sheet wash.
< pH;
< salinity;
< sodicity;
14

Olive trees with a deep, dense, vigorous root system raise soil organic matter levels and
soil life at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce
promote soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. The soil
depth should preferably not be less than 600 mm. Heavy clay soils are not recommended.
Stony soils are acceptable under artificial irrigation. Furthermore, olive trees need a sufficient
rooting depth to provide adequate anchorage for the trees at maturity.
PLATE 8 Generic drawing of an

olive tree [L. DRAZETA and A. LANG]
PLATE 7 Root system of an olive tree

VSA score
(VS)

(m)
2.0
[Good]
> 0.8
1.5
[Moderately good]
0.60.8
1.0
[Moderate]
0.40.6
0.5
[Moderately poor]
0.20.4
0
[Poor]
< 0.2
15

Assessment
photographs and criteria given Plate 10.
16
NO HARDPAN
score of 1.5.


17
surface ponding
C Assessment
recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the
spring, and compare with the class limits in Table 4.
I Importance
the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the
soil remains saturated. Olive trees generally require free-draining soils. Prolonged
waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that
induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth and development of roots.
Roots need oxygen for respiration. While olive trees transpire all year round and do not
have a dormant period, they are most vulnerable to surface ponding and saturated soil
conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are growing actively at a time when
respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are high. They are
also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are highest. Moreover,
waterlogging cause the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient and water uptake.
Reduced water uptake while the tree is transpiring actively causes leaf desiccation and
tip-burn. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of infections and fungal
diseases such as Phytophthora root rot and crown rot, and reduces the ability of roots to
overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Trees decline in vigour, have
restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and stunted growth, have thin
canopies, and eventually die.
growth.
18
The tolerance of olive trees to waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including

the time of year, the rootstock, soil and air temperatures, soil type, the condition of the soil,
fluctuating water tables and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor
governed by the amount of entrapped air and the oxygen consumption rate by plant roots.
Prolonged surface ponding increases the susceptibility of soils to damage under wheel traffic,
so reducing vehicle access.
PLATE 11 Surface ponding in an olive orchard [J. GOMEZ]

VSA score
(VS)

Number of days
of ponding *
Description
2
[Good]
No evidence of surface ponding after 1 day following heavy

rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.
1
[Moderate]
24

0
[Poor]
>5
Significant surface ponding occurs for longer than 3 days after

heavy rainfall on soils that were already at or near saturation.
19
20
C Assessment
Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare with Plate 12 and
the criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of
I Importance
SURFACE COVER helps to prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface
by rain or irrigation. It also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets
before they can strike and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system
return organic matter to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers
and activity. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce
promote the development of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break
up surface crusting. As a result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the
soil increase, decreasing runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover
also reduces soil erosion by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash
and saltation. It further serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it
to infiltrate into the soil. Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the
soil surface, holding the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality
downstream is improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content.
The adoption of managed cover crops has in some cases reduced sediment erosion rates
from 70 tonnes/ha to 1.5 tonnes/ha during single large rainfall events. The surface needs
to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good protection, while 30 percent cover
provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces the risk of wind erosion markedly.
Photos of surface cover: courtesy of A. Leys
21
soil erosion
C Assessment
Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and, more importantly, on
your knowledge of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 13.
I Importance
SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of an olive orchard through nutrient losses,
loss of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding
Overcultivation of interrows can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the
loss of soil organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage
pans, and decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing
increased surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large
quantities of soil can be removed by slips, flows, gullying and rilling, or it can be relocated
semi-intact by slumping. The cost of restoration, often requiring heavy machinery, can be
prohibitively expensive.
< the soil infiltration rate and permeability;
The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation between rows
can also give rise to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground where the tree
spacing is quite large.
22
Little or no evidence of soil erosion. Little
difference in height between the mounded
row and interrow. The root system is
completely covered.
Moderate soil erosion with a significant
difference in height between the interrow
and the soil around the base of the tree
trunk. Part of the upper root system is
occasionally exposed.
Severe soil erosion with deeply incised
gullies or other mass movement features
between rows. There is a large difference
in height between the interrow and the
soil around the base of the tree trunk.
The root system is often well exposed and
sometimes undermined.
Photos: courtesy of J. Gomez (Proterra Project supported by Syngenta) and M. Pastor
23
25
canopy volume
C Assessment
Assess canopy volume in the late spring to early summer at flowering by comparing the
olive tree with Plate 14 and the criteria given. In making the observation, consideration
must be given to choosing a representative olive tree it terms of variety, pruning and age.
In some cases, orchards are composed of trees of different age and cultivars. Corrections
can be made on the basis of previously known annual growth rates as a function of age and
cultivars, assigning a hypothetical common age for all trees and subtracting that part of the
growth in the canopy volume. Canopy volume can be calculated approximately by applying
the simple formula: canopy volume = w b h, where w is the width, b is the breadth and
h is the height of the canopy.
I Importance
CANOPY VOLUME at the flowering stage is dependent on: the age of the tree, cultivar,
pruning, orchard management, disease, and climate factors (including frost damage).
However, it can be a useful visual indicator of production and soil quality. Indeed, poor
soil structure and soil aeration, limited movement and storage of water, and soil erosion
as a result of structural degradation can reduce plant growth and vigour. Canopy volume
is a particularly useful assessment of soil quality where climate factors have not limited
crop development.
26
PLATE 14 How to score canopy volume
Canopy volume is greater than 100 m3 (varying
from 45 m high by 56 m wide or more) for
mature trees planted at spacings of 5x5 or
6x6 m. Trees have a good distribution of leaves.
Canopy volume is about 50 m3 (varying from
34 m high by 4 m wide) for mature trees
planted at spacings of 5x5 or 6x6 m. Trees have
a moderate distribution of leaves.
Canopy volume is less than 23 m3 (i.e. 22.5 m
high by 3 m wide) for mature trees planted at
spacings of 5x5 or 6x6 m. Trees have a poor
distribution of leaves.
27
canopy density
C Assessment
Assess the canopy density by comparing with Plate 15 and the criteria given.
The assessment can be made at any stage after the new growth in the spring and before
harvest. In making the assessment, consideration must be given to the pruning and variety
of the tree, the presence of pests and diseases, and the weather conditions at bud break (i.e.
whether warm and dry, or cold and wet). Poor weather during bud break will promote a
high number of leaf buds rather than flowering buds and give rise to many shoots and leaves.
I Importance
CANOPY DENSITY is a good indicator of the health and vigour of the tree as reflected by the
number of shoots, the number of leaves per shoot and the age of the leaves. In addition to
the weather, tree vigour is related strongly to the availability of water and nutrients, and
the texture of the soil (e.g. whether clayey, silty, loamy, sandy or gravelly). Moreover, soils
in good condition with good structure and porosity, and having a deep, well-aerated root
zone, enable the unrestricted movement of air and water into and through the soil and
the development and proliferation of superficial (feeder) roots. Furthermore, soils with
good organic matter levels and soil life show an active biological and chemical process,
favouring the release and uptake of water and nutrients and, consequently, the growth
and vigour of the tree. The amount of photosynthate produced by the tree is proportional
to the number of leaves and, therefore, influences strongly the growth of the tree and the
production and quality of olives.
28
PLATE 15 How to score canopy density
Good canopy density with abundant shoots and
leaves per shoot. Many of the leaves are more
than two years old.
Moderate canopy density with a moderate
number of shoots and leaves per shoot. Most
leaves are less than two years old.
Poor canopy density with few shoots and few
leaves per shoot. The canopy appears sparse
and spindly. The tree sheds its older leaves
prematurely, with only one-year-old leaves
being present.
Photos: courtesy of M. Greven
29
shoot length
C Assessment
Measure or visually assess shoot length (each month if possible starting from mid-spring to
the end of summer) on the mature part of the aerial part of the plant and compare it with
Plate 16 and the criteria given. In making the assessment, consideration must be given to the
pruning and variety of the tree, and to the weather conditions at bud break and during the
spring.
I Importance
SHOOT LENGTH determines the number of buds, some of which will bear flowers. It is
also strongly related to the physical properties and chemical fertility of the soil, which
in turn is influenced by soil management. Shoot length is an expression of plant vigour
and general plant growth, which are regulated by the availability of water, nutrients and
the aeration status of the soil. Soils in good condition with a deep vigorous root system,
good structure, porosity, organic matter levels and soil life show an active chemical
and biological process, favouring the release and uptake of nutrients and water, and
consequently shoot growth.
30
PLATE 16 How to score shoot length
Shoots are at least 200 mm
(depending on variety) on the
external part of the plant.
Shoot length is moderately below
maximum (depending on variety)
on the external part of the plant.
Shoot length is significantly below
maximum (depending on variety)
on the external part of the plant.
31
flowering
C Assessment
Assess by visual estimation the number and distribution of flowers at full flowering by
comparing with Plate 17 and the criteria given. In making the assessment, consideration
must be given to the pruning management of the tree and the weather conditions at bud
break and in spring (i.e. whether warm and dry, or cold and wet). Poor weather will
promote a high number of leaf buds rather than flowering buds and give rise to lots of
shoots and leaves rather than flowers.
I Importance
The number and distribution of FLOWERS affects fruiting behaviour. The presence of a
large number of flowers is also a good indicator of high yields. Flower induction starts
in the preceding year of the olive production cycle. Its intensity depends on: weather
conditions at the time (e.g. whether wet and cold, or dry and hot); the production
of carbohydrate; and the presence of specific hormones necessary to drive the bud
apex toward inflorescence production. Carbohydrate production depends on climate
conditions, including: the amount of energy from the sun, the number of leaves on the
tree, the cultivar, diseases, the availability of water and nutrients, and the physical status
of the soil. Once again, soil fertility (physical, chemical and microbiological conditions) is
crucial in determining high plant productivity.
32
PLATE 17 How to score flowering
High number of flowers per shoot and
well distributed over the tree.
Moderate number of flowers occur.
Low number of flowers and poorly
distributed over the tree.
Photos: courtesy of P. Fiorino
33
leaf colour
C Assessment
Assess the colour of the leaves by comparing with Plate 18 and the criteria given. The
assessment must be made after the first flush of new growth at the end of the first annual
growing period and on leaves exposed to the sunlight. Olive trees have leaves of different
ages, varying from one to three years old. Assess only the young leaves, avoiding the
deteriorating and immature leaves at the extremities of branches. Consideration must
also be given to: the cultivar, the stage of growth, pests and diseases, and recent weather
conditions. Prolonged cold and cloudy days with little sunlight can give rise to chlorosis (or
yellowing of the leaf) owing to the inadequate formation or loss of chlorophyll.
I Importance
LEAF COLOUR can provide a good indication of the nutrient status and condition of
the soil. The higher the soil fertility, the greener the leaf colour. Leaf colour is related
primarily to water and nutrient availability and especially N. Leaf colour can also be
related to a deficiency or excess in phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and boron (B).
Chlorosis can further occur as a result of low N, K, S, Fe, Mg and Cu levels in the soil, low soil
and air temperatures, and poor soil aeration caused by compaction and waterlogging.
Sulphur is an important element for plant growth and leaf colour and can only be utilized
by plants in the sulphate (SO42-) form. Under poorly-aerated conditions caused by
compaction or waterlogging, S will reduce to sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphides (e.g.
H2S, FeS). Sulphides and SO2 cannot be taken up by the plant, are toxic to plant roots
and micro-organisms, and suppress the uptake of N. Plants can only utilize N where S
is present in the oxygenated (sulphate) form. Nitrogen can also only be utilized by the
plant in the nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) forms under aerobic conditions. Under
poorly-aerated conditions, N will reduce to nitrite (NO2 -) and nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent
greenhouse gas, and become plant-unavailable.
34
PLATE 18 How to score leaf colour
Canopy has an intense green colour.
Leaves are a medium-green or
yellowish-green colour.
Leaves are a distinct yellowish colour
or turn opaque green.
35
yield
C Assessment
Assess relative crop yield by visually estimating the yield per tree and by comparing fruit
number and size with Plate 19 and the criteria given. Compare also the percentage of olive
oil extracted with that from an ideal crop.
In making your assessment, consideration must be given to the amount and type of
fertilizer used, disease, and the cultivar, pruning and age of the olive tree. While olive trees
can be rejuvenated by good pruning, the greatest yield potential of trees occurs from tree
maturity to about 40 years of age on average. Olive trees generally mature in 10 years in
humid temperate climates and 15 years in drier Mediterranean climates.
Consideration must also be given to the weather conditions (e.g. whether warm and dry, or
cold and wet) at pollination, fertilization, flowering and fruit-set. Pollination and fertilization
are best when the weather is dry and warm. Cold and wet weather during flowering can give
rise to poor fruit-set. Warm weather at fruit-set will give good yields while cold wet weather
will give poorer yields. Yield is also influenced by the amount of photosynthate produced
by the tree, which is proportional to the number of leaves. Because olive trees are generally
biennial bearing, consider the average yield over a 3-year or 4-year period.
I Importance
YIELD can be a good visual indicator of the properties and condition of the soil. Olive
trees can come under stress from drought (especially during the crucial flowering stage)
and from a decline in soil quality caused by reduced water storage and plant-available
water, nutrient deficiencies, poor aeration, and restricted root development as a result of
soil compaction, a hardpan, a fluctuating water table, etc. This results in disease attack,
shorter bud length, a lower number of flowers and poor yield production. Plant stress
induced by soil structure degradation during harvesting time also affects the quality of the
fruit by changing the amount and type of organic acids and polyphenols.
Appropriate soil management, including the adoption of a managed cover crop between
rows and avoiding wheel traffic when the soil is wet, helps to promote the physical
condition and overall fertility of the soil, minimize soil erosion, and promote sustainable
long-term production.
36
PLATE 19 How to score yield
Average yield is >0.5 kg of olives/m3
of mature trees (1015 years old).
Average yield is 0.30.5 kg of olives/m3
Average yield is <0.3 kg of olives/m3
37
variability of tree performance along the row
38
C Assessment
Cast your eye along the rows and observe any variability in tree performance (in terms of
tree height, trunk thickness, canopy volume, canopy density, leaf colour, etc.) and compare
with the class limits in Table 5. In making the assessment, consideration must be given to
the variety, pruning and age of the olive tree.
I Importance
VARIABILITY OF TREE PERFORMANCE ALONG THE ROW is a good visual indicator of the
properties and condition of the soil (Plates 20 and 21). In particular, the linear variability in
tree performance is often related to the availability of water and nutrients, and the texture
of the soil (e.g. whether clayey, silty, loamy, sandy or gravelly). Moreover, soils in good
condition with good structure and porosity, and with a deep, well-aerated root zone, enable
the unrestricted movement of air and water into and through the soil, the development and
proliferation of superficial (feeder) roots, and unrestricted respiration and transpiration.
Furthermore, soils with good organic-matter levels and soil life (including mycorrhiza)
show an active biological and chemical process, favouring the release and uptake of water
and nutrients and, consequently, the growth and vigour of the tree.
The spatial variability of tree performance along the row is also a useful indicator
because it highlights those trees that are underperforming compared with the majority,
enabling a specific investigation as to why those are struggling and what remedial action
may be taken.
TABLE 5 Visual scores for variability of tree performance along the row
Visual score
(VS)
Variability in tree performance along the row
2
[Good]
Tree performance is good and even along the row
1
[Moderate]
Tree performance is moderately variable along the row
0
[Poor]
Tree performance is extremely variable along the row
PLATE 20 Effect of soil texture and available water on tree performance along the row [M. GREVEN]
Variable tree performance along

