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Czech Republic
ENKI o.p.s., Dukelsk 145, 379 01 Trebon,
Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Department of Landscape Ecology,
Nmest Smirickych
ymi
lesy, Czech Republic
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface ow (HF CWs) have been used for
wastewater treatment for more than 30 years. Most HF CWs have been designed to treat
municipal or domestic wastewater. Nowadays, municipal HF CWs focus not only on common
pollutants but also on special parameters such as pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptive
chemicals or linear alkylbenzensulfonates (LAS). At present, HF CWs are used to treat many
Keywords:
other types of wastewater. Industrial applications include wastewaters from oil reneries,
Constructed wetlands
chemical factories, pulp and paper production, tannery and textile industries, abattoir, dis-
Hybrid systems
tillery and winery industries. In particular, the use of HF CWs is becoming very common for
Municipal wastewater
Nutrients
potatoes, sugar). HF constructed wetlands are also successfully used to treat wastewaters
Organics
from agriculture (e.g., pig and dairy farms, sh farm efuents) and various runoff waters
Sub-surface ow
(agriculture, airports, highway, greenhouses, plant nurseries). HF CWs have also effectively
been used to treat landll leachate. Besides the use as a single unit, HF CWs are also used
in combination with other types of constructed wetlands in hybrid systems.
2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1.
Introduction
The technology of wastewater treatment by means of constructed wetlands with horizontal sub-surface ow (HF CWs)
was started in Germany based on research by Kthe Seidel
commencing in the 1960s (e.g., Seidel, 1961, 1964, 1965a,b,
1966) and by Reinhold Kickuth in the 1970s (e.g., Kickuth, 1977,
1978, 1981). In these systems the wastewater is fed in at the
inlet and ows slowly through the porous medium under the
surface of the bed in a more or less horizontal path until it
reaches the outlet zone where it is collected before leaving
via level control arrangement at the outlet (Fig. 1). During this
Czech Republic.
Correspondence address: ENKI o.p.s., Dukelsk 145, 379 01 Trebon,
E-mail address: vymazal@yahoo.com.
0925-8574/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.08.016
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
2.
Municipal wastewaters
HF constructed wetlands are commonly used to treat municipal and domestic (single house or cluster of houses)
wastewaters as both secondary and tertiary treatment
stages (Table 1). In general, HF constructed wetlands are
not used to treat raw municipal wastewater. Kadlec and
Knight (1996) listed the typical composition of municipal wastewatersBOD5 : 220 mg l1 , COD: 500 mg l1 , TSS:
220 mg l1 , NH4 N: 25 mg l1 , NOx N: 0 mg l1 , Norg : 15 mg l1 ,
TKN: 40 mg l1 , TP: 8 mg l1 . However, the concentrations vary
widely as a consequence of water consumption, which varies
substantially in cities and villages and also among countries.
The results shown in Table 1 indicate that HF constructed
wetlands have been successfully used to treat municipal
wastewater with a wide range of inow concentrations. Especially important is the fact that HF constructed wetlands can
successfully treat wastewaters with very low concentrations
of organics. It is well known that conventional treatment
systems such as activated sludge cannot treat wastewater
with low organic concentrations (usually less than 5080 mg/l
BOD5 ). Average treatment performance of the HF constructed
wetlands is shown in Table 2.
Besides pollutants commonly monitored in municipal
wastewaters (see Table 1), HF CWs were also used for removal
of linear alkylbenzensulfonates (LAS) (del Bubba et al., 2000;
Billore et al., 2002; Thomas et al., 2003; Huang et al., 2004;
Kantawanichkul and Wara-Aswapati, 2005) and pharmaceuticals (Matamoros et al., 2005) from the sewage. The results
indicated that sulfophenylcarboxylic acids represent the primary biodegradation products of LAS and, among these,
sulfonezoic acid is present at signicant percentages. The
results also revealed that the longer alkyl chain homologues
were removed to a greater extent than the shorter alkyl chain
homologues in the order C13 > C12 > C11 > C10 . This decrease
has been found by other authors and has been attributed to
3.
