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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 51 ( 1992 ) 199-215

199

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Subsurface andesite lavas and plutonic rocks in the Rotokawa


and Ngatamariki geothermal systems, Taupo Volcanic Zone,
New Zealand
P.R.L. Browne a, I.J. Graham b, R.J. Parkerc and C.P. Woodd
aGeothermalInstitute and GeologyDepartment, UniversityofAuckland, Auckland, New Zealand
bDSIR PhysicalSciences, NuclearSciences Group, PO Box 31312, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
CGeologyDepartment, Universityof Aucldand,Auckland, New Zealand
dDSIR Geologyand Geophysics, PO Box 499, Rotorua, New Zealand
(Received February 27, 1991; revised and accepted November 6, 1991 )

ABSTRACT
Browne, P.R.L., Graham., I.J., Parker, R.J. and Wood, C.P., 1992. Subsurface andesite lavas and plutonic rocks in the
Rotokawa and Ngatamariki geothermal systems, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 51:
199-215.
Deep ( > 2 km) drillholes into the Rotokawa and Ngatamariki geothermal systems, Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ), New
Zealand, penetrate a sequence of silicic volcanic rocks and andesite lavas, the latter being locally more than 1100 m thick.
One driUhole at Ngatamariki bottoms in diorite (2200 m), the first plutonic rocks reached by any well drilled into the
Taupo Volcanic Zone.
The Rotokawa Andesite lavas, which occur below 1400 m depth, are older than 330 ka, and locally rest upon Mesozoic
metasedimentary basement rocks of the Todesse terrane. They are typically dense, jointed, and, where fresh, contain
phenocrysts of andesine-labradorite, augite, hypersthene, titanomagnetite and, in places, hornblende. Geochemically, these
rocks are medium-K, calc-alkaline, orogenic andesites. Their major- and trace-element contents and Sr isotopic ratios show
them to be chemically coherent, with little lateral or vertical variation. Hydrothermal alteration has typically added volatiles but has been largely isochemical on a hand specimen scale.
Mineralogical, geochemical and stratigraphic evidence indicates that the Rotokawa Andesites are not genetically or
temporally related to andesite lavas exposed at Rolles Peak, 5 km east of Rotokawa, nor to andesite or diorite penetrated
at Ngatamariki, but they have closer chemical affinities with the plagioclase-pyroxene phyric lavas of the Tongariro Volcanic Centre at the south end of the TVZ. The Ngatamariki Andesites have distinctive trace-element compositions (particularly Ti and Zr) and are chemically and petrographically different from most other TVZ lavas.
The occurrence of thick, subsurface andesite sequences in the Rotokawa-Ngatamariki area suggests that early eruptives
here were of intermediate composition rather than the more silicic volcanics now so widespread both at the surface and in
the shallow levels of several nearby geothermal systems.

Introduction

The Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) in the


North Island of New Zealand has been extensively studied since the days of Von HochstetCorrespondence to: P.R.L. Browne, Geothermal Institute
and Geology Department, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.

ter's visit (1859). Research has mainly involved examining surface exposures (e.g., Cole,
1979; Wilson et al., 1984, 1986) but also cores
and cuttings recovered from wells drilled to investigate and exploit the geothermal potential
of the region (e.g., Hedenquist, 1986). The
rocks encountered at the surface comprise
mostly Quaternary, metaluminous silicic volcanic rocks (98%), dominantly rhyolitic pyr-

0377-0273/92/$05.00 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

200
oclastics and lavas, plus their lacustrine derivatives. Minor dacite (0.1%) and very rare
basalt ( < 0.1%) also occur and have received
some recent attention (Reid and Cole, 1983;
Graham and Worthington, 1988; Gamble et al.,
1990). The remaining 2% of the volcanics are
andesite lavas and pyroclastics that are prominent at the southern end of the zone in the
Tongariro Volcanic Centre (Cole, 1978; Graham and Hackett, 1987), and in the Bay of
Plenty (including White Island) (Duncan,
1970; Cole and Graham, 1989; Graham and
Cole, 1991 ). In the centre of the zone (Fig. 1 ),
rhyolites are dominant and andesites are exposed only rarely (e.g., at Rolles Peak), although they have been penetrated by drillholes
at several geothermal fields (Table 1 ).

The purpose of this paper is to describe


and interpret buried andesite flows, locally
more than 1 km thick, recently encountered by
driUholes at the Rotokawa and Ngatamariki
geothermal systems. These will henceforward
be referred to as the Rotokawa and Ngatamariki Andesites, respectively. Their presence
provides a partial record of the early volcanic
history of the southeastern section of the TVZ.
Diorite penetrated in one drillhole at Ngatamariki is described also, being the first plutonic body to be reached by any drillhole in the
TVZ.
Andesitic lavas and breccias are present at
several other geothermal systems in the TVZ
(Table 1 ). For example, both tufts and lavas,
comprising at least two distinct flows, occur at

'White
Is
~k
Ma
/

v ~--TEdg.ecumbe

Waiotapu

Nga ta mariki o
~ ~
&Pureora)Wairakei~.~ .~

Titiraupenga~

Tongariro~/,~'~/:~
/ / / /,~
T/~~ rnng,ariro
__
/(
,//~ Volcanic
Ruapehu ~ / . f ~
Centre

o/
oadlands-Ohaaki
Rotokawa

Rolles Peak

i ~AndesiteVolcano
o Geothermal system
with subsurface
andesitic rocks
20
I

40
I

60
I

km

Fig. 1. Taupo VolcanicZone showinggeothermalfields where andesites have been encounteredand exposed andesite/
dacite volcanoes.

