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199
ABSTRACT
Browne, P.R.L., Graham., I.J., Parker, R.J. and Wood, C.P., 1992. Subsurface andesite lavas and plutonic rocks in the
Rotokawa and Ngatamariki geothermal systems, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 51:
199-215.
Deep ( > 2 km) drillholes into the Rotokawa and Ngatamariki geothermal systems, Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ), New
Zealand, penetrate a sequence of silicic volcanic rocks and andesite lavas, the latter being locally more than 1100 m thick.
One driUhole at Ngatamariki bottoms in diorite (2200 m), the first plutonic rocks reached by any well drilled into the
Taupo Volcanic Zone.
The Rotokawa Andesite lavas, which occur below 1400 m depth, are older than 330 ka, and locally rest upon Mesozoic
metasedimentary basement rocks of the Todesse terrane. They are typically dense, jointed, and, where fresh, contain
phenocrysts of andesine-labradorite, augite, hypersthene, titanomagnetite and, in places, hornblende. Geochemically, these
rocks are medium-K, calc-alkaline, orogenic andesites. Their major- and trace-element contents and Sr isotopic ratios show
them to be chemically coherent, with little lateral or vertical variation. Hydrothermal alteration has typically added volatiles but has been largely isochemical on a hand specimen scale.
Mineralogical, geochemical and stratigraphic evidence indicates that the Rotokawa Andesites are not genetically or
temporally related to andesite lavas exposed at Rolles Peak, 5 km east of Rotokawa, nor to andesite or diorite penetrated
at Ngatamariki, but they have closer chemical affinities with the plagioclase-pyroxene phyric lavas of the Tongariro Volcanic Centre at the south end of the TVZ. The Ngatamariki Andesites have distinctive trace-element compositions (particularly Ti and Zr) and are chemically and petrographically different from most other TVZ lavas.
The occurrence of thick, subsurface andesite sequences in the Rotokawa-Ngatamariki area suggests that early eruptives
here were of intermediate composition rather than the more silicic volcanics now so widespread both at the surface and in
the shallow levels of several nearby geothermal systems.
Introduction
ter's visit (1859). Research has mainly involved examining surface exposures (e.g., Cole,
1979; Wilson et al., 1984, 1986) but also cores
and cuttings recovered from wells drilled to investigate and exploit the geothermal potential
of the region (e.g., Hedenquist, 1986). The
rocks encountered at the surface comprise
mostly Quaternary, metaluminous silicic volcanic rocks (98%), dominantly rhyolitic pyr-
200
oclastics and lavas, plus their lacustrine derivatives. Minor dacite (0.1%) and very rare
basalt ( < 0.1%) also occur and have received
some recent attention (Reid and Cole, 1983;
Graham and Worthington, 1988; Gamble et al.,
1990). The remaining 2% of the volcanics are
andesite lavas and pyroclastics that are prominent at the southern end of the zone in the
Tongariro Volcanic Centre (Cole, 1978; Graham and Hackett, 1987), and in the Bay of
Plenty (including White Island) (Duncan,
1970; Cole and Graham, 1989; Graham and
Cole, 1991 ). In the centre of the zone (Fig. 1 ),
rhyolites are dominant and andesites are exposed only rarely (e.g., at Rolles Peak), although they have been penetrated by drillholes
at several geothermal fields (Table 1 ).
'White
Is
~k
Ma
/
v ~--TEdg.ecumbe
Waiotapu
Nga ta mariki o
~ ~
&Pureora)Wairakei~.~ .~
Titiraupenga~
Tongariro~/,~'~/:~
/ / / /,~
T/~~ rnng,ariro
__
/(
,//~ Volcanic
Ruapehu ~ / . f ~
Centre
o/
oadlands-Ohaaki
Rotokawa
Rolles Peak
i ~AndesiteVolcano
o Geothermal system
with subsurface
andesitic rocks
20
I
40
I
60
I
km
Fig. 1. Taupo VolcanicZone showinggeothermalfields where andesites have been encounteredand exposed andesite/
dacite volcanoes.