Industrial wastewaters
3.1.
Concentrations of BOD5 and COD in renery efuents usually vary in the range of 101000 mg l1 and 504000 mg l1 ,
respectively (Vymazal and Krpfelov, 2008). Treatment of
contaminated waters from the petrochemical industry (e.g.,
process waters from oil-elds, oil-contaminated waters,
runoff waters from reneries, oil-renery efuents) is aimed at
removal of various hydrocarbons including diesel range organics (typically reported as C10 C40 ), BTEX (benzene, toluene,
ethylene, xylene). Probably the largest system (240,000 m2 )
was built in Heglig, Sudan, to treat oil-elds hydrocarboncontaminated waters (D. Wood, pers. comm.). One of the
largest HF constructed wetlands in Europe (total area of
49,000 m2 ) was built in 1990 at the Air Products chemical works at Billingham, Teeside, United Kingdom (Sands
et al., 2000). The plant is producing alcohols for the plastics and detergent industries, phenol/acetone and derivatives
for plastics, detergents, pharmaceuticals and ame-retardant
purposes and amines and derivatives for drugs, detergents,
paper treatment, agrochemicals and animal feedstock additives. A HF CW built in Portugal treats wastewaters rich in
nitrates from the production of nitric acid. For references, see
Table 3.
3.2.
Table 1 Examples of treatment performance of HF constructed wetlands for treatment of municipal and domestic sewage
Location
UK
Czech Republic
UK
USA
Jamaica
Lithuania
Italy
Denmark
Czech Republic
UK
Czech Republic
Belgium
Denmark
UK
Croatia
Spain
Brazil
Area (m2 )
328
2100
825
2035
90
3780
96
2640
806
612
4495
896
437
168
360
229
450
BOD5
Flow
(m3 d1 )
TSS
In
Out
In
87
92
306
14.9
0.9
180400
6
103
50
30
176
23.3
8.1
10
40
5.8
5.8
5.9
8.5
9.4
27
51
81
115
143
189
204
232
330
390
427
513
1.1
2.7
2.3
1.0
13
7.8
7.2
6.0
14.8
18.5
15
6.0
16
25
56
67
9.7
12.0
17.7
72
57
30.6
55
158
129
135
102
196
392
116
171
304
6.6
979
19
224
TP
Out
3.8
5.2
3.8
3.5
13
12.2
18
6.4
2.4
19
11
9.0
10
21
32
33
104
TN
In
Out
1.3
6.6
9.6
11.2
5.7
4.8
8.8
NH4 N
In
Out
1.0
17.9
10.7
0.45
0.4
9.6
1.8
4.8
7.0
52
40
9.4
72
22.5
57
9.9
1.6
7.4
25
16.8
42.5
81
74.5
29
43.3
10.1
12.4
21
6.8
4.0
14.3
13.2
14.5
5.9
10.9
152
110
80
53
In
0.67
5.2
5.5
10.5
5.8
Out
0.24
4.2
0.44
2.7
0.4
FC
Ref.
In
Out
5.4
4.4
5.3
5.6
1.0
2.2
6.5
2.5
7.4
5.6
8.2
5.2
6.2
3.0
17.3
35.5
65.5
42.1
12.5
33
42.3
22.2
63.2
15.7
84
48.7
1
2
1
3
4
5
6
7
2
1
2
8
9
1
10
11
49
16
12
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
Wigmore
Onsov
Leek Wootton
Bear Creek, AL
Pisgah
Lifosa
Baggiolino
Uggerhalne
Ondrejov
Holtby
Kolodeje
Hasselt-Kiewit
Brondum
Middleton
Glavotok
Carrin de los
Cspedes
Agronomica
Country
Chemical parameters in mg l1 , fecal coliforms (FC) in log CFU 100 ml1 . Values are mostly annual means. From Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). 1, CWA (2006); 2, unpublished results; 3, Watson (1990);
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
Table 2 Average treatment performance of HF CWs treating municipal and domestic wastewaters. Elaborated from
Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008)
Concentration (mg l1 )
In
BOD5 (<40 mg l1 )
BOD5 (>40 mg l1 )
COD
TSS
TN
NH4 N
TP
19.5
178
287
113
53.0
28.4
8.7
Eff. (%)
Out
6.8
32
76
22.3
29.8
17.1
4.4
60.7
80.7
63.2
68.1
39.4
21.1
40.9
na
281 (122)
746 (261)
556 (244)
975 (319)
419 (182)
789 (254)
643 (247)
In
Out
Rem
49.3
97
237
111
25.9
18.2
6.8
17.2
19.4
88
28
15.9
12.9
4.9
32.1
77.6
149
83
10
5.3
1.9
na
230 (103)
624 (213)
493 (217)
828 (271)
388 (162)
711 (225)
509 (213)
The number denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in parentheses.