201
TABLE 1
Occurrence of subsurface andesites in some geothermal fields of the Taupo Volcanic Zone
Field

No. of wells
andesite
occurs

Maximum
known
thickness (m)

Kawerau

> 14

259

BroadlandsOhaaki
Wairakei

25

26

200

Waiotapu
Rotokawa
Ngatamariki

2
4
2

1 I0
1110
> 200

Tauhara

( l flow)

Types

Local names

References

min. 2 flows; tuff

Upper Kawerau Andesite


Lower Kawerau Andesite
unnamed
Waiora Valley Andesite

Browne, 1978
Bogie, 1981
Browne, 1971;
Wood, 1983
Grindley, 1965, 1982

Ngakoro Andcsite
Rotokawa Andesites
Ngatamariki Andesites

Hedcnquist, 1983
This paper
This paper

unnamed

Graham and
Worthington, 1988

lava
3 lava flows and flow
breccias
?intrusives
multiple ? lava
multiple lava flows,
pyroclastics
xenolith

Note: Andesites have not been reported from the Orakeikorako, Te Kopia, or Mokai geothermal fields.

Kawerau (Browne, 1978; Bogie, 1981), and


minor andesite flows are also known at OhaakiBroadlands and Waiotapu (Browne, 1971;
Wood, 1983; Hedenquist, 1983 ). At Wairakei,
the Waiora Valley Andesite, dominantly a flow
breccia, is locally a very important permeable
unit (Grindley, 1965, 1982). Here it overlies
Wairakei Ignimbrite, recently correlated with
the Whakamaru Ignimbrite (330 ka, Wilson et
al., 1986). Two andesite flows older than the
Wairakei Ignimbrite, however, were also penetrated by Wairakei driUhole WK121, the single
deep (2400 m) drillhole into this system
(Grindley, 1982).
The thickest known subsurface sequence of
andesites in the TVZ has been encountered at
Rotokawa (Fig. 1 ), 7-10 km east of Wairakei.
Andesites were also reached by four drillholes
in the Ngatamariki field 10 km northwards.
There are four main reasons why these andesite occurrences are important.
(a) At Rotokawa, the andesites encountered in one drillhole (RK4) rest directly upon
Mesozoic metasediments that comprise the
basement rocks of the TVZ; therefore these lavas are likely to be among the earliest volcanic
products in this part of the TVZ.
(b) The occurrence of diorite surrounded by

a metamorphic aureole and overlain by andesites lavas in drillhole NM4, Ngatamariki is


unique in the TVZ and raises questions regarding the relationship, if any, between the diorite
and the andesites.
(c) Rolles Peak, 5 km east of Rotokawa (Fig.
1 ) is notable for being the only andesite volcano exposed in the centre of the TVZ. Graham
and Worthington (1988 ) have suggested that
magma of similar composition to the Rolles
Peak Andesite is an end member component
of mixed magma dacite lavas comprising Mt
Tauhara, 7 km southwest of Rolles Peak itself
(Fig. 1 ). It is important to establish whether
or not the Rolles Peak and Rotokawa-Ngatamariki andesites are genetically related.
(d) Important structural implications for
this part of the TVZ would follow should the
andesites at Rotokawa and Ngatamariki
correlate.
Rotokawa Andesites

Distribution and stratigraphic relationships


Andesite lavas were encountered at Rotokawa by drillholes RK4 ( 1330 to 2200 m), RK5
(from 1560 m to at least 2650 m), RK6 ( 1705

202
to at least 2405 m), and RK8 (below 1900 m to
at least, 2727 m). Note that only drillhole RK4
reached the base of the flows (Fig. 2) which
here rest directly upon the basement metasediments. No interbedded lithologies were seen,
so the total thickness of the lavas ranges from
a minimum of 870 m to at least 1090 m.
The detailed morphology of the buried Rotokawa Andesite volcano cannot be determined because there are too few drillholes. It
is possible that, prior to the Taupo Ignimbrite
eruption (1.85 ka), its top was exposed, since
cobbles and pebbles of partly altered andesite
lava occur in a fluviatile conglomerate bed exposed near the Waikato River, resting upon

500

- (m)

RK 4

RK 5

orUDtIOn

SL
"

'

22.6 ka Oruanui Ash (Wilson et al., 1988).