the row owing to differences in soil
texture and water-holding capacity.
Poor-performing trees occur on
gravelly (droughty) soils, while
well-performing trees are situated
on deeper siltier soils (in the
background).
PLATE 21 Effect of soil aeration and drainage on tree performance along the row
Variable tree performance along the row in a four-year-old

orchard owing to differences in the aeration and wetness
status of the root zone. Poor-performing trees occur in the
hollows with a shallow water table, while healthier trees
are situated on the humps with a deeper, better-aerated
root zone owing to a deeper water table.
39
Soil management in olive orchards

Olive trees with satisfactory production develop shoot of optimal length, promote flowerbud induction, give good percentage fruiting, and stimulate fruit development. Therefore, it
is essential to maintain the availability of water, nutrients and carbohydrate during the crop
cycle, avoiding any shortages.
Good soil management practices are needed in order to maintain good growth conditions
and productivity to safeguard olive tree functionality especially during the crucial periods
of plant development and fructification. To achieve this, management practices need to
maintain and promote the condition and, therefore, functionality of the soil, particularly in
regard to its aeration status and the supply of nutrients and water to the plant. To this end,
the soil needs to have a good rooting environment, including an adequate soil structure to
allow an effective root system to develop in order to maximize the utilization of water and
nutrients, and to provide sufficient anchorage for the plant. Good soil structure also promotes
infiltration and movement of water into and through the soil, so minimizing surface ponding,
runoff and soil erosion. The maintenance of good soil health through the implementation
of sound management practices further safeguards the environment and minimizes the
ecological footprint of olive orchards on a region. A decline in soil quality through soil tillage,
compaction, increased fertilizer and chemical inputs, and the loss of soil through erosion
contribute to the food eco-footprint of a region and the country.
Where rainfall is not a limiting factor for plant growth, the establishment of cover crops is the
most suitable soil management practice to protect the soil surface from erosion, to preserve
the environment, to reduce production costs and to enhance the quality of the olive oil. Cover
cropping not only helps in reducing water runoff and soil erosion, but it also improves the
soil physical characteristics, enriches soil organic matter content, and suppresses soil-borne
diseases by increasing micro-organism biodiversity. On the other hand, cover crops compete
with olive trees for minerals, water and fertilizer where they are not well managed. In the
absence of irrigation in the hottest months in those regions characterized by dry summers,
competition for water could occur during flowering, fruit formation and development, so
limiting the final yield. To avoid this competition, a temporary cover crop or natural vegetation
can be grown during the wetter months and can be controlled during the hottest period by
herbicide application or mowing 23 times during the period of major nutrient demand.
Different mixes of cover crops, including leguminous species that supply N, should be
evaluated in different areas. In addition to legumes, the mix could comprise annual or
perennial species, grasses and other broadleaf plants. Winter annuals can be grown to protect
the soil from erosion in winter and to improve the ability of the soil to resist compaction when
wet. Grasses, with their fibrous root system, are also more effective at improving soil structure,
and generally add more organic matter to the soil than do legumes. If allowed to seed in early
summer, a seed bank for subsequent regeneration is built up. Where possible, the grass in
the interrows and within rows could be kept short by grazing sheep, provided the tree trunks
40
have protective plastic screens to shield them from strip and ring barking. The advantages
of managing a grass cover crop using sheep compared with mowing and herbicide strips
include: reduced use of synthetic (herbicide) chemicals, reduced fossil fuel usage, lower CO2
emissions and, therefore, greater market acceptance. Other advantages include: lower labour
and material costs; less compaction along wheel traffic lanes; and improved soil nutrient
status and greater soil life (including earthworm numbers) as a result of the dung and urine
applied. Stock tend to rest, urinate and defecate most within the tree row, translocating and
concentrating nutrients to where the tree roots are greatest. Sheep can also graze grass very
short, thereby reducing not only the competition for water and nutrients but also reducing
insect and bird numbers and the possibility of fungal diseases.
The traditional management of the interrow is based on one or two cultivations with discs and
tine harrows during the hot period following natural weed cover and could be satisfactory in
limiting, principally, competition for water. The cultivation should be shallower than 100 mm
in order to de-vigorate the cover crop but not to modify the canopy/root ratio of the trees by
damaging the root system. The cultivation operations can also be useful for incorporating
organic and mineral fertilizers as well as controlling diseases caused by fungi and bacteria in
the soil.
41
References
Field guide for olive orchards. FAO, Rome, Italy.
42
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Olive
Orchards
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Orchards
G U I D E
Orchards
F I E L D




Rome, 2008

ISBN 978-92-5-105939-5
Chief
FAO
or by e-mail to:
copyright@fao.org
FAO 2008
Contents
Acknowledgements
List of acronyms
vi
SOIL TEXTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL POROSITY
SOIL COLOUR
10
EARTHWORMS
12

14
16
SURFACE PONDING
18
20
SOIL EROSION
22
SOIL MANAGEMENT IN ORCHARDS
24
iii
List of tables
1.
2.
3.
4.

3
13
15
19
List of figures
1. Soil scorecard visual indicators for assessing soil quality in orchards
1
3
List of plates
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
iv
The VSA tool kit

Generic drawing of the root system of a tree
Surface ponding in an orchard
How to score surface crusting and sufrace cover
vii
5
7
9
11
13
15
16
17
19
21
23
Acknowledgements
List of acronyms
AEC
Al
Aluminium
ATP
Boron
Ca
Calcium
Cu
Copper
Fe
Iron
Potassium
Mg
Magnesium
Mn
Manganese
Mo
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
RSG
Sulphur
VS
Visual score
VSA
Zn
Zinc

Introduction
of orchards. A decline in soil quality can have a marked impact on tree growth, yield, fruit
quality and the operation and running of the orchard. A decline in soil physical properties in
particular can take considerable time and cost to correct. Safeguarding soil resources for future
generations is an important task for land managers.
of the production performance of orchards and have profound effects on long-term profits. Land
managers need tools that are reliable, quick and easy to use in order to help them assess the
condition of their soils and their suitability for growing orchard crops, and to make informed
decisions that will lead to sustainable land and environmental management. To this end, Visual
performance. The VSA method can also be used to assess the suitability and limitations of a
soil for pipfruit, stonefruit and vine crops. Soils with good VSA scores will usually give the best
production with the lowest establishment and operational costs.
The VSA method

Visual Soil Assessment is based on the visual assessment of key soil state indicators of soil
quality, presented on a scorecard. With the exception of soil texture, the soil indicators are
dynamic indicators, i.e. capable of changing under different management regimes and land-use
condition and as such provide an effective monitoring tool.
Visual scoring
soil quality observed when comparing the soil sample with three photographs in the field guide
manual. The scoring is flexible, so if the sample you are assessing does not align clearly with
any one of the photographs but sits between two, an in-between score can be given, i.e. 0.5
or 1.5. Because some soil indicators are relatively more important for soil quality than others,
VSA provides a weighting factor of 1, 2, and 3. The total of the VS rankings gives the overall Soil
Quality Index score for the sample you are evaluating. Compare this with the rating scale at the
bottom of the scorecard to determine whether your soil is in good, moderate or poor condition.
vi
The VSA tool kit

carried out;
The procedure
Setting up
Time
a 5-ha area.
Reference sample
vii
Sites
Select sites that are representative of the field. The condition of the soil in orchards is site
specific. Sample sites that have had little or no wheel traffic (e.g. near the tree). The VSA
method can also be used to assess compacted areas by selecting to sample along wheel
traffic lanes. Always record the position of the sites for future monitoring if required. Note that
the VSA can be used to assess the suitability of a soil for growing pipfruit and stonefruit trees
and vine crops before the orchard is established.
Site information

Initial observation
to assess its condition, dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm with a spade. If the 100
200-mm depth is dominated by a tillage pan and you wish to assess its condition, remove the
top 100 mm of soil and dig out two samples of 200x200x100 mm. Note that taking a 200-mm
cube sample below the topsoil can also give valuable information about the condition of the
subsoil and its implications for plant growth and farm management practices.

The soil scorecard is given on Figure 1 and lists the ten key soil state indicators required in
order to assess soil quality. Each indicator is described on the following pages, with a section
on how to assess the indicator and an explanation of its importance and what it reveals about
the condition of the soil.
viii
soil texture
C Assessment
diagram (Figure 2).
I Importance
production.
Textural classes.
Textural groups.

Visual score
(VS)
Textural class
Description
2
[Good]
Silt loam

1.5
[Moderately good]
Clay loam

1
[Moderate]
Sandy loam

0.5
[Moderately poor]
Loamy sand
Silty clay
Clay
0
[Poor]
Sand
soil structure
C Assessment
I Importance
SOIL STRUCTURE is extremely important for orchards. It regulates:
< soil temperature;
< nutrient supply;
< soil workability;
4
or no pores.
soil porosity
C Assessment
I Importance
plants require aerated soils for the efficient uptake and utilization of S and N. The
number, activity and biodiversity of micro-organisms and earthworms are also greatest in
well-aerated soils and they are able to decompose and cycle organic matter and nutrients
more efficiently.
soil colour
C Assessment
Using the three photographs given (Plate 4), compare the relative change in soil colour that
has occurred.
I Importance
the potential for wind and water erosion, and maintains the soil carbon sink. Organic
matter also provides an important food resource for soil organisms and is an important
source of, and major reservoir of, plant nutrients. Its decline reduces the fertility and
nutrient-supplying potential of the soil; N, P, K and S requirements of trees increase
markedly, and other major and minor elements are leached more readily. The result is an
increased dependency on fertilizer input to maintain nutrient status.
oxidation state) of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Brown, yellow-brown, reddish-brown and
red soils without mottles indicate well-aerated, well-drained conditions where Fe and Mn
occur in the oxidized form of ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) oxides. Grey-blue colours
biochemical reduction reactions that produce toxins, such as hydrogen sulphide, methane
and ethanol that damage the root system. This reduces the ability of plants to take up
water and nutrients, causing poor vigour and ill-thrift. Decay and dieback of roots can also
occur as a result of fungal diseases such as Phytophthora root and crown rot in soils prone
to waterlogging. Trees exhibit reduced growth, have thin canopies, and eventually die.
not markedly so.
C Assessment
I Importance
ethylene, which are toxic to plant roots. In addition, decay and dieback of roots can occur as
a result of fungal diseases such as Phytophthora root and crown rot in soils that are strongly
mottled and poorly aerated. Fungal diseases and reduced nutrient and water uptake give
rise to poor plant vigour and ill-thrift. Trees exhibit reduced growth, have thin canopies, and
can eventually die. If your visual score for mottles is 1, you need to aerate the soil.
10
Soil has abundant to profuse (> 50%)
grey mottles.
11
earthworms
C Assessment
I Importance
< soil porosity;
< aeration;
< water retention;
< drainage.
orchards and can increase growth rates and production significantly.
12
improve the health of the trees and fruit production.
Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of:
(i) surface feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung;
(ii) topsoil-dwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200300 mm of soil; and
(iii) deep-burrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth.