Table 3 Examples of the use of horizontal ow constructed wetlands for treatment of various types of industrial
wastewater
Industry
Location
Reference
Petrochemical
USA
UK
South Africa
China
Taiwan
Sudan
Wallace (2002a)
Chapple et al. (2002)
Wood and Hensman (1989)
Ji et al. (2002)
Yang and Hu (2005)
D. Wood (pers. comm)
Chemical
UK
Portugal
China
USA
USA
Kenya
Textile
Slovenia
Australia
Germany
Tannery
Portugal
Turkey
USA
Abattoir
Australia
New Zealand
Mexico
Ecuador
Uruguay
Food processing
Slovenia
Netherlands
USA
France
Italy
Lithuania
c et al. (1998)
Vrhovsek et al. (1996), Urbanc-Berci
De Zeeuw et al. (1990)
White (1994), Wallace (2002b)
Khalil et al. (2005)
Pucci et al. (2000), Mantovi et al. (2007), Gorra et al. (2007)
Gasiunas et al. (2005)
India
Italy
South Africa
Lignite pyrolysis
Germany
Mining
USA
Germany
Laundry
Australia
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
BOD5
COD
TSS
TN
NH4 -N
TP
In
Out
652
1856
239
138
65.2
9.3
254
789
128
102
48.6
5.2
Eff. (%)
60.1
63.1
71.6
27.8
28.0
47.6
na
48 (23)
40 (25)
37 (17)
18 (8)
46 (22)
10 (4)
In
Out
Rem
353
1212
212
84.4
34.1
5.6
158
652
137
63.9
27.0
2.7
195
560
75
20.5
7.1
2.9
na
45 (22)
40 (24)
37 (15)
18 (8)
43 (21)
10 (4)
Elaborated from Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). In = inow to a vegetated bed(s), Out = nal outow, Rem = removed load.
a
The number denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in parentheses.
3.3.
3.4.
Food processing
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
3.5.
3.6.
4.
Agricultural wastewaters
4.1.
Table 5 Examples of the use of horizontal ow constructed wetlands for treatment of various types of wastewater from
agricultural operations
Type of wastewater
Location
Reference
Pig farms
Australia
China
United Kingdom
Thailand
Lithuania
Taiwan
Strusevicius
and Struseviciene
(2003)
Lee et al. (2004)
USA
Canada
Germany
Dairy
Italy
Germany
USA
New Zealand
Denmark
Lithuania
United Kingdom
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
BOD5
COD
TSS
TN
NH4 -N
TP
In
Out
464
871
516
116
71.5
19.8
183
327
180
57.5
39.6
8.5
Eff. (%)
68.2
63.0
76.9
51.3
33.8
54.3
na
43 (19)
38 (17)
56 (26)
31 (13)
45 (18)
44 (18)
na
In
Out
Rem
541
1239
1430
68.0
74.6
13.7
294
602
779
42.0
19.0
7.0
246
637
651
26.0
55.6
6.7
43 (18)
37 (17)
54 (23)
31 (13)
45 (18)
44 (18)
Elaborated from Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). In = inow to a vegetated bed(s), Out = nal outow, Rem = removed load.
a
The number denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in parentheses.