201
TABLE 1
Occurrence of subsurface andesites in some geothermal fields of the Taupo Volcanic Zone
Field
No. of wells
andesite
occurs
Maximum
known
thickness (m)
Kawerau
> 14
259
BroadlandsOhaaki
Wairakei
25
26
200
Waiotapu
Rotokawa
Ngatamariki
2
4
2
1 I0
1110
> 200
Tauhara
( l flow)
Types
Local names
References
Browne, 1978
Bogie, 1981
Browne, 1971;
Wood, 1983
Grindley, 1965, 1982
Ngakoro Andcsite
Rotokawa Andesites
Ngatamariki Andesites
Hedcnquist, 1983
This paper
This paper
unnamed
Graham and
Worthington, 1988
lava
3 lava flows and flow
breccias
?intrusives
multiple ? lava
multiple lava flows,
pyroclastics
xenolith
Note: Andesites have not been reported from the Orakeikorako, Te Kopia, or Mokai geothermal fields.
202
to at least 2405 m), and RK8 (below 1900 m to
at least, 2727 m). Note that only drillhole RK4
reached the base of the flows (Fig. 2) which
here rest directly upon the basement metasediments. No interbedded lithologies were seen,
so the total thickness of the lavas ranges from
a minimum of 870 m to at least 1090 m.
The detailed morphology of the buried Rotokawa Andesite volcano cannot be determined because there are too few drillholes. It
is possible that, prior to the Taupo Ignimbrite
eruption (1.85 ka), its top was exposed, since
cobbles and pebbles of partly altered andesite
lava occur in a fluviatile conglomerate bed exposed near the Waikato River, resting upon
500
- (m)
RK 4
RK 5
orUDtIOn
SL
"
'
~eccill
s c c pyroclastic
"
RK 6
tufts
rocks
~ "
". : '. . . .
; - - " ~ ~ ~ -
" .'
'
tu,s
. '' rhyolite"
....
' " .... . . "".1" i...-~
' . '. ' .' ' .'. " . ' . ' . " ' ".'1 ".' :" ~
-500
..
I~
(Waiora Formation)
a,~
:. " - I~'.
' . -"
. . . ..
7;IL
~.rnyo~..
"1." :'
' . . : '...I. "
sediments L - - . . . .
. .' - . . '
[' ' ~ ~ - a n d e s i t e
RK 8
~'.-~
-1000.
(Wairakei Ignimbrite)
3/)
I~/
//"
6.>
/\
) \
\1/
1. ~, ~ c
I"
....
gravels
\/_
./ ./ - " / \ \ .-.-..- / ~ ~ g r ~ e y -~ l ~
/r
o o
j \ ~ q
\~
i\
~f
o%
.-
I/-
-1500
11,{
R o t o k a
.-,
-2000
greywacke
18
-2500-
/
X
d/ e s/ i t
/"
basement
"
~,
/"
/"
"
/
//
-/
////"
/
,//
/'"
"
/
.
Fig. 2. N o r t h - s o u t h c r o s s s e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e R o t o k a w a g e o t h e r m a l field s h o w i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f R o t o k a w a A n d e s i t e
l a v a s a n d t h e i r s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s . N u m b e r s i n d i c a t e core s a m p l e d e p t h s a n d m a t c h a n a l y s i s n u m b e r s in T a b l e 2.
Vertical a n d h o r i z o n t a l scales a r e t h e s a m e .
203
Geochemistry
Selected cores of Rotokawa Andesite were
examined petrographicaUy, and portions free
from hydrothermal veins crushed for analysis.
Major-element XRF analyses were made using
techniques similar to those described by Parker ( 1978 ) and Parker and Willis ( 1977 ). H20
contents were measured at 100 C and loss on
ignition (LOI) at 1000 C. Trace-element analyses made by XRF were based on multi-standard calibration lines with X-ray data corrected for background curvature, line overlaps,
and matrix effects. Sr isotopic analysis was
carried out on a fully automated VG micromass 30B mass spectrometer at DSIR Physical
Sciences (Nuclear Sciences Group), using
standard methods (Graham, 1986). 87Sr/86Sr
ratios are normalised to NBS987----- 0.71015
(measured value = 0.71005 + 0.00005 ).