Visual score
(VS)
Earthworm numbers
2
[Good]
1
[Moderate]
0
[Poor]
13
C Assessment
Note also the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly gleyed
owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a hardpan present such as a humaninduced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic pan (pp
1617). An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer
will also limit root development. A rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be
made by noting the above properties in a nearby road cutting, gully, slip, earth slump or an
open drain.
I Importance
of non-irrigated orchards. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means
that they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating
the growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the fruit. Conversely, soils with a
restricted rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance
such as a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development,
causing roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces
fertilizer efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root
penetration can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root
diseases. Moreover, hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through
the soil profile, the last increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling
and sheet wash.
< pH;
< salinity;
< sodicity;
14

Trees with a deep, dense vigorous root system raise soil organic matter levels and soil life at
depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote
soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. Soil depth should
preferably not be less than 600 mm. Heavy clay soils are not recommended. Stony soils are
acceptable under irrigation systems, particularly if the depth of the soil is less than 1 m. An
adequate rooting depth is also needed to provide adequate anchorage of the tree at maturity.
PLATE 7 Generic drawing of the root system of a tree [L. DRAZETA and A. LANG]

VSA score
(VS)

(m)
2.0
[Good]
> 0.8
1.5
[Moderately good]
0.60.8
1.0
[Moderate]
0.40.6
0.5
[Moderately poor]
0.20.4
0
[Poor]
< 0.2
15

Assessment
photographs and criteria given Plate 9.
16
NO HARDPAN
score of 1.5.


17
surface ponding
C Assessment
I Importance
soil remains saturated. Orchard crops generally require free-draining soils. Prolonged
waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that induce
root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth and development of roots. Roots
need oxygen for respiration and are most vulnerable to surface ponding and saturated
soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are actively growing at a time
when respiration and transpiration rates rise markedly and oxygen demands are high.
They are also susceptible to ponding in the summer when transpiration rates are highest.
Moreover, waterlogging causes the death of fine roots responsible for nutrient and water
uptake. Reduced water uptake while the tree is transpiring actively causes leaf desiccation
and tip-burn, particularly in the outer canopy. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the
likelihood of infections and fungal disease such as Phytophthora root rot and foot rot, and
reduces the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens.
Trees decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot
and stunted growth, have thin canopies, and can eventually die.
oxide (N2O). a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is
reduced to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and
zinc sulphide (ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and manganese to
manganous (Mn2+) ions. Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction
in the amount of plant-available N, S and Zn. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms
also produces carbon dioxide and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas,
ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in
the soil. Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in
the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial
and root/shoot growth.
18
The tolerance of trees to waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including the

time of year, the rootstock and type of tree crop, e.g. pear trees are generally more tolerant
than apple trees of saturated soils. Tolerance of waterlogging is also dependent on soil and
air temperatures, soil type, the condition of the soil, fluctuating water tables, and the rate
of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed by the initial soil oxygen
content and oxygen consumption rate by plant roots.
reducing vehicle access.
PLATE 10 Surface ponding in an orchard [A. TOPP]

VSA score
(VS)

Number of days
of ponding *
Description
2
[Good]

1
[Moderate]
24

0
[Poor]
>5

19
20
C Assessment
I Importance
21
soil erosion
C Assessment
I Importance
SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of an orchard through nutrient losses,
The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation between rows
can also give rise to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground where the tree
spacing is quite large.
22
Little or no evidence of soil erosion. Little
difference in height between the mounded row
and interrow. The root system is completely
covered.
difference in height between the interrow and
the soil around the base of the tree trunk. Part of
the upper root system is occasionally exposed.
Severe soil erosion with deeply incised gullies or
other mass movement features between rows.
There is a large difference in height between the
interrow and the soil around the base of the tree
trunk. The root system is often well exposed and
sometimes undermined.
Photos: courtesy of J. Gomez (Proterra Project supported by Syngenta) and M. Pastor
23
Soil management in orchards

Trees with satisfactory production develop buds of optimal length, promote flower-bud
induction, give good percentage fruiting, and stimulate fruit development. Therefore, it is
essential to maintain the availability of water, nutrients and carbohydrates during the crop
cycle, avoiding any shortages.
Good soil management practices are needed in order to maintain good growth conditions and
productivity to safeguard the functionality of the tree, especially during the crucial periods of
plant development and fructification. To achieve this, management practices need to maintain
and promote the condition and, therefore, functionality of the soil, particularly in regard to its
aeration status and the supply of nutrients and water to the plant. To this end, the soil needs
to have a good rooting environment, including an adequate soil structure, to allow an effective
root system to develop and so maximize the utilization of water and nutrients, and also
provide sufficient anchorage for the plant. Good soil structure also promotes infiltration and
movement of water through the soil, minimizing surface ponding, runoff and soil erosion.
Where rainfall is not a limiting factor for plant growth, the establishment of cover crops is the
most suitable soil management practice to protect the soil surface from erosion, to preserve
the environment, to reduce production costs, and to enhance the quality of the fruit. Cover
cropping not only helps in reducing water runoff and soil erosion but also improves soil physical
characteristics, enriches soil organic matter content and soil life (including earthworm numbers),
and suppresses soil-borne diseases by increasing micro-organism biodiversity. However, cover
crops compete for minerals, water and fertilizer where they are not well managed. In the absence
of irrigation during the hottest months, competition for water could occur during flowering,
fruit formation and development, thereby limiting the final yield. To avoid this competition, a
temporary cover crop or natural vegetation can be grown from early autumn to mid-spring (often
the wettest period), and it can be controlled during the hottest period by herbicide application
or mowing 23 times during the period of major nutrient demand.
Different mixes of cover crops, including leguminous species that supply N, should be
evaluated in different areas. In addition to legumes, the mix could include annual or perennial
species, grasses and other broadleaf plants. Winter annuals can be grown to protect the soil
from erosion during the winter and to improve the ability of the soil to resist compaction when
wet. With their fibrous root system, grasses are also more effective at improving soil structure,
and generally add more organic matter to the soil than do legumes. Where allowed to seed in
early summer, a seed bank for subsequent regeneration is built up. Where possible, the grass
in the interrows and within rows could be kept short by grazing sheep, provided the tree trunks
have protective plastic screens to shield them from strip and ring barking. The advantages of
managing a grass cover crop using sheep compared with mowing and herbicide strips include:
lower use of synthetic (herbicide) chemicals; reduced fossil fuel use; and lower carbon dioxide
emissions and, therefore, greater market acceptance. Other advantages include: lower
labour and material costs; less compaction along wheel traffic lanes; improved soil nutrient
24
status; and greater soil life (including earthworm numbers), as a result of the dung and urine
applied. Stock tend to rest, urinate and defecate most within the tree row, translocating and
concentrating nutrients to where the tree roots are greatest. Sheep can also graze grass very
short, reducing not only the competition for water and nutrients but also reducing insect and
bird numbers and the possibility of fungal diseases.
The traditional management of the interrow is based on one or two cultivations with discs and
tine harrows during the hot period following natural weed cover and it could be satisfactory in
limiting, principally, competition for water. The cultivation should be shallower than 100 mm so
as to de-vigorate the cover crop but not to modify the canopy/root ratio of the trees by damaging
the root system. The cultivation operations can also be useful for incorporating organic and
mineral fertilizers as well as controlling diseases caused by fungi and bacteria in the soil.
The application of mulches along the row in the form of compost, bark chips, cereal straw and
grass clippings (spread during mowing) shades the soil, so reducing temperature and soil
evaporation in summer. Mulches also encourage biological activity, especially earthworms.
They suppress weeds and prevent the breakdown of the soil structure under the impact of
rain, thereby enhancing water infiltration.
25
References
Field guide for orchards. FAO, Rome, Italy.
26
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Orchards
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Vineyards
G U I D E
Vineyards
F I E L D




Rome, 2008

ISBN 978-92-5-105940-1
Chief
FAO
or by e-mail to:
copyright@fao.org
FAO 2008
Contents
Acknowledgements
List of acronyms
vi
SOIL TEXTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL POROSITY
SOIL COLOUR
10
EARTHWORMS
12

14
16
SURFACE PONDING
18
20
SOIL EROSION
22
WOOD PRODUCTION
26
SHOOT LENGTH
28
LEAF COLOUR
30
YIELD
34
VARIABILITY IN VINE PERFORMANCE ALONG THE ROW
36
PRODUCTION COSTS
38
SOIL MANAGEMENT IN VINEYARDS
40
iii
List of tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Visual scores for variability in vine performance along the row
Visual scores for production costs
3
13
15
19
37
38
List of figures
1.
2.
3.
4.
Soil scorecard visual indicators for assessing soil quality in vineyards

Soil texture classes and groups
Plant scorecard visual indicators for assessing plant performance in vineyards
Assessment of production costs
1
3
25
39
List of plates
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
iv
The VSA tool kit

Restricted root penetration through plough pan at 25 cm
Surface ponding in a vineyard
How to score wood production
How to score shoot length
Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency in vines
How to score yield
Effect of soil texture, organic matter and mycorrhizae on vine performance
Effect of soil aeration and drainage on vine performance
Effect of soil-borne pathogens on vine performance
Variable crop vigour and leaf colour along the row
vii
5
7
9
11
13
15
15
16
17
19
21
23
27
29
31
32
35
36
37
37
37
Acknowledgements
The valuable assistance and input provided by C. Llewellyn and the review of the manuscript by
Professor C. Intrieri (University of Bologna) and Dr A. Lang are also gratefully acknowledged.
List of acronyms
AEC
Al
Aluminium
ATP
Boron
Ca
Calcium
Cu
Copper
Fe
Iron
Potassium
Mg
Magnesium
Mn
Manganese
Mo
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
RSG
Sulphur
VS
Visual score
VSA
Zn
Zinc

Introduction
of vineyards. A decline in soil quality has a marked impact on vine growth, grape quality,
production costs and the risk of soil erosion. Therefore, it can have significant consequences
on society and the environment. A decline in soil physical properties in particular takes
considerable time and cost to correct. Safeguarding soil resources for future generations and
minimizing the ecological footprint of viticulture are important tasks for land managers.
of the character and quality of wine, and have profound effects on long-term profits. Land
managers need tools that are reliable, quick and easy to use in order to help them assess
the condition of their soils and their suitability for growing grapes, and to make informed
decisions that lead to sustainable land and environmental management. To this end, the Visual
performance. It can also be used to assess the suitability and limitations of a soil for viticulture.
Soils with good VSA scores will usually give the best production with the lowest establishment
and operational costs.
The VSA method

Plant indicators allow you to make cause-and-effect links between management practices
and soil characteristics. By looking at both the soil and plant indicators, VSA links the natural
resource (soil) with plant performance and farm enterprise profitability. Because of this, the
soil quality assessment is not a combination of the soil and plant scores. Rather, the scores
should be looked at separately, and compared.
vi
Visual scoring
Each indicator is given a visual score (VS) of 0 (poor), 1 (moderate), or 2 (good), based on
the soil quality and plant performance observed when comparing the soil and plant with
three photographs in the field guide manual. The scoring is flexible, so if the sample you
are assessing does not align clearly with any one of the photographs but sits between two,
an in-between score can be given, i.e. 0.5 or 1.5. Because some soil and plant indicators are
relatively more important in the assessment of soil quality and plant performance than others,
VSA provides a weighting factor of 1, 2 and 3. The total of the VS rankings gives the overall Soil
Quality Index and Plant Performance Index for the site. Compare these with the rating scale at
the bottom of the scorecard to determine whether your soil and plants are in good, moderate
or poor condition.
The VSA tool kit

carried out;
vii
The procedure
Setting up
Time
a 5-ha area.
Reference sample
Sites
Select sites that are representative of the vineyard. The condition of the soil in vineyards is
site specific. Sample sites that have had little or no wheel traffic (e.g. near the vine). The VSA
method can also be used to assess compacted areas by selecting to sample along wheel
traffic lanes. Always record the position of the sites for future monitoring if required.
Site information

Initial observation
viii



plant performance.
ix
soil texture
C Assessment
diagram (Figure 2).
I Importance
fraction that has a particle size > 0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and
the particle size of clay is < 0.002 mm. Texture influences soil behaviour in several ways,
A knowledge of both the textural class and the potential rooting depth enables an
approximate assessment of the total water-holding capacity of the soil, one of the major
drivers of crop production.
Textural classes.
Textural groups.