4.2.
4.3.
Dairy efuents
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
Eff. (%)
na
Out
155
933
391
211
162
1.7
96
698
86
126
98
0.29
32.8
24.9
54.5
33.1
38.7
66.1
25 (13)
7 (6)
8 (5)
8 (5)
25 (11)
11 (3)
In
Out
Rem
28
330
40
46.3
32.2
0.16
17.1
279
17
37.8
21.7
0.02
10.9
51
23
8.5
10.5
0.14
na
24 (12)
7 (6)
8 (5)
8 (5)
26 (10)
8 (3)
Elaborated from Vymazal and Krpfelov (2008). In = inow to a vegetated bed(s), Out = nal outow, Rem = removed load.
a
The number denotes the number of annual means with number of systems in parentheses.
5.
6.
Stormwater runoff
6.1.
Airport runoff
Landll leachate
Airport runoff (Table 9) contains de-icing and anti-icing compounds applied to the aircraft, runways and taxiways. The
principal materials involved are ethylene, di-ethylene, and
propylene glycols (Worrall et al., 2002). Probably the rst fullscale HF constructed wetland for airport-runoff was a 5500 m2
system of a Kickuth type built in 1994 to treat de-icing runoff
water at Zrich-Kloten Airport (Rthlisberger, 1996). After the
trial reed beds experiment constructed in 1994 (Revitt et al.,
2001) a full-scale system at London Heathrow International
Airport was completed in 2002 with the primary aim to treat
de-icing compounds contaminated runoff from an extensive
catchment of some 600 ha of runways, taxiways, cargo areas
and terminal buildings. The system comprises a series of aerated balancing ponds combined with 2.08 ha of gravel-based
HF constructed wetlands together with a kilometer of rafted
Table 8 Examples of HF constructed wetlands used to treat landll leachate (Vymazal and Krpfelov, 2008)
Country
Location
Area (m2 )
Flow (m3 d1 )
Reference
Canada
6 45
Norway
Blstad
40
Poland
Szadki
3600
50
Slovenia
Dragonja
Mislinjska Dobrava
Lubevc
450
600
275
10
35
11
c (1997)
Bulc et al. (1996), Urbanc-Berci
c (1997)
Urbanc-Berci
c et al. (1998)
Urbanc-Berci
United Kingdom
Monument Hill
1800
USA
720
93
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
Table 9 Examples of HF constructed wetlands used to treat various types of stormwater runoff
Runoff waters
Location
Reference
Airport
UK
USA
Switzerland
Canada
Germany
Canada
Australia
France
Agricultural
China
Urban
Australia
Highway
UK
Italy
6.2.
6.3.
Agricultural runoff
6.4.
7.
Endocrine disrupting chemicals and
special organics
Chemical substances that can interfere with the normal functioning of the endocrine system have been termed Endocrine
Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) (Keith, 1997). Masi et al. (2004)
pointed out that the full list of EDCs includes a large range of
10
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
anthropogenic organic compounds, such as phthalates, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), alkylphenols, bisphenols and
steroid estrogens (Birkett and Lester, 2003). EDCs do not represent any special wastewaters but they occur in most types of
wastewaters (municipal agricultural and industrial) and therefore they are evaluated separately in this review. Vymazal and
Krpfelov (2008) summarized that a number of EDC classes
(phthalates, pesticides, PCBs and bisphenols) are industrial
products, worldwide used for several applications and are
therefore common pollutants (Staples et al., 1997; Kupfer,
1975; Chen et al., 2002). Other EDCs compounds such as dioxines and PAHs are not commercial products, but are formed as
by-products of various industrial and combustion processes;
they are transported from atmosphere to soil and water bodies (Birkett and Lester, 2003). Alkylphenols are metabolites of
their ethoxylate precursors, which are non-ionic surfactants
used in many industrial, commercial and household functions
(Del Bubba and Lepri, 2002). The presence of steroid estrogens
in wastewater mainly arises from direct female excretion, in
particular from pregnant females and women using oral contraception or hormone replacement therapies (Arcand-Hoy et
al., 1998; Andrews, 1995). In Table 10, examples of the use of
HF CWs for treatment of EDCs are presented.