The chemical compositions of thirteen Rotokawa Andesite cores are compiled in Table 2
(strongly altered rims of four cores are given
for comparison, denoted by subscript a). Although the number of samples analysed are too
few for rigorous statistical treatment and to allow firm petrogenetic deductions, they permit
assessment of chemical variation within the
andesite sequence.
The silica contents of the andesites range, on
a volatile-free basis, from 56.2 to 62.2 wt.%;
the least altered cores, as judged by petrography and their total volatile contents (Table 2;
analyses 2-4, 6-10) show a narrower range of
56.9-58.6 wt.%. Despite the possible effects of
hydrothermal alteration, these rocks are of
clearly calc-alkaline, medium- to low-K type
(Fig. 3 ) and may be classified as orogenic andesites on the basis of their Ba/La ( 17-48 ) and
C r / N i (1.4-4.8) ratios (Gill, 1981). Major
elements show small but systematic variations
with respect to SiO2 content (e.g., AlzO3, Fig.
4), similar to those exhibited by other ande-
204
~ 0
d d ~ d M ~ d ~ d d ~
- ~
N~
O 0
~V
--~
mV
--~--~
xl
U-I
.<
[.-,
~'~
205
r~
~l~eq
r~
-S.
('-I
It
c5 I
I'N
c5c5
Z
~ d ~ d d ~ d ~ d d
e,,l~
N : ~ d ~ d d d =
"
o
N ~ N N ~ N 2 N N N ~ N
dd
,:.Z
N~
,...1
NN
~m
-r.
<
m
.o
~u
206
K20
Wt %
3.
VO
Rotokawa Andesite
Ngatamariki Andesite
Ngatamariki Diorite
Tauhara Andeslte
RUAPEHU-
2"
WHITE
ISLAND
LOW-K
T--I-- l-
0
50
--T--I--I--
55
60
--F
65
Si02 Wt%
Fig. 3. K20 vs SiO2 wt.%, plotted on a 100% normalised, volatile-free basis. Classification fields from Peccerillo and
Taylor (1976). Data sources for TVZ lava fields are as follows: high-alumina basalt (HAB), Gamble et al. ( 1990); Ruapehu, Graham and Hackett ( 1987) (field includes types 1-4 and 6 ); Tongariro (including Ngaruhoe) and Kakaramea,
Maungakatote, Pihanga (K-M-P), Cole (1978), Cashman (1979), IJG unpublished data; Type 5 (V), Graham and
Hackett ( 1987) [field includes Titiraupenga, Pureora and Karangahape, Cole ( 1978), Froude and Cole ( 1985) ]; White
Island, Graham and Cole, 1991; Rolles Peak (RP) and Tauhara, Graham and Worthington (1988).
sites in the TVZ. Sr isotopic compositions range
from 0.70481 to 0.70553, similar to Tongariro
Volcanic Centre lavas (Fig. 5), but show no
correlation with Sr content. Although there are
slight but consistent changes in chemical composition within the andesite suite, these are not
related to stratigraphy (Fig. 2 ); the lavas form
a geochemically coherent group despite their
substantial thickness (at least 1 k m ) .
Ngatamariki Andesites
Andesite lavas and occasional pyroclastic
rocks were penetrated by two of the four wells
drilled in the Ngatamariki field (Table 1 ),
namely NM2 ( 9 5 3 - 9 5 5 m; 1786-2002 m ) and
NM3 ( 1 9 9 0 - 2 0 0 0 m ) . Andesite xenoliths also
occur in ignimbrites recovered from these drillholes. The andesite lavas encountered by NM3,
which correlate with cores recovered from 1786
and 2000 m in NM2, underlie welded ignimbrites here identified as Wairakei Ignimbrite.
They are thus in the same stratigraphic position as the andesites at Rotokawa. However,
basement greywacke was not reached by any
drillhole at Ngatamariki ( m a x i m u m depth is
2749 m ) . Instead, below the andesite lavas in
NM2 is a welded ignimbrite of unknown age or
affinity.