Visual score
(VS)
Textural class
Description
2
[Good]
Silt loam

1.5
[Moderately good]
Clay loam

1
[Moderate]
Sandy loam

0.5
[Moderately poor]
Loamy sand
Silty clay
Clay
0
[Poor]
Sand
soil structure
C Assessment
I Importance
SOIL STRUCTURE is extremely important for vineyards. It regulates:
< soil temperature;
< nutrient supply;
< soil workability;
4
or no pores.
soil porosity
C Assessment
I Importance
efficiently.
The presence of soil pores enables the development and proliferation of the superficial
(or feeder) roots throughout the soil. Vine roots are unable to penetrate and grow through
firm, tight, compacted soils, severely restricting the ability of the plant to utilize the
available water and nutrients in the soil. A high penetration resistance not only limits
plant uptake of water and nutrients, it also reduces fertilizer efficiency considerably and
increases the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases.
soil colour
C Assessment
I Importance
determine soil health. It promotes infiltration and retention of water, helps to develop and
stabilize soil structure, cushions the impact of wheel traffic and cultivators, reduces the
potential for wind and water erosion, and maintains the soil carbon sink. Organic matter
also provides an important food resource for soil organisms and is an important source
of, and major reservoir of, plant nutrients. Its decline reduces the fertility and nutrientsupplying potential of the soil; N, P, K and S requirements of vines increase markedly,
and other major and minor elements are leached more readily. The result is an increased
dependency on fertilizer input to maintain nutrient status.
oxidation state) of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn). Brown, yellow-brown, reddish-brown and
red soils without mottles indicate well-aerated, well-drained conditions where Fe and Mn
occur in the oxidized form of ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) oxides. Grey-blue colours
dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, that damage the root system. This
reduces the ability of plants to take up water and nutrients, causing poor vigour and ill-thrift.
Decay and dieback of roots can also occur as a result of the Phylloxera aphid and fungal
diseases such as Phytophthora root rot and black foot rot in soils prone to waterlogging.
In general, dark-coloured soils are more favourable for red wine quality (owing to an
increase in polyphenol and terpens).
8
not markedly so.
C Assessment
I Importance
ethylene, which are toxic to plant roots. Decay and dieback of roots can also occur as
a result of the Phylloxera aphid and fungal diseases such as Phytophthora root rot and
black foot rot in strongly mottled, poorly aerated soils. Root rot and reduced nutrient and
water uptake give rise to poor plant vigour and ill-thrift. If your visual score for mottles is
1, you need to aerate the soil.
10
grey mottles.
11
earthworms
C Assessment
(Plate 6) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Pay particular attention to the turf mat.
Earthworms vary in size and number depending on the species and the season. Therefore,
for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm counts must be made at the same time of year
when soil moisture and temperature levels are good. Earthworm numbers are reported as
the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm numbers are commonly reported on a
square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of
earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to convert to numbers per square metre.
I Importance
< soil porosity;
< aeration;
< water retention;
< drainage.
vineyards and can increase growth rates and production significantly.
12
improve vine and grape quality.
Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface
feeders that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoildwelling species that burrow, ingest and mix the top 200300 mm of soil; and (iii) deepburrowing species that pull down and mix plant litter and organic matter at depth.

Visual score
(VS)
Earthworm numbers
2
[Good]
1
[Moderate]
0
[Poor]
13
C Assessment
Dig a hole to identify the depth to a limiting (restricting) layer where present (Plates 7
and 8), and compare with the class limits in Table 3. As the hole is being dug, note the
presence of roots and old root channels, worm channels, cracks and fissures down which
roots can extend. Note also whether there is an over-thickening of roots (a result of a
high penetration resistance), and whether the roots are being forced to grow horizontally,
otherwise know as right-angle syndrome. Moreover, note the firmness and tightness of the
soil, whether the soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and
whether there is a hardpan present such as a human-induced tillage or plough pan (Plate 8),
or a natural pan such as an iron, siliceous or calcitic pan. An abrupt transition from a fine
(heavy) material to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A
rough estimate of the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties
in a nearby road cutting, gully, slip, earth slump or an open drain.
I Importance
The POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH is the depth of soil that plant roots can potentially exploit
before reaching a barrier to root growth, and it indicates the ability of the soil to provide
a suitable rooting medium for plants. The greater is the rooting depth, the greater is the
available-water-holding capacity of the soil. In drought periods, deep roots can access
larger water reserves, thereby alleviating water stress and promoting the survival of nonirrigated vineyards. Under irrigation, the majority of roots are in the top 1 m of soil. The
exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that they can also access more
macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the growth and enhancing the
yield and quality of the grapes. Conversely, soils with a restricted rooting depth caused
by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as a compacted layer or a
hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing roots to grow sideways.
This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer efficiency, increases
leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root penetration can also increase
plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover, hardpans
impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last increasing
the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash.
< pH;
< salinity;
< sodicity;
14
Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions caused by

deoxygenation and prolonged waterlogging
restrict the rooting depth as a result of the
accumulation of toxic levels of hydrogen
sulphide, ferrous sulphide, carbon dioxide,
methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and
ethylene, by-products of chemical and
biochemical reduction reactions.
Grapevines with a deep, dense, vigorous
root system raise soil organic matter levels
and soil life at depth. The physical action of
the roots and soil fauna and the glues they
produce promote soil structure, porosity,
water storage, soil aeration and drainage
at depth. For rainfed vineyards, the depth
of a restricting layer should ideally be
deeper than 2.5 m, with a soil depth of
preferably not less than 600 mm. Stony soils
are acceptable under irrigation systems,
particularly where the depth of the soil is less
than 1 m. Furthermore, grapevines need a
sufficient rooting depth to provide adequate
anchorage for the vines at maturity.
PLATE 7 Potential rooting depth

[L. VAN HUYSSTEEN in VAN ZYL 1988]
PLATE 8 Restricted root penetration through

plough pan at 25 cm [L. VAN HUYSSTEEN]

VSA score
(VS)

(m)
2.0
[Good]
> 0.8
1.5
[Moderately good]
0.60.8
1.0
[Moderate]
0.40.6
0.5
[Moderately poor]
0.20.4
0
[Poor]
< 0.2
15

Assessment
Examine for the presence of a hardpan by rapidly jabbing the side of the soil profile (that
was dug to assess the potential rooting depth) rapidly with a knife, starting at the top and
16
NO HARDPAN
score of 1.5.


17
surface ponding
C Assessment
I Importance
soil remains saturated. Grapevines generally require free-draining soils. Prolonged
waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic (anoxic) conditions that
induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth and development of roots.
Roots need oxygen for respiration. They are most vulnerable to surface ponding and
saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are growing actively
and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the vine is transpiring actively causes
leaf desiccation and tip-burn. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of
pests and diseases, including the Phylloxera aphid and Phytophthora fungal root rot, and
reduces the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens.
Vines decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot
and stunted growth, and eventually die.
Waterlogging and deoxygenation also result in a series of undesirable chemical and
biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to roots. Plant-available
nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-) is reduced by denitrification to nitrite (NO2-) and nitrous oxide
(N2O), a potent greenhouse gas, and plant-available sulphate-sulphur (SO42-) is reduced
to sulphide, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ferrous sulphide (FeS) and zinc sulphide
(ZnS). Iron is reduced to soluble ferrous (Fe2+) ions, and Mn to manganous (Mn2+) ions.
Apart from the toxic products produced, the result is a reduction in the amount of plantavailable N and S. Anaerobic respiration of micro-organisms also produces carbon dioxide
and methane (also greenhouse gases), hydrogen gas, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene,
all of which inhibit root growth when accumulated in the soil. Unlike aerobic respiration,
anaerobic respiration releases insufficient energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) and adenylate energy charge (AEC) for microbial and root/shoot growth.
18
The tolerance of vine roots to waterlogging is dependent on a number of factors, including

the time of year, the rootstock, soil and air temperatures, soil type, the condition of the soil,
fluctuating water tables and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor
governed by the amount of entrapped air and the oxygen consumption rate by plant roots.
so reducing vehicle access.
PLATE 11 Surface ponding in a vineyard [CWi Technical Ltd]

VSA score
(VS)

Number of days
of ponding *
Description
2
[Good]

1
[Moderate]
23

0
[Poor]
>4

19
20
C Assessment
I Importance
Photos of surface cover: courtesy of A. Leys;
Photo of severe crusting: courtesy of M. Speyer
21
soil erosion
C Assessment
I Importance
SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of a vineyard through nutrient losses,
22
Little or no evidence of soil erosion.
Little difference in height between the
mounded row and interrow. The root
system is completely covered.
difference in height between the mounded
row and interrow. Part of the upper root
system is occasionally exposed.
Severe soil erosion with deeply incised
gullies or other mass movement features
between rows. The root system is often
well exposed and the vine trunk totally
undermined in places.
Photos: courtesy of C. Llewellyn and M. Greener
23
25
wood production
C Assessment
Estimate wood production per metre cord by assessing fresh wood weight at pruning
(Plate 14). In making the observation, consideration must be given to the cultivar, pruning
and age of the vine.
I Importance
While climate factors, cultivar and agricultural practices all influence WOOD PRODUCTION,
wood production at flowering is a good indicator of plant vigour and the fertility and
physical condition of the soil (including its nutrient and water status). Therefore, it is a
useful indicator of soil quality.
Soil degradation resulting from the loss of organic matter, soil compaction, poor aeration
or soil erosion restricts root growth and limits the movement and storage of water, the
cycling of nutrients and the efficient uptake of fertilizers. Plant roots either cannot reach
the fertilizer, or the applied nutrients remain unavailable in the compacted soil because
of impaired water movement or preferential flow through the soil, by-passing much of the
soil volume. As a result, plant growth and vigour are poor.
26
PLATE 14 How to score wood production
Depending on the cultivar, vineyards
of seven years of age have 0.8 kg
of vine-shoots per metre cord at
pruning.
of seven years of age have 0.60.8
kg of vine-shoots per metre cord at
pruning.
of seven years of age have <0.6 kg
of vine-shoots per metre cord at
pruning.
27
shoot length
C Assessment
Measure or visually assess shoot length and compare with the criteria given (Plate 15) at
veraison. In making your assessment, consideration must be given to the cultivar, pruning
and age of the vine, and the weather conditions at bud break. Poor weather will promote
a high number of leaf buds rather than flowering buds and give rise to many shoots and
leaves rather than flowers.
I Importance
SHOOT LENGTH is also influenced by the bud position on the trunk and cordon, and
by bud orientation with respect to the vertical direction. It is related strongly to the
physical and chemical fertility of the soil, which in turn is influenced by soil management.
Shoot length is an expression of plant vigour and general plant growth, which are also
regulated by the availability of water and nutrients and by the aeration status of the soil.
Waterlogging and poor drainage can restrict spring growth and give rise to poor shoot
growth and dieback. Soils in good condition with good structure and porosity, and with
a deep, well-aerated rootzone, enable the unrestricted movement of air and water into
and through the soil and the development and proliferation of superficial (feeder) roots.
Furthermore, soils with good organic-matter levels and soil life show an active biological
and chemical process, favouring the release and uptake of water and nutrients and,
consequently, shoot growth.
28
PLATE 15 How to score shoot length
Vine-shoots are at or near the maximum length, with a little
variability depending on the position of the shoot on the branch.
Vine-shoot length is moderately below maximum and shows
moderate variability depending on the position of the shoot on
the plant.
Vine-shoot length is significantly below the maximum length.
29
leaf colour
C Assessment
Assess the colour of the mature leaves at the base of the vine-shoots by comparing with
Plate 16 and the criteria given. In making the observation, consideration must be given
to the cultivar, the stage of growth, pests and diseases, and recent weather conditions.
Prolonged cold and cloudy days with little sunlight can give rise to chlorosis (or yellowing
of the leaf) owing to the inadequate formation or loss of chlorophyll.
I Importance
LEAF COLOUR can provide a good indication of the nutrient status and condition of the
soil. The higher is the soil fertility, the greener is the leaf colour. Leaf colour is related
primarily to water and nutrient availability, especially N. Leaf colour can also indicate
a deficiency or excess of P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and boron (B).
Chlorosis can further occur as a result of low N, K, S, Fe, Mg and Cu levels in the soil, low
soil and air temperatures, and poor soil aeration caused by compaction and waterlogging.
A deficiency or excess of one or more essential elements in a plant can also produce visual
symptoms of necrosis of leaf margins, stunted growth of shoots, irregular fruit-set and
small berries. Premature leaf senescence can further indicate plant stress.
Nutrient deficiencies or excesses can suppress the availability of other nutrients. For
example, high P levels can suppress the uptake of Zn and Cu. Excess N can suppress B
and Cu and cause the plant to luxury feed on K, which in turn can suppress the utilization
of Ca and Mg. Sulphur can also only be utilized by plants in the sulphate (SO42-) form.
Under poorly aerated conditions, S will reduce to sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphides (e.g.
hydrogen sulphide [H2S], and ferrous sulphide [FeS]). Sulphides and SO2 cannot be taken
up by the plant, are toxic to plant roots and micro-organisms, and suppress N uptake.
Plants can only utilize N where S is present in the oxygenated (sulphate) form. Like S,
N can also only be utilized by the plant under aerobic conditions in the nitrate (NO3-) or
ammonium form (NH4+).
Plate 17 shows some of the most common symptoms of nutrient deficiencies.
30
Leaves have an intense dark green colour.
Leaves have a yellowish-green or medium green
colour.
Leaves have a distinct yellowish colour or turn
opaque green.
31
PLATE 17 Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency in vines
Phosphorus
Potassium
32
PLATE 17 Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency in vines (continued)
Boron
Iron
Zinc
33
yield
C Assessment
Assess relative crop yield by visual estimation of fruit number and size and by comparing
with Plate 18 and the criteria given, or alternatively estimate or measure the weight of grapes
per metre cord. In making your assessment, consideration must be given to the cultivar,
pruning and age of the vine. Consideration must also be given to the weather conditions (e.g.
whether warm and dry, or cold and wet) at pollination, fertilization, flowering and fruitset. Pollination is best when the weather is dry, while fertilization is most successful when
temperatures are warm. Poor weather during flowering can give rise to poor fruit-set. Warm
weather at fruit-set will give good yields while cold wet weather will give poorer yields.
Compare your assessment or measurement against the mean of the last 3 or 4 years.
I Importance
YIELD can be a good visual indicator of the properties and condition of the soil. The
physical condition of the soil (in terms of its texture, structure, porosity, aeration and
drainage) has a significant effect on the root system, aeration status and water and
nutrient availability at critical times of the year. It also plays an important role in vine
growth and vigour, grape quality and yield.
Appropriate soil management, including the adoption of a managed cover crop between
rows, and avoiding wheel traffic when the soil is wet, helps to promote the physical
condition and overall fertility of the soil and sustainable long-term production.
34
PLATE 18 How to score yield
Depending on the cultivar, pruning
and age of the vine, yields are good.
Depending on the cultivar, pruning and
age of the vine, yields are moderate.
Depending on the cultivar, pruning and
age of the vine, yields are poor.
35
variability of vine performance along the row
C Assessment
Cast your eye along the rows and observe any variability in vine performance (in terms of
vine height, stem thickness, canopy volume and density, leaf colour, early senescence of leaves,
etc.) and compare with the class limits in Table 5. In making the assessment, consideration
must be given to pruning and to diseases that are not soil-related (Plates 1922).
I Importance
VARIABILITY OF VINE PERFORMANCE ALONG THE ROW can be a very good visual
indicator of the properties and condition of the soil. In particular, the linear variability of
vine performance is often related to the availability of water and nutrients, and the texture
of the soil (e.g. whether clayey, silty, loamy, sandy or gravelly). Moreover, soils in good
condition with good structure and porosity, and with a deep, well-aerated rootzone, enable
the unrestricted movement of air and water into and through the soil, the development and
Furthermore, soils with good organic-matter levels and soil life (including mycorrhizae)
show an active biological and chemical process, favouring the release and uptake of water
and nutrients and, consequently, the growth and vigour of the vine.
The spatial variability of vine performance along the row is also a useful indicator because
it highlights those vines that are underperforming compared with the majority, enabling a
specific investigation as to why those are struggling and what remedial action may be taken.
PLATE 19 Effect of soil texture, organic matter and mycorrhizae on vine performance [D. MUNDY]
Poor-performing vines on the