Masi et al. (2004) monitored the removal of EDCs in a HF
(160 m2 )VF (180 m2 ) constructed wetland treating wastewaters from a hotel in Florence, Italy. Among EDCs (Table 10),
trace amounts of estrogens, PAHs and phthalates were found
in inlet wastewater. All of these compounds were removed
at high percentage (up to 100% for estrogens), with the only
exception of bis-2-ethylhexylphthalate which was released
by the HDPE liner. Giraud et al. (2001) described the use of
an HF constructed wetland to treat water contaminated with
PAHs, particularly uoranthene and the possible role of fungi
present in these ecosystems. Out of 40 fungal species from 24
genera, uoranthene was degraded efciently by 33 species
while only 2 species were able to remove anthracene over 70%.
Container nurseries apply pesticides and nutrients at various times throughout the year. Overhead irrigation systems
are commonly used to water the plants daily. As much as
7075% of this irrigation water runs off the packed gravel beds
that the container plants rest on (Cabrera, 1997; Beeson and
Knox, 1991). This runoff may have signicant concentrations
of pesticides. Removal of pesticides has been often reported
using FWS constructed wetlands (e.g., Alvord and Kadlec,
Location
Italy
France
USA
Germany
USA
Canada
Reference
11
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
to treat contaminated groundwater with monochlorobenzene (MCB) in Bitterfeld, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. The results
showed that MCB concentrations decreased along the wetland
transect with the most effective removal in the upper layer.
Isotopic fractionation provided evidence for in situ MCB degradation and suggested that anaerobic microbial degradation
processes played a relevant role.
8.
HF constructed wetlands used id
combination with other types of constructed
wetlands
Various types of constructed wetlands may be combined
in order to achieve higher treatment effect. These systems
Table 11 Examples of hybrid constructed wetlands used for various types of wastewater
Type of CW
Country
Type of wastewater
Reference
Sewage
UK
USA
Estonia
France
Ireland
Tunisia
Turkey
Greece
Denmark
Poland
Mexico
Greece
Canada
Kenya
Poland
Estonia
Thailand
Italy
VFHF
VFHF
VFHF
VFHF
VFHF
VFHF
VFHF
VFHF
HFVF
HFVF
HFVF
FWSHF
HFFWS
HFFWS
HFVFHF
VFHFFWSP
VFHFFWSP
HFVFHFFWS
Landll leachate
Slovenia
Norway
Canada
USA
Portugal
VFHF
HFFWS
HFFWS
FWSHF
VFHFP
Bulc (2006)
Mhlum et al. (1999)
Kinsley et al. (2006)
Eckhardt et al. (1999)
Dias et al. (2006)
Hospital
Nepal
HFVF
Dairy
Japan
VFHF
Cheese dairy
France
VFHF
Pig farm
Thailand
VFHF
Winery
Italy
Italy
HFFWS
VFHFFWSP
Fish aquaculture
Taiwan
FWSHF
Shrimp aquaculture
Taiwan
FWSHF
Polluted river
Taiwan
FWSHF
Industrial
China
FWSHF
Mining
Uganda
FWSHF
Compost leachate
France
VFHF
Slaughterhouse
Poland
VFHF
Soroko (2005)
12
e c o l o g i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g 3 5 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 117
Acknowledgements
The study was supported by grants no. 206/06/0058 Monitoring of Heavy Metals and Selected Risk Elements during
Wastewater Treatment in Constructed Wetlands from the
Czech Science Foundation and grants no. 2B06023 Development of Mass and Energy Flows Evaluation in Selected
Ecosystems and ME 876 The Use of Constructed Wetlands
with Intermittent Vertical Flow for Wastewater Treatment
from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Czech
Republic.
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