The Ngatamariki Andesites are hard, dense,
and crystal-rich. Phenocrysts are plagioclase,
augite, and brown hornblende and these phases
occasionally occur as glomerocrysts. The
groundmass is fine grained and was perhaps
207
AI20a
Wt %
20
15-
10
I
50
55
I
60
I
65
Si02 Wt %
Fig. 4. AI203 vs. SiO2 wt.%, plotted on a 100% normalised, volatile-free basis. Lava fields I - V I originally defined on
Ruapehu rocks have been refined using data from Tongariro and Kakaramea-Maungakatote-Pihanga. Included in type
5 are Karangahape and Titiraupenga-Pureora. All data sources as for Fig. 3. White Island iavas generally fall within
appropriate fields and have been omitted for clarity.
once glassy; tiny feldspar laths have a preferred orientation, and in places, the andesite
breccia clasts have a vesicular texture. No
completely unaltered samples occur, but in one,
hornblende is fresh and some original plagioclase and augite remains.
The two samples chemically analysed (Table 2, analyses 14 and 15 ) have differing SiO2
contents (56.9 and 61.8% respectively) and
low LOI ( < 2%) suggesting a low degree of alteration. TiO2 is relatively high, but otherwise
the compositions are typically calc-alkalic, medium-K orogenic andesites, like those at Rotokawa (Figs. 3 and 4).
Ngatamariki Diorite
Dioritic rocks were encountered by one well
at Ngatamariki, below 2460 m depth. They are
topped by 1300 m of altered volcanics and a
quartz-muscovite phyllite zone. These are ov-
208
a'sr
a6Sr
.7060
To%,_,,,oJ o
u ..u w,
.7050
.7040
HAB
i
I
.001
I
.002
t
.003
I
.004
I
.005
I
.006
1
.007
1/Sr
Fig. 5.87Sr/a6Srv s 1/Sr for RotokawaAndesitesand NgatamarikiDiorite. Fieldsand data sourcesas for Fig. 3. Note that
Titiraupenga-Pureoraplots separatelyfrom other type 5 lavas.
relatively high. The elevated Pb (84 ppm ) and
Zn (206 ppm) values can be attributed to the
presence of trace amounts of galena and sphalerite which both occur in some cores from
Ngatamariki.
Metasedimentary basement
Mesozoic metasedimentary basement rocks
penetrated by drillhole RK4 (Fig. 2 ) were analysed for their bulk rock chemical composition
and Sr isotopes (Table 2; analyses 22,23 ). Although the samples described here may have
been slightly modified by hydrothermal alteration, they bear a striking resemblance to Torlesse terrane metasediments analysed from
west of the Kaimanawa Ranges (south of Rotokawa, Fig. 1 ) (Graham, 1985 ). Based on this
comparison, both samples are intermediate in
composition between greywacke and argillite
(cf. table III, Graham, 1985) and together
yield a two-point "isochron" of 123 Ma with
an initial S7Sr/StSr ratio of 0.70778. These values are close to those of the Kaimanawa Ranges
of 139_+6 Ma and 0.70735_+ 0.00012 respectively (Graham, 1985), suggesting that the
rocks belong to the Torlesse Terrane (initial
S7Sr/S6Sr ratios > 0.7065 ), rather than the less
radiogenic Waipapa Terrane to the west (initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios <0.7055) (see Graham
and Mortimer, 1992 ). Pb isotope data further
support this interpretation and show the cores
to be largely unaltered (Graham et al., 1991 ).
Preliminary oxygen isotope data, however,
suggest considerable isotopic exchange has occurred (P. Blattner, pers. commun. 1991 ).
Discussion
209
of alteration, as assessed by LOI content and
petrography, their relative densities are similar since their alteration has been mainly by replacement of primary phases. The more altered parts of the four cores studied are
consistently higher in LOI, A1203,K20 and Rb
(Fig. 6 ), lower in MgO and Cr and have similar concentrations of the immobile elements Ti,
V and Zr. Elements such as Si, Fe, Ca, Na and
Ba show variable differences in concentration
but, with few exceptions, these are relatively
small, indicating that alteration was largely isochemical. The slight but significant increase
in K and Rb in the more altered parts of these
cores is consistent with their usual behaviour
during alteration of silicic volcanic rocks
(Browne, 1984; Henneberger and Browne,
1988). High Rb (and K) contents shown in
analyses 3 and 4 (Fig. 6) therefore indicates
substantial alteration of these samples, despite
their fresh appearance and low LOI values.