left are on coarse-textured soils
with low organic matter and a low
mycorrhizal colonization of 40%.
Well-performing vines on the right
are the result of better utilization
of water and nutrients on a siltier
soil with more organic matter and a
90% colonization of mycorrhizae.
36
PLATE 20 Effect of soil aeration and drainage on vine performance [D. MUNDY]
Poor-performing vines in the

hollows are due to root (black foot)
rot associated with poor drainage,
while the better-performing vines
on higher ground further along the
row are on freer-draining, betteraerated soil.
PLATE 21 Effect of soil-borne pathogens on vine performance [D. MUNDY]
Poor-performing vines in the

centre row owing to a soil-borne
pathogen.
PLATE 22 Variable crop vigour and leaf colour [S. GREEN]
DY]
Variable crop vigour and leaf colour

along the row owing to differences
in water and nutrient availability
associated with differences in soil
texture and soil depth.
TABLE 5 Visual scores for variability of vine performance along the row
Visual score (VS)
Variability of vine performance along the row
2 [Good]
Vine performance is good and even along the row
1 [Moderate]
Vine performance is moderately variable along the row
0 [Poor]
Vine performance is extremely variable along the row
37
production costs
C Assessment
Assess whether production costs have increased because of increased tillage/subsoiling,
fertilizer requirements and pesticide application over the years (Figure 4 and Table 6). This
assessment can be based on perceptions, but reference to annual balance sheets will give a
more precise answer.
I Importance
Continuous tillage between rows using conventional cultivation techniques can give rise
to a marked decline in soil structure, porosity and organic matter. The result is a reduction
in root growth owing to a decline in soil aeration, an increase in penetration resistance to
root development, a reduction in water storage and plant-available water, and a reduction
in soil fertility and the ability of the soil to supply nutrients. Higher amounts of fertilizer
are required in order to compensate for the loss of these nutrients and the decline in
soil quality. Higher and more frequent applications of chemical sprays are also needed
because of increased disease and pest attack in vineyards with degraded soils. The
quantity and quality of the final product can often be reduced, with a lower income as a
consequence.
Soil compaction under wheel traffic between rows increases the size, density and
strength of soil clods, and increases the penetration resistance to lateral root
development. Apart from decreasing infiltration and increasing runoff, the increased
tillage resistance of compacted lanes often requires a greater number of passes and
careful timing with the cultivator in order to break down the large clods. Subsoiling may
also be necessary to ameliorate compaction in the subsoil in order to improve aeration
and root development.
38
TABLE 6 Visual scores for production costs

Visual score (VS)
Production costs
2
[Good]
Spraying, fertilizer and tillage/subsoiling requirements

have not increased significantly
1
[Moderate]

have increased moderately
0
[Poor]

have increased greatly
39
Soil management in vineyards

Soil management plays a key role in achieving good high-quality vineyard production while
at the same time safeguarding the environment and minimizing the ecological footprint of
viticulture on a region and the country.
One of the aims of the farmer should be soil conservation. This does not only mean having
healthy plants and high grape quality, but achieving this with less fertilizer, chemical input
and soil tillage. In general, conventional soil management in vineyards can have a negative
impact on the environment. It enhances chemical residues, alters microflora and microfauna
by reducing both the number of species and their biomass, reduces soil organic matter
content and exposes the soil to accelerated soil erosion. Thus, the loss of soil and soil quality
in vineyards contributes to the food eco-footprint.
Cover crops play an important role in protecting the soil surface and enhancing soil quality,
so preserving the environment, reducing production costs and enhancing the quality of wine.
Recent experiments have shown that the nutritional status of vineyards can have a strong
influence on the chemical and organoleptic characteristics of wine.
Cover cropping not only helps in reducing water runoff and soil erosion but also improves soil
physical characteristics, enriches soil organic matter content, reduces inorganic fertilization
and root mortality, and suppresses soil-borne disease by increasing micro-organism activity
and biodiversity.
One of the limiting factors of cover crops in vineyards is the competition for nutrients and
plant-available water where the management is inadequate. This can affect the amount of
available N to the plant and the N content and alcoholic fermentation of the wine. In order to
solve this problem, a different mix of cover crops including leguminous species such as clover
and lucerne that supply N (fixed from the atmosphere) should be evaluated in different areas,
reducing the problem of N deficiency. The input of biologically fixed N is also an important
component of the N cycle.
In addition to legumes, the mix of cover crops in the interrows could include annual and perennial
species, grasses and other broadleaf plants. Winter annuals can be grown in order to protect
the soil from erosion during winter and to improve the ability of the soil to resist compaction
when wet. Grasses, with their fibrous root system, are also more effective at improving soil
structure, and generally add more organic matter to the soil than do legumes. Where allowed to
seed in early summer, a seed bank for subsequent regeneration is built up. In order to reduce
competition, cover crops or natural weeds can be controlled by herbicide application or by
mowing 23 times during the period of major water and nutrient demand. Grass should also be
kept short in order to reduce insect and bird numbers. Where the grass cover crop extends along
and under the vine row, ensure that the length of grass is kept short in order to reduce not only
the competition for water and nutrients but also the possibility of fungal diseases.
40
In addition to the adoption of managed cover crops, the physical condition and overall fertility
of the soil can be promoted by avoiding wheel traffic between rows when the soils are wet.
The application of mulches along the vine rows in the form of grass mowings, compost, bark
chips and cereal straw shade the soil, so reducing temperature and soil evaporation during the
summer. Mulches also encourage biological activity, especially earthworms. They suppress
weeds and prevent the breakdown of the soil structure under the impact of rain, so enhancing
water infiltration. The application of crushed glass as a mulch enhances the availability of
understorey light, so providing more energy from the rays of the sun to the ripening fruit,
lifting the flavour, and ripening the fruit earlier. However, glass mulch does nothing to enhance
the biological life of the soil.
41
References
Field guide for vineyards. FAO, Rome, Italy.
42
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Vineyards
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
Wheat
G U I D E
Wheat
F I E L D




Rome, 2008

ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
Chief
FAO
or by e-mail to:
copyright@fao.org
FAO 2008
Contents
Acknowledgements
vi
List of acronyms
vi
vii
SOIL TEXTURE
SOIL STRUCTURE
SOIL POROSITY
SOIL COLOUR
10
EARTHWORMS
12

14
16
SURFACE PONDING
18
20
SOIL EROSION
22
CROP ESTABLISHMENT
26
TILLERING
28
LEAF COLOUR
30
VARIABILITY OF CROP PERFORMANCE ALONG THE ROW
34
ROOT DEVELOPMENT
36
ROOT DISEASE
38
CROP GROWTH AND HEIGHT AT MATURITY
40
KERNEL SIZE
42
CROP YIELD
44
PRODUCTION COSTS
46
SOIL MANAGEMENT OF WHEAT CROP
48
iii
List of tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Visual scores for variability of crop performance along the row
Visual scores for root development
Visual scores for root disease
Visual scores for crop growth and height at maturity
Visual scores for crop yield
Visual scores for production costs
3
13
15
19
35
37
39
41
45
46
List of figures
1.
2.
3.
4.
Soil scorecard visual indicators for assessing soil quality in wheat

Soil texture classes and groups
Plant scorecard visual indicators for assessing plant performance in wheat
Assessment of production costs
1
3
25
47
List of plates
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
iv
The VSA tool kit

(a): earthworms casts under crop residue; (b): yellow-tail earthworm
Hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth
Surface ponding in a wheat field
How to score crop establishment
How to score tillering
Common symptoms of leaf discolouration due to nutrient deficiencies in wheat
Variable crop performance due to soil aeration and soil wetness
viii
5
7
9
11
13
13
15
16
17
19
21
23
27
29
31
32
34
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Variable crop performance due to soil compaction

Variable crop performance due to an iron pan
Variable crop performance due to water-repellency
Root development
Pythium root disease
Take-all root disease
Fusarium root disease
Root rot
Crop height at maturity
How to score kernel size
Crop yield
Effect of boron deficiency on crop yield
Effect of copper deficiency on crop yield
No-till drilling a wheat crop into an erosion-prone field protected
by good residue cover
33. Strip-tillage planting of an annual crop protected by good residue cover
34. Harvesting a wheat crop, followed immediately by no-till seeding
the next crop into stubble
35
35
35
37
38
39
39
39
41
43
44
45
45
49
49
49
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of a number of the photographs kindly
provided by Annemie Leys (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven) and John Quinton, and the useful
discussions held with Kevin Sinclair and Peter Jamieson, Crop & Food Research.
This publication is funded by FAO in collaboration with the Agronomy and Crop Science Research
and Education Center of the University of Teramo.
List of acronyms
AEC
Al
ATP
B
Ca
CO2
Cu
Fe
K
Mg
Mn
Mo
N
P
RSG
S
VS
VSA
Zn
vi

Aluminium
Boron
Calcium
Carbon dioxide
Copper
Iron
Potassium
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Sulphur
Visual score
Zinc

Introduction
of wheat cropping. A decline in soil quality has a marked impact on yield and grain quality,
production costs and the risk of soil erosion, and can therefore have significant consequences
for society and the environment. A decline in soil physical properties in particular takes
considerable time and cost to correct. Safeguarding soil resources for future generations and
minimizing the ecological footprint of cropping wheat is an important task for land managers.
of the productive performance of wheat cropping and have profound effects on long term profits.
Land managers need reliable, quick and easy to use tools to help them assess the condition of
their soils and their suitability for growing crops, and make informed decisions that will lead to
sustainable land and environmental management. To this end, the Visual Soil Assessment (VSA)
provides a quick and simple method to assess soil condition and plant performance. It can also
be used to assess the suitability and limitations of a soil for wheat. Soils with good VSA scores
will, by and large, give the best production with the lowest establishment and operational costs.
The VSA method

Plant indicators allow you to make cause-and-effect links between management practices
and soil characteristics. By looking at both the soil and plant indicators, VSA links the natural
resource (soil) with plant performance and farm enterprise profitability. Because of this, soil
quality assessment is not a combination of the soil and plant scores; rather, the scores should
be looked at separately, and compared.
vii
Visual scoring
Each indicator is given a visual score (VS) of 0 (poor), 1 (moderate), or 2 (good), based on
the soil quality and plant performance observed when comparing the soil and plant with
three photographs in the field guide manual. The scoring is flexible, so if the sample you
are assessing does not align clearly with any one of the photographs but sits between two,
an in-between score can be given, i.e. 0.5 or 1.5. Because some soil and plant indicators are
relatively more important in the assessment of soil quality and plant performance than others,
VSA provides a weighting factor of 1, 2 and 3. The total of the VS rankings gives the overall Soil
Quality Index and Plant Performance Index for the site. Compare these with the rating scale at
the bottom of the scorecard to determine whether your soil and plants are in good, moderate
or poor condition.
The VSA tool kit

< a heavy-duty plastic bag (about
750x500 mm) on which to spread the
soil, after the drop shatter test has been
carried out;
viii
The procedure
Setting up
Time
a 5-ha area.
Reference sample
Sites
Select sites that are representative of the field. The condition of the soil in wheat fields is site
specific. Avoid areas that may have had heavier traffic than the rest of the field and sample
between wheel traffic lanes. VSA can also be used however, to assess the effects of high traffic
on soil quality by selecting to sample along wheel traffic lanes. Always record the position of
the sites for future monitoring if required.
Site information

Initial observation
ix

Drop the test sample a maximum of three times from a height of 1 m onto the wooden square
in the plastic basin. The number of times the sample is dropped and the height it is dropped
from, is dependent on the texture of the soil and the degree to which the soil breaks up, as
described in the section on soil structure.


plant performance.
soil texture
C Assessment
diagram (Figure 2).
I Importance
proportion of the various size-groups in the soil, i.e. sand, silt and clay. Sand is that fraction
that has a particle size >0.06 mm; silt varies between 0.06 and 0.002 mm; and the particle
size of clay is <0.002 mm. Texture influences soil behaviour in several ways, notably
through its effect on: water retention and availability; soil structure; aeration; drainage;
soil workability and trafficability; soil life; and the supply and retention of nutrients.
A knowledge of both the textural class and the potential rooting depth enables an
approximate assessment of the total water-holding capacity of the soil, one of the major
drivers of crop production.
Textural classes.
Textural groups.

Visual score
(VS)
Textural class
Description
2
[Good]
Silt loam

1.5
[Moderately good]
Clay loam

1
[Moderate]
Sandy loam

0.5
[Moderately poor]
Loamy sand
Silty clay
Clay
0
[Poor]
Sand
soil structure
C Assessment
I Importance
SOIL STRUCTURE is extremely important for grain crops. It regulates:
< soil temperature;
< nutrient supply;
< soil workability;
minimum-till, controlled traffic or conventional cultivation under optimal soil conditions.
4
or no pores.
soil porosity
C Assessment
I Importance
efficiently.
soil colour
C Assessment
I Importance
the potential for wind and water erosion, and indicates whether the soil is functioning
as a carbon sink or as a source of greenhouse gases. Organic matter also provides an
important food resource for soil organisms and is an important source of, and major
reservoir of, plant nutrients. Its decline reduces the fertility and nutrient-supplying
potential of the soil; N, P, K and S requirements of crops increase markedly, and other
major and minor elements are leached more readily. The result is an increased dependency
on fertilizer input to maintain nutrient status.
and red soils without mottles indicate well-aerated, well-drained conditions where Fe and
Mn occur in the oxidized form of ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) oxides. Grey-blue colours
dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene, that damage the root system.
This reduces the ability of plants to take up water and nutrients, causing poor vigour
and ill-thrift. Decay and dieback of roots can also occur as a result of pests and diseases,
including Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot in soils prone to waterlogging.
not markedly so.
C Assessment
I Importance
soil structure reduces the number of channels and pores that conduct water and air and,
as a consequence, can result in waterlogging and a deficiency of oxygen for a prolonged
period. The development of anaerobic (deoxygenated) conditions reduces Fe and Mn from
their brown/orange oxidized ferric (Fe3+) and manganic (Mn3+) form to grey ferrous (Fe2+)
and manganous (Mn2+) oxides. Mottles develop as various shades of orange and grey
owing to varying degrees of oxidation and reduction of Fe and Mn. As oxygen depletion
increases, orange, and ultimately grey, mottles predominate. An abundance of grey
mottles indicates the soil is poorly drained and poorly aerated for a significant part of the
year. The presence of only common orange and grey mottles (1025 percent) indicates the
soil is imperfectly drained with only periodic waterlogging. Soil with only few to common
orange mottles indicates the soil is moderately well drained, and the absence of mottles
indicates good drainage.
reduce the uptake of plant nutrients, particularly N, P, K, S and Cu. Moreover, poor aeration
ethylene, which are toxic to plant roots. In addition, decay and dieback of roots can occur
as a result of fungal diseases such as Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot, foot rot
and crown rot in soils that are strongly mottled and poorly aerated. Fungal diseases and
reduced nutrient and water uptake give rise to poor plant vigour and ill-thrift. If your visual
score for mottles is 1, you need to aerate the soil.
10
grey mottles.
11
earthworms
C Assessment
(Plate 7) and compare with the class limits in Table 2. Pay particular attention to the turf mat.
Earthworms vary in size and number depending on the species and the season. Therefore,
for year-to-year comparisons, earthworm counts must be made at the same time of year
when soil moisture and temperature levels are good. Earthworm numbers are reported as
the number per 200-mm cube of soil. Earthworm numbers are commonly reported on a
square-metre basis. A 200-mm cube sample is equivalent to 1/25 m2, and so the number of
earthworms needs to be multiplied by 25 to convert to numbers per square metre.
I Importance
EARTHWORMS provide a good indicator of the biological health and condition of the soil because
their population density and species are affected by soil properties and management practices.
Through their burrowing, feeding, digestion and casting, earthworms have a major effect on
the chemical, physical and biological properties of the soil. They shred and decompose plant
residues, converting them to organic matter, and so releasing mineral nutrients. Compared with
uningested soil, earthworm casts can contain 5 times as much plant available N, 37 times as
much P, 11 times as much K, and 3 times as much Mg. They can also contain more Ca and plantavailable Mo, and have a higher pH, organic matter and water content. Moreover, earthworms
act as biological aerators and physical conditioners of the soil, improving:
< soil porosity;
< aeration;
< water retention;
< drainage.
arable cropping and can increase growth rates and production significantly.
Earthworms also increase the population, activity and diversity of soil microbes. Actinomycetes
increase 67 times during the passage of soil through the digestive tract of the worm and,
along with other microbes, play an important role in the decomposition of organic matter to
humus. Soil microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi play a further role in the supply of nutrients,
digesting soil and fertilizer and unlocking nutrients, such as P, that are fixed by the soil.
Microbes also retain significant amounts of nutrients in their biomass, releasing them when
they die. Moreover, soil microbes produce plant-growth hormones and compounds that
12
PLATE 6 (a): earthworm casts under crop residue; (b): yellow-tail earthworm (Octolasion cyaneum)
stimulate root growth and promote the structure, aeration, infiltration and water-holding capacity of the
soil. Micro-organisms further encourage a lower incidence of pests and diseases, and promote a more
rapid breakdown of organic herbicides. The collective benefits of microbes can increase crop production
markedly while at the same time reducing fertilizer requirements.
Earthworm numbers (and biomass) are governed by the amount of food available as organic matter and
soil microbes, as determined by the amount and quality of surface residue (Plate 6a), the use of cover
crops including legumes, and the cultivation of interrows. Earthworm populations can be up to three
times higher in undisturbed soils compared with cultivated soils. Earthworm numbers are also governed
by: soil moisture, temperature, texture, soil aeration, pH, soil nutrients (including levels of Ca), and the
type and amount of fertilizer and N used. The overuse of acidifying salt-based fertilizers, anhydrous
ammonia and ammonia-based products, and some insecticides and fungicides can further reduce
earthworm numbers.
Soils should have a good diversity of earthworm species with a combination of: (i) surface feeders
that live at or near the surface to breakdown plant residues and dung; (ii) topsoil-dwelling species that
burrow, ingest and mix the top 200300 mm of soil; and
(iii) deep-burrowing species that pull down and mix plant
litter and organic matter at depth.
Earthworms species can further indicate the overall
condition of the soil. For example, significant numbers of
yellow-tail earthworms (Octolasion cyaneum Plate 6b)
can indicate adverse soil conditions.
Visual score
(VS)
Earthworm numbers
2
[Good]
1
[Moderate]
0
[Poor]
13
C Assessment
Note also whether there is an over-thickening of roots (a result of a high penetration
resistance), and whether the roots are being forced to grow horizontally, otherwise known
as right-angle syndrome. Moreover, note the firmness and tightness of the soil, whether the
soil is grey and strongly gleyed owing to prolonged waterlogging, and whether there is a
hardpan present such as a human-induced tillage or plough pan, or a natural pan such as an
iron, siliceous or calcitic pan (pp 1617). An abrupt transition from a fine (heavy) material
to a coarse (sandy/gravelly) layer will also limit root development. A rough estimate of
the potential rooting depth may be made by noting the above properties in a nearby road
cutting or an open drain.
I Importance
of non-irrigated crops. The exploration of a large volume of soil by deep roots means that
they can also access more macronutrients and micronutrients, thereby accelerating the
growth and enhancing the yield and quality of the crop. Conversely, soils with a restricted
rooting depth caused by, for example, a layer with a high penetration resistance such as
a compacted layer or a hardpan, restrict vertical root growth and development, causing
roots to grow sideways. This limits plant uptake of water and nutrients, reduces fertilizer
efficiency, increases leaching, and decreases yield. A high resistance to root penetration
can also increase plant stress and the susceptibility of the plant to root diseases. Moreover,
hardpans impede the movement of air, oxygen and water through the soil profile, the last
increasing the susceptibility to waterlogging and erosion by rilling and sheet wash.
< pH;
< salinity;
< sodicity;
14

Crops with a deep, vigorous root system help to raise soil organic matter levels and soil life
at depth. The physical action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce, promote
soil structure, porosity, water storage, soil aeration and drainage at depth. A deep, dense root
system provides huge scope for raising production while at the same time having significant
environmental benefits. Crops are less reliant on frequent and high application rates of
fertilizer and N to generate growth, and available nutrients are more likely to be taken up, so
reducing losses by leaching into the environment.
PLATE 8 Hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth
The potential rooting depth extends to

the bottom of the arrow, below which the
soil is extremely firm and very tight with
no roots or old root channels, no worm
channels and no cracks and fissures down
which roots can extend.

VSA score
(VS)

(m)
2.0
[Good]
> 0.8
1.5
[Moderately good]
0.60.8
1.0
[Moderate]
0.40.6
0.5
[Moderately poor]
0.20.4
0
[Poor]
< 0.2
15

Assessment
16
NO HARDPAN
score of 1.5.


17
surface ponding
C Assessment
recollection of the time ponded water took to disappear after a wet period during the spring,
and compare with the class limits in Table 4.
I Importance
the rate of infiltration into and through the soil, a high water table, and the time the soil
remains saturated. Prolonged waterlogging depletes oxygen in the soil causing anaerobic
(anoxic) conditions that induce root stress, and restrict root respiration and the growth of
roots. Roots need oxygen for respiration. They are most vulnerable to surface ponding and
saturated soil conditions in the spring when plant roots and shoots are actively growing
and water uptake. Reduced water uptake while the crop is transpiring actively causes leaf
desiccation and the plant to wilt. Prolonged waterlogging also increases the likelihood of
pests and diseases, including Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium root rot, and reduces
the ability of roots to overcome the harmful effects of topsoil-resident pathogens. Plant
stress induced by poor aeration and prolonged soil saturation can render crops less
resistant to insect pest attack such as aphids, armyworm, cutworm and wireworm. Crops
decline in vigour, have restricted spring growth (RSG) as evidenced by poor shoot and
stunted growth, become discoloured and die.
growth.
18
The tolerance of the root system to surface ponding and waterlogging is dependent on a
number of factors, including the time of year and the type of crop. Tolerance of waterlogging is
also dependent on: soil and air temperatures; soil type; the condition of the soil; fluctuating
water tables; and the rate of onset and severity of anaerobiosis (or anoxia), a factor governed
by the initial soil oxygen content and oxygen consumption rate.
Prolonged surface ponding makes the soil more susceptible to damage under wheel traffic,
so reducing vehicle access. As a consequence, waterlogging can delay ground preparation
and sowing dates significantly. Sowing can further be delayed because the seed bed is below
the crop-specific critical temperature. Increases in the temperature of saturated soils can be
delayed as long as water is evaporating.
PLATE 11 Surface ponding in a wheat field

VSA score
(VS)

Number of days
of ponding *
Description
2
[Good]