Rb ppm
RUAPEHU
100
0
0
TONGARIROK-P-M
50
&
Zr p p m
O
100
200
3O0
210
211
1.6
Ti02
1.4
Wt%
1.2-
1.0-
HAB
.8-
.6-
.4-
.2-
Zr ppm
I
100
200
300
Fig. 7. TiO2 wt.% vs Zr ppm for Rotokawa and Ngatamariki cores. Fields and data sources as for Fig. 3. Tongariro
Volcanic Centre lavas (except type 5 ) are combined for clarity.
212
Cr ppm
700 -
600
500
400
300
0
200
100
so
55
60
65
Si02 Wt %
Fig. 8. Cr p p m vs. SiO2 wt% for Rotokawa and Ngatamariki cores. Fields and data sources as for Fig. 4.
213
the historically active Tongariro Group stratovolcanoes, more particularly to the plagioclase-pyroxene phyric lavas and pyroxene-accumulative variants to which they are
chemically and isotopically similar.
The geothermal drilling experience also
shows that andesitic volcanism played a major
part in the history of the eastern part of the
central section of the TVZ, especially in the Rotokawa area. This is consistent with the suggestion of Cole (1982), that the initial TVZ volcanism may have been andesitic in character;
for example, the Rotokawa Andesites rest upon
greywackes and the prehistoric Hauhungatahi
andesite volcano of the Tongariro Group produced andesitic lavas that lie directly upon
Miocene marine sediments. The occurrence of
plutonic rocks at Ngatamariki where they intrude silicic volcanic deposits is also important and implies that minor andesitic magmatism continued apace with the generation of
rhyolite magmas as the TVZ developed prior to
the eruption of the Whakamaru-Wairakei Ignimbrites (330 ka). The intrusions are of diorite and not granite composition, and are thus
not the intrusive equivalents of the volumetrically much more abundant silicic volcanic
rocks.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Gas and Geothermal Trading
Group for permission to publish this paper. We
also thank I.E.M. Smith, A.R. Duncan, A.
Ewart, P.R. Kyle and A. Grunder for their
helpful comments.
References
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(unpubl.).
Bogie, I. and Browne, P.R.L., 1979. Geochemistry of hydrothermal alteration of the Ohaki Rhyolite, Broadlands Geothermal Field. Proc. 1st N.Z. Geoth. Workshop, Auckland, pp. 326-330.
Browne, P.R.L., 1971. Petrological logs of drillholes,
214
Broadlands Geothermal Field. N.Z. Geol. Surv., Rep.
52, 87 pp.
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84, 57 pp.
Browne, P.R.L., 1984. Lectures on geothermal geology and
petrology. United Nations University, Reykjavik, 87
PP.
Cashman, K.V., 1979. Evolution of Kakaramea and
Maungakatote volcanoes, Tongariro Volcanic Centre,
New Zealand. MSc. thesis, lodged at Victoria University, Wellington (unpubl.).
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Centre, North Island, New Zealand. J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 3: 121-153.
Cole, J.W., 1979. Structure, petrology and genesis of Cenozoic Volcanism, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand
- - a review. N.Z.J. Geol. Geophys., 22:631-656.
Cole, J.W., 1982. Tonga-Kermadec-New Zealand. In: R.S.
Thorpe (Editor), Andesites. Wiley, Chchester, pp. 245-58.
Cole, J.W. and Graham, I.J. 1989. Petrology ofstrombolian and phreatomagmatic ejecta from the 1976-82
White Island eruption sequence. N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull.,
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Cole, J.W., Cashman, K.V. and Rankin, P.C., 1983. Rare
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Chem. Geol., 38: 255-274.
Duncan, A.R., 1970. The petrology and petrochemistry of
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Froude, D.O. and Cole, J.W., 1985. Petrography, mineralogy and density of Titiraupenga Volcano, North Island, New Zealand. N.Z.J. Geol. Geophys., 28: 487496.
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Cole, J.W., Houghton, B.F. and Wilson, C.J.N. 1990.
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Gill, J.B., 1981. Orogenic Andesites and Plate Tectonics.
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Graham, l.J., 1985. Rb-Sr Geochronology and Geochemistry ofTorlesse metasediments from the Central North
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215
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