1
[Moderate]
23

0
[Poor]
>5

19
20
C Assessment
Observe the degree of surface crusting and surface cover and compare Plate 12 and the
criteria given. Surface crusting is best assessed after wet spells followed by a period of
I Importance
SURFACE COVER after harvesting and prior to canopy closure of the next crop helps to
prevent crusting by minimizing the dispersion of the soil surface by rain or irrigation. It
also helps to reduce crusting by intercepting the large rain droplets before they can strike
and compact the soil surface. Vegetative cover and its root system return organic matter
to the soil and promote soil life, including earthworm numbers and activity. The physical
action of the roots and soil fauna and the glues they produce promote the development
of soil structure, soil aeration and drainage and help to break up surface crusting. As a
result, infiltration rates and the movement of water through the soil increase, decreasing
runoff, soil erosion and the risk of flash flooding. Surface cover also reduces soil erosion
by intercepting high impact raindrops, minimizing rain-splash and saltation. It further
serves to act as a sponge, retaining rainwater long enough for it to infiltrate into the soil.
Moreover, the root system reduces soil erosion by stabilizing the soil surface, holding
the soil in place during heavy rainfall events. As a result, water quality downstream is
improved with a lower sediment loading, nutrient and coliform content. The adoption of
conservation tillage can reduce soil erosion by up to 90 percent and water runoff by up
to 40 percent. The surface needs to have at least 70 percent cover in order to give good
protection, while 30 percent cover provides poor protection. Surface cover also reduces
the risk of wind erosion markedly.
21
soil erosion
C Assessment
Assess the degree of soil erosion based on current visual evidence and on your knowledge
of what the site looked like in the past relative to Plate 13.
I Importance
SOIL EROSION reduces the productive potential of soils through nutrient losses, loss
of organic matter, reduced potential rooting depth, and lower available-water-holding
Overcultivation can cause considerable soil degradation associated with the loss of soil
organic matter and soil structure. It can also develop surface crusting, tillage pans, and
decrease infiltration and permeability of water through the soil profile (causing increased
surface runoff ). If the soil surface is left unprotected on sloping ground, large quantities of
soil can be water eroded by gullying, rilling and sheet wash. The cost of restoration, often
requiring heavy machinery, can be prohibitively expensive.
< the soil infiltration rate and permeability of water through the soil;
The loss of organic matter and soil structure as a result of overcultivation can also give rise
to significant soil loss by wind erosion of exposed ground.
22
Little or no water erosion. Topsoil depths in
the footslope areas are <150 mm deeper
than on the crest.
Wind erosion is not a concern; only small
dust plumes emanate from the cultivator
on a windy day. Most wind-eroded material is
contained in the field.
Water erosion is a moderate concern with
a significant amount of rilling and sheet
erosion. Topsoil depths in the footslope
areas are 150300 mm greater than on
streams may be significant.
Wind erosion is of moderate concern
where significant dust plumes can
emanate from the cultivator on windy
days. A considerable amount of material
is blown off the field but is contained
within the farm.
Water erosion is a major concern with
severe gullying, rilling and sheet erosion
occurring. Topsoils in footslope areas are
more than 300 mm deeper than on the
streams may be high.
Wind erosion is a major concern. Large
dust clouds can occur when cultivating
on windy days. A substantial amount
of topsoil can be lost from the field and
deposited elsewhere in the district.
Water erosion photos: courtesy of J. Quinton and A. Leys
23
25
crop establishment
C Assessment
Assess the degree and uniformity of crop establishment within a month of sowing by
comparing the number and height of established plants with the three photographs
provided (Plate 14).
I Importance
GOOD SEED GERMINATION, PLANT EMERGENCE AND CROP ESTABLISHMENT depend
on factors that include the quality of soil tilth at the time of sowing and during the weeks
immediately following. Soils that have poor structure through compaction and overcultivation can resettle and consolidate rapidly after the seed bed has been prepared.
Impeded water and air movement through the soil can give rise to increased soil-borne
pathogens and areas low in oxygen (anaerobic zones). Anaerobic zones produce chemical
and biochemical reduction reactions, the by-products of which are toxic to plants. Poor soil
aeration and soil-borne pathogens can give rise to poor germination, poor pre- and post
emergence, poor plant vigour and even death. While emergence may be slow, recovery
can also be limited and plants often appear sickly. Poor plant emergence, bare patches
and poor and uneven early leaf and tiller growth are commonly observed throughout
paddocks and result in crop thinning and low plant populations. Young plants can also
show discolouration of leaves, leaf blemishes and moisture stress.
The loss of soil condition can reduce crop establishment from 300 to 130 plants/m2 and
grain yields from 8 to 5 tonnes per hectare. Seedling mortality can be high if the soil is
waterlogged for more than 3 to 4 days between germination and emergence.
26
PLATE 14 How to score crop establishment
Good emergence and crop establishment, with
few gaps along the row and crop showing a good
even height.
Moderate emergence and crop establishment,
with a significant number of gaps along the row
and a significant variation in seedling
height. Emergence may also be moderately slow
but recovers somewhat.
Poor emergence and crop establishment, with a
large number of gaps along the row and a large
variation in seedling height. Emergence may
also be slow with limited recovery and plants
often appear sickly.
27
tillering
C Assessment
Measure the number of tillers at the end of the tillering stage and compare with the
photographs (Plate 15) and class limits below.
I Importance
THE NUMBER OF TILLERS play a fundamental role in determining the number of ears
(spikes) per square metre and consequently the final yield. The potential number of tillers
varies with the genotype, particularly among winter genotypes which have the greatest
number. The new semi-dwarf wheat varieties normally have 23 tillers per plant to permit
the development and grouping of tillers and ears that are contemporary, i.e. are equal
in all vegetative, reproductive and ripening stages in order to maximise yields. Although
this character is genetically determined and strongly influenced by planting density, it is
also an expression of plant vigour and general plant growth which are firstly regulated by
nutrient and water availability and the condition of the soil.
Soils in good health with good structure, porosity, organic matter levels, soil life, soil
fertility and rooting depth favour the release and uptake of water and nutrients and
subsequently the development of a greater number of tillers and there contemporary
development.
28
PLATE 15 How to score tillering
Depending on the cultivar the plant has 3
well developed tillers with little variability
compared to the main stem (i.e., main culm).
Depending on the cultivar the plant has 23
tillers with moderate variability compared to
the main stem (or culm).
The plant has 1 or no tillers at all with
significant differences in terms of
development to the main stem (or culm).
29
leaf colour
C Assessment
Assess the leaf colour of the crop when all other factors favour rapid growth, and compare
with the three photographs (Plate 16). In making the assessment, consideration must be
given to the cultivar, the stage of growth, the soil moisture and temperature conditions, and
the presence of pests and diseases (e.g. nematodes). The assessment can be done at any time
prior to leaf senescence but ideally from four to six weeks after plant emergence to grain
filling, avoiding very cold and wet weather.
I Importance
LEAF COLOUR prior to completion of grain filling can provide a good indication of the water
and nutrient status and condition of the soil. Under normal environmental conditions the
higher the soil fertility, the greener the crop. Plant vigour and colour is strongly related
to soil water and nutrient availability, especially nitrogen (N). Discolouration of the foliar
and blemishes on the leaf can also result from a deficiency or excess of phosphorus (P),
potassium (K), sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and
boron (B) Plate 17. Chlorosis (or yellowing of crops) due to the inadequate formation
of chlorophyll, commonly occurs as a result of low N, K, S, Fe, Mg and Cu levels in the
soil, low soil and air temperatures, prolonged cloudy days and poor soil aeration due to
compaction and waterlogging.
Nutrient deficiencies or excesses can suppress the availability of other nutrients. For
example, high P levels can suppress the uptake of Zn and Cu. Excess N can suppress
B and Cu and cause the plant to luxury feed on K. Sulphur can also only be utilised by
the plant in the sulphate (SO42-) form. Under poorly aerated conditions sulphate-S will
reduce to sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphides (eg. hydrogen sulphide [H2S], and ferrous
sulphide [FeS]). Sulphides and SO2 cannot be taken up by the plant, are toxic to plant roots
and micro organisms, and suppress the uptake of N. Plants can also only utilise N if S is
present in the oxygenated (sulphate) form. Like S, N can only be utilised by the plant in the
oxygenated nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) form under aerobic conditions.
The aeration status of the soil can further affect the uptake of nutrients. Phosphorus,
copper and cobalt for example cannot be efficiently utilised by the plant under anaerobic
conditions.
30
Leaf colour is uniformly deep green.
The odd colour blemish on leaves may
be apparent within a broad area.
Leaf colour is yellowish green; i.e. has
a distinct yellowish tinge. Few colour
blemishes on leaves may occur within
a wide area.
Leaf colour is quite yellow over a
wide area. Colour blemishes on
leaves may commonly occur.
31
PLATE 17 Common symptoms of leaf discolouration due to nutrient deficiencies in wheat
Nitrogen deficiency on the left
Phosphorus deficiency
Potassium deficiency
Sulphur deficiency on the right
32
PLATE 17 Common symptoms of leaf discolouration due to nutrient deficiencies in wheat (contd)
Magnesium deficiency on the left
Manganese deficiency
Copper deficiency
Zinc deficiency
33
variability of crop performance along the row
C Assessment
Cast your eye along the row and observe any variability in crop performance (in terms of
crop height, plant and leaf density, stem thickness, leaf colour) and compare with the class
limits in the Table 5. In making the assessment, consideration must also be given to other
factors that may affect the performance of a crop such as pest and disease attack that are not
related to the condition of the soil.
I Importance
VARIABILITY OF CROP PERFORMANCE ALONG THE ROW can be a good visual indicator
of the condition of the soil (Plates 1821). In particular, the linear variability in crop
performance can be strongly related to the availability of water and nutrients, and the
texture of the soil (e.g. whether clayey, silty, loamy or sandy). Also, soils in good condition
with good structure and porosity, and have a deep, well aerated root zone enable the
unrestricted movement of air and water into and through the soil, the development and
Furthermore, soils with good organic matter levels and soil life show an active biological
and chemical process, favouring the release and uptake of water and nutrients and
consequently the growth and vigour of the crop.
The spatial variability of crop performance along the row is also a useful indicator because
it highlights those areas of the field that are under-performing enabling a site specific
investigation as to why and what remedial action may be taken. This may include variable
rate application of fertiliser by GPS guided ground spreaders.
PLATE 18 Variable crop performance due to soil aeration and wetness
Variable crop performance

due to differences in soil
aeration and soil wetness.
34
PLATE 19 Variable crop performance due to soil compaction

due to differences in soil
compaction.
PLATE 20 Variable crop performance due to an iron pan

due to differences in rooting
depth to an iron pan.
PLATE 21 Variable crop performance due to water repellency
Concentric rings of poor

wheat growth due to severely
water repellent (hydrophobic)
soils. Areas of stronger wheat
growth occur on non-water
repellent soils.
TABLE 5 Visual scores for variability of crop performance along the row
Visual score (VS)
Variability of crop performance along the row
2 [Good]
Crop performance is good and even along the row
1 [Moderate]
Crop performance is moderately variable along the row
0 [Poor]
Crop performance is extremely variable along the row
35
root development
C Assessment
Examine the upper part of the hole dug to assess the potential rooting depth of the soil.
With the help of a knife, carefully loosen the soil around the roots to expose the root
system in-situ (Plate 22). Alternatively, dig out a 250300 mm deep slice of soil around a
group of plants and gently tap the sample against the edge of the hole to expose the root
system. Use a knife to help loosen the soil if required. Assess both the length and the
density of the roots and compare with the class limits in the Table 6. Root length and root
density is best assessed at or just prior to crop maturity.
I Importance
THE ROOT LENGTH AND ROOT DENSITY provides a good indication of the condition of the
plant root system. Crops with deep roots and a high root density are able to explore and
utilise a greater proportion of the soil for water and nutrients compared to crops with a
shallow, thin root system. Tillering, ear development and grain filling is therefore likely
to be greater, crops are less likely to suffer wind throw, and they will be less susceptible
to drought stress. Crops with a dense, deep, vigorous root system are also more likely to
raise soil organic matter levels and soil life at depth. The physical action of the roots and
soil fauna, and the glues they produce promote the development of soil structure, soil
aeration and drainage.
A deep, dense root system provides huge scope for raising production while at the same
time having significant environmental benefits. Crops are less reliant on high application
rates of fertiliser and nitrogen to generate growth, and available nutrients are more likely
to be sapped up reducing losses by leaching into the groundwater and waterways.
Root length and density can be restricted by the mechanical impedance of roots and the
lack of soil pores due to soil compaction or a hardpan. Restrictions can also occur due to
low soil moisture, soil temperature and pH, aluminium toxicity, salinity, sodicity, nutrient
deficiencies, low mycorrhizal fungi levels, soil-borne pathogens, a high or fluctuating
water table and low oxygen levels. Anaerobic (anoxic) conditions due to prolonged waterlogging and deoxygenation restrict root length and density as a result of the accumulation
of toxic levels of sulphides, carbon dioxide, methane, ethanol, acetaldehyde and ethylene,
by-products of chemical and biochemical reduction reactions (see pg 18).
36
PLATE 22 Root development
Photo showing good root development in the upper 150 mm of soil only.
The root distribution and root density in the 150300 mm zone is poor.
TABLE 6 Visual scores for root development

Visual score (VS)
Root development
2
[Good]
Good root length and root density in the upper 250300 mm of soil
1
[Moderate]
Moderate root length & density in the upper 250300 mm of soil
0
[Poor]
Poor root length & density in the upper 250300 mm of soil with the
root system being restricted to limited areas
37
root disease
C Assessment
Assess the presence of root diseases by pulling a number of stems out of the soil and
carefully examining the root system for visual evidence of root diseases at or any time
before crop maturity. Make your assessment based on the class limits in Table 7.
Consider also how commonly root diseases occur in a particular field from season to season.
I Importance
ROOT DISEASES encouraged by the degradation of soil quality include take-all (G. graminis
var. tritici), dryland root rot (Fusarium graminearum and many others), Rhizoctonia root rot
(Rhizoctonia solani) and Pythium root rot (Pythium spp.) (Plates 2326). Their presence can
cause severe yield loss and reduction in grain quality. Symptoms of root diseases include
pre- and post emergence plant death in seedlings resulting in crop thinning, stunting and
reduced tillering, discolouration of and blemishes (lesions) on stems, tillers and leaves,
bleached heads and premature death. Infected plants have sparse root development and
characteristically a brown-black rot can be seen at the crown and extending to the base.
Poor soil aeration, soil saturation and high penetration resistance to root development due
to soil structural degradation can increase root rot and soil-borne pathogens. They can also
reduce the ability of the root system to overcome the harmful effects of pathogens resident
in the topsoil.
The conservation of soil moisture, amelioration of soil compaction, the build up of organic
matter and the promotion of good soil life (in terms of microbial biomass, diversity and
activity) are factors that contribute to the development of healthy plants and the suppression
of soil-borne diseases. They also help enable the plant to better resist the pressure of disease
and insect attack. Soil biota and especially those micro-organisms that enhance cellulytic
breakdown and decomposition of straw residues further limit pathogen survival.
PLATE 23 Pythium root disease [from Compendium of Wheat Diseases by M.V. WIESE]
Wheat seedlings damaged by

Pythium species in wet soil.
38
PLATE 24 Take-all root disease [from Compendium of Wheat Diseases by M.V. WIESE]
Root rot and darkened stem

bases due to take-all (G.
graminis var. tritici).
PLATE 25 Fusarium root disease [from Compendium of Wheat Diseases by M.V. WIESE]
Secondary root emerging

from crown and invaded by
Fusarium culmorum.
PLATE 26 Root rot [from Compendium of Wheat Diseases by M.V. WIESE]
Wheat crown on the left

damaged by common root rot;
healthy crown (right).
TABLE 7 Visual scores for root disease

Visual score (VS)
Occurrence of root diseases due to soil conditions
2 [Good]
Root disease are rare
1 [Moderate]
Root disease are common
0 [Poor]
Root disease are very common
39
crop growth and height at maturity
40
C Assessment
Assess crop growth and crop height when the crop has reached maturity and preferably
two weeks after ear emergence (Plate 27). Compare with the class limits in Table 8. Your
observations of crop growth and vigour during the growing season may also provide a
useful indication of seedbed conditions. In a good season under non-limiting conditions,
a particular cultivar should grow to a certain height with about a 1015% variation.
Allowances should be made for exceptionally good seasons and for poor seasons.
I Importance
CROP GROWTH AND CROP HEIGHT AT MATURITY can be useful visual indicators of soil
quality. They are also dependent on a number of other factors including climate, cultivar,
nitrogen application and soil fertility, time of sowing, fungicide applications and the
use of plant growth regulators to reduce straw length. Crop growth and crop height are
however particularly helpful indicators of soil quality if agronomic factors have not limited
crop emergence and development during the growing season. The growth and vigour of
grain crops depend in part on the ability of the seedbed to maintain an adequate tilth
throughout the growing season. Poor soil aeration and resistance to root penetration as a
result of structural degradation reduce plant growth and vigour, and delay maturity.
PLATE 27 Crop height at maturity

MODERATE HEIGHT
MODERATELY
POOR HEIGHT
POOR HEIGHT
TABLE 8 Visual scores for crop growth and height at maturity

Visual score (VS)
Crop growth and crop height at maturity
2
[Good]
Crop growth is good and crops are at or near maximum height, with
little variability in height at maturity. Semi-dwarf varieties commonly
have a crop height at maturity of >1000 mm
1
[Moderate]
Crop growth is moderate. Crops show moderate variability in height at

maturity and are significantly below maximum (700900 mm)
0
[Poor]
Crop growth is poor and plants can appear sickly. Crop height is uneven
and patchy and well below maximum at maturity (400600 mm)
41
kernel size
C Assessment
Measure the size of the kernels just before harvesting and compare them with the photographs
and criteria given (Plate 28).
While there is a strong association between kernel number and yield, kernel size and
dry weight are also strong determinants of the final yield. In making the assessment,
consideration must be given to the plant population, tiller density and weather conditions
and in particular the rainfall and sunlight hours. High plant populations and tiller densities
will reduce the size of the kernel, and dry conditions and prolonged cloudy weather will
reduce photosynthesis and subsequently the formation of carbohydrates and starch.
I Importance
KERNEL development starts immediately after floret fertilization with cellular division
during which the endosperm cell and amyloplasts are formed. This period is known as the
lag phase and lasts for about 20 to 30 percent of the grain filling period. This is followed by
a phase of cell growth, differentiation and starch deposition in the endosperm which takes
50 to 70 percent of the grain filling period. Good availability of carbohydrate is essential
to be maintained during the crop cycle avoiding any shortage especially during the grain
filling period. Soils in good condition with good structure, porosity, organic matter levels,
soil life, soil fertility and rooting depth help ensure the supply and availability of water and
nutrients. The grain filling period is prolonged as a result and an increase in kernel size
is achieved. Good crop management practices including the adoption of widely spaced
rows and good residue cover between rows to conserve water in dry zones also help to
maximise the size of the kernel.
KERNEL SIZE is a useful determinant of grain quality by measuring the weight of
unscreened grain, the screening loss and the weight of 1000 grains of clean seed.
42
PLATE 28 How to score kernel size
Depending on the variety, kernels
are large, completely filled and well
shaped with few or no moisture stress
features apparent.
Kernels are of moderate size, may
show occasional incomplete grain
filling and stress features are often
apparent.
Kernels are generally very small with
an irregular shape and stress features
are very common.
43
crop yield
C Assessment
Assess relative crop yield based on the class limits in Table 9. Assessments can be made for all
varieties of crops by counting or estimating the number and size of ears (spikes) per square
metre, the number of kernels (grains) per ear, and the degree of grain filling. Harvested yield
monitors could also be employed. Compare these with an ideal crop (Plates 29). In making
the assessment, consideration must be given to the variety of wheat, the number of plants
per square metre, the soil moisture, air temperature and sunshine hours during the growing
season, and pests and diseases not associated with the condition of the soil.
I Importance
WITH A DECLINE IN SOIL QUALITY, crops can come under stress as a result of poor
soil aeration, water-logging, moisture stress (due to either soil saturation or a reduced
available water-holding capacity), a lack of available nutrients (Plates 3031), and adverse
temperatures. Toxic chemicals can also build up and root growth be impeded owing to
chemical reduction reactions and a high penetration resistance to root development. This
results in poor germination and emergence, poor plant growth and vigour, the need for
redrilling, delays in drilling, root diseases, pest attack, and consequently lower crop yields.
Plant stress induced by structural degradation can further affect the quality of grain by
changing the amount and type of protein and starch formed, and the enzymic potential.
These affect the amount of fermentable carbohydrate, the baking quality of wheat and the
malting potential of barley. Under good soil conditions with adequate water and nutrients,
the ripening period is prolonged and the starch accumulation inside the kernel is delayed and
more gradual. This increases yield with a higher starch and protein percentage and quality.
PLATE 29 Crop yield
Good crop yield with large ear

development and complete
grain filling.
44
PLATE 30 Effect of boron deficiency on crop yield
Small ear development on the

left due to boron deficiency.
PLATE 31 Effect of copper deficiency on crop yield
White tipping and incomplete

ear development due to
copper deficiency.
TABLE 9 Visual scores for crop yield

Visual score (VS)
Crop yield
2
[Good]
Crops have >500 ears per square metre. The ears are large with a spike length >90% of
maximum for the variety. Ears have >50 kernels (grains) per ear and show complete grain
filling with few signs of stress, pests or diseases. Harvested yield is greater than 8 tonnes
per hectare
1
[Moderate]
Crops have 300400 ears per square metre. The ears are of medium size with the spike
length varying from 6080% of maximum for the variety. Ears have 3040 kernels (grains)
per ear and show moderate and occasional uneven grain filling. Stress, pest and disease
evidence is moderately common. Harvested yield is 67 tonnes per hectare
0
[Poor]
Crops have <200 ears per square metre. The ears are generally small and vary in length.
Spike length is commonly <50% of maximum for the variety. Ears have <20 kernels (grains)
per ear and grain filling is poor and often uneven. Stress, pest and disease features are very
common. Harvested yield is less than 5 tonnes per hectare
45
production costs
C Assessment
Assess whether production costs have increased because of increased tillage/fertilizer
requirements and herbicide/fungicide application over the years (Figure 4 and Table 10).
This assessment can be based on perceptions, but reference to annual balance sheets will
give a more precise answer.
I Importance
Ground preparation, fertiliser, herbicide and pesticide inputs account for some of the
highest costs in any cropping operation, and can increase significantly with increasing soil
degradation. As degradation increases, the density and strength of the soil increases and,
as a result, the soil becomes more resistant to tillage forces. Plough resistance increases
so that larger tractors are required to avoid excessive wheel slip and the need to operate
at lower ground speeds in a lower gear. The size, density and strength of soil clods also
increase with increasing loss of soil structure, and careful timing and additional energy is
needed to break them down to a seedbed. This energy is generally applied by using more
intensive methods of cultivation and by making a greater number of passes. As a result,
conventional tillage costs can increase by over 300 percent.
Continuous cropping using conventional cultivation techniques can also give rise to a
significant loss of organic matter and, as a result, can substantially reduce soil fertility
and the ability of the soil to supply nutrients. Higher amount of fertilizer are needed to
compensate for the loss of these nutrients. The loss of organic carbon under continuous
conventional cultivation could further incur a possible carbon tax in the future.
Reductions in crop yield are often not recognised as the result of the degradation of soil
structure. Growers often assume that soil fertility is at fault and increase their production
costs by applying extra amounts of fertilisers.
46
TABLE 10 Visual scores for production costs

Visual score (VS)
Production costs
2
[Good]
Production costs including ground preparation, fertiliser, herbicide &

pesticide requirements have not increased
1
[Moderate]

pesticide requirements have increased moderately
0
[Poor]

pesticide requirements have increased greatly
47
Soil management of wheat crops

Good soil management practices are needed to maintain optimal growth conditions for
producing high crop yields, especially during the crucial periods of plant development. To
achieve this, management practices need to maintain soil conditions that are good for plant
growth, particularly aeration, temperature, nutrient and water supply. The soil needs to have
a soil structure that promotes an effective root system that can maximise water and nutrient
utilisation. Good soil structure also promotes infiltration and movement of water into and
through the soil, minimising surface ponding, runoff and soil erosion.
Conservation tillage practices, including no-tillage and minimum tillage that incorporate the
establishment of temporary cover crops and crop residues on the surface (Plates 3234),
provide soil management systems that conserve the environment, minimise the risk of soil
degradation, enhance the resilience and quality of the soil, and reduce production costs.
Conservation tillage protects the soil surface reducing water runoff and soil erosion. It
improves soil physical characteristics, reduces wheel traffic which lessens wheel traffic
compaction, and does not create tillage pans or plough pans. It improves soil trafficability and
provides opportunities to optimise sowing time, being less dependent on climatic conditions
in spring and autumn. Conservation tillage also encourages soil life and biological activity
(including earthworm numbers) and increases micro-organism biodiversity. It retains a greater
proportion of soil carbon sequestered from atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and enables the
soil to operate as a sink for CO2. Soil organic matter levels build up as a result and create the
potential to gain Carbon Credits. Conservation tillage also uses smaller amounts of fossil
fuels, generates lower greenhouse gas emissions and has a smaller ecological footprint on a
region, thereby raising marketplace acceptance of produce.
On the other hand, conventional tillage can impact negatively on the environment, with a
greater food eco-footprint on a region and a country. It reduces the organic matter content of
the soil by microbial oxidation, increases green house gas emissions (including the release of
5-times more CO2), uses more fossil fuels (i.e., 6-times more consumption of fuel), degrades
soil structure, increases soil erosion, and adversely alters microflora and microfauna by
reducing both the number of species and their biomass. The fundamental difference between
conventional tillage and conservation tillage is their relative environmental and economic
sustainability. The long-term affects of conventional tillage are cumulatively negative whereas
the long-term affects of conservation tillage are cumulatively positive.
48
PLATE 32 No-till drilling a wheat crop into an erosion-prone field

protected by herbicided pasture [BAKER NO-TILLAGE LTD]
PLATE 33 Strip-tillage planting of an annual crop protected by good residue cover
PLATE 34 Harvesting a wheat crop followed immediately by

no-till seeding the next crop into stubble [BAKER NO-TILLAGE LTD]
49
References
Field guide for wheat. FAO, Rome, Italy.
50
ISBN 978-92-5-105941-8
789251 059418
TC/D/I0007E/1/02.08/1000
F I E L D

G U I D E
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Field Guides: Visual Soil Assessment

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Field Guides: Visual Soil Assessment

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VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT FIELD GUIDES

The present publication on Visual Soil Assessment is a practical

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

BioAgriNomics.com, New Zealand

Fabio Stagnari, assistant researcher,

Michele Pisante, professor,

Jos Benites, technical officer,

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Visual Soil Assessment

NUMBER AND COLOUR OF SOIL MOTTLES

POTENTIAL ROOTING DEPTH

SURFACE CRUSTING AND SURFACE COVER

SOIL MANAGEMENT OF ANNUAL CROPS

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

How to score soil texture

The VSA tool kit

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

Adenylate energy charge

Restricted spring growth

Visual Soil Assessment

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Visual Soil Assessment

The VSA method

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

The VSA tool kit

PLATE 1 The VSA tool kit

The VSA tool kit (Plate 1) comprises:

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

Carrying out the test

Format of the booklet

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

FIGURE 2 Soil texture classes and groups

TABLE 1 How to score soil texture

Smooth soapy feel, slightly sticky, no grittiness. Moulds into

Very smooth, sticky and plastic. Moulds into a cohesive ball

Slightly gritty, faint rasping sound. Moulds into a cohesive

Gritty and rasping sound. Cannot be moulded into a ball.

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 2 How to score soil structure

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 3 How to score soil porosity

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 4 How to score soil colour

number and colour of soil mottles

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

PLATE 5 How to score soil mottles

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE

> 30 (with preferably 3 or more species)

1530 (with preferably 2 or more species)

< 15 (with predominantly 1 species)

potential rooting depth

VISUAL SOIL ASSESSMENT

VINEYARDS | OLIVE ORCHARDS | ORCHARDS | WHEAT | MAIZE | ANNUAL CROPS | PASTURE