However, this possibility is difficult to reconcile with the subsurface stratigraphy which reveals that the Rotokawa Andesites are overlain by two separate cooling units, the Wairakei
and Whakamaru Ignimbrites (330 ka). Perhaps, however, the andesite volcano at Rotokawa was locally high standing enough for it
not to be covered by these ignimbrites during
their eruption. Paleomagnetic measurements
made on cores have, to date, been unable to
resolve whether the andesite lavas are reverse
or normally magnetised; hence at this stage we
only know that they are older than 330 ka.

~eccill

s c c pyroclastic
"

RK 6
tufts

rocks

~ "

". : '. . . .

, . ' . " "."

; - - " ~ ~ ~ -

" .'

'

tu,s

. '' rhyolite"

i"('..i; ii.I !. il.'i'.,.!..i.ii.Jii

....
' " .... . . "".1" i...-~
' . '. ' .' ' .'. " . ' . ' . " ' ".'1 ".' :" ~

-500

..

I~

(Waiora Formation)

a,~

:. " - I~'.
' . -"

. . . ..

7;IL

~.rnyo~..

"1." :'
' . . : '...I. "

sediments L - - . . . .

. .' - . . '

[' ' ~ ~ - a n d e s i t e

RK 8

~'.-~

silicic welded tuff

-1000.

(Wairakei Ignimbrite)

3/)

I~/

//"

6.>

/\

) \

\1/

1. ~, ~ c
I"

....

gravels

\/_

./ ./ - " / \ \ .-.-..- / ~ ~ g r ~ e y -~ l ~

/r

o o

j \ ~ q

\~

i\

~f

o%

.-

I/-

-1500
11,{

R o t o k a

.-,

-2000
greywacke
18

-2500-

/
X

d/ e s/ i t
/"

basement

"

~,

/"

/"

"

/
//

-/

////"
/

,//

/'"

"

/
.

Fig. 2. N o r t h - s o u t h c r o s s s e c t i o n t h r o u g h t h e R o t o k a w a g e o t h e r m a l field s h o w i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f R o t o k a w a A n d e s i t e
l a v a s a n d t h e i r s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s . N u m b e r s i n d i c a t e core s a m p l e d e p t h s a n d m a t c h a n a l y s i s n u m b e r s in T a b l e 2.
Vertical a n d h o r i z o n t a l scales a r e t h e s a m e .

203

Mineralogy and lithology


Where fresh, the Rotokawa Andesites are
jointed, dark grey to black, porphyritic lavas
with fine-grained groundmasses. Phenocryst
contents range up to about 40%, and crystals
are mostly between 1 and 2 m m long, with a
maximum of 4 mm. No definite pyroclastic
rocks were identified. Evidence for these andesites being flows and not intrusive rocks is
the vesicularity of some samples, their finegrained groundmass, and the occasional subparallel alignment of phenocrysts and groundmass plagioclase crystals. Many of the core and
cutting samples recovered are hydrothermally
altered, but their primary mineralogy can usually be deduced from pseudomorph shapes. In
addition, several cores are near fresh with their
primary minerals intact, despite geothermal
reservoir temperatures that are locally above
300C.
The mineralogy of the lavas differs little laterally or vertically throughout the drilled sequence, and the primary phenocrysts present
were (and in places still are): andesine-labradorite, augite, hypersthene and titanomagnetire. The groundmass consists of plagioclase
laths, interstitial pyroxene, and disseminated
iron-titanium oxides. Plagioclase, the most
abundant mineral, forms euhedral to subhedral phenocrysts that are optically zoned, occasionally glomerocrystic, ranging in composition from An6o to An68. Augite phenocrysts are
commonly euhedral, twinned, and up to 3 m m
long; crystals from RK4 (1429 m) have compositions between W039 En45 Fst6 and Wo44
En47 Us9. Hypersthene is rarer than augite
mainly because it is more easily altered, but
also because it was less abundant in the fresh
lavas; hypersthene crystals in core from RK4
(1429 m) have compositions close to
Wo4En68Fs28. They lack obvious zoning and,
like augite, have low TiO2 ( < 0.4%) and MnO
( < 0.6%) contents. Some titanomagnetite survives as small, dispersed, anhedral crystals, but
most has been altered to leucoxene. Horn-

blende is present in only one sample (RK6,


1861 m), where it forms euhedral phenocrysts
up to 2.5 mm long.

Geochemistry
Selected cores of Rotokawa Andesite were
examined petrographicaUy, and portions free
from hydrothermal veins crushed for analysis.
Major-element XRF analyses were made using
techniques similar to those described by Parker ( 1978 ) and Parker and Willis ( 1977 ). H20
contents were measured at 100 C and loss on
ignition (LOI) at 1000 C. Trace-element analyses made by XRF were based on multi-standard calibration lines with X-ray data corrected for background curvature, line overlaps,
and matrix effects. Sr isotopic analysis was
carried out on a fully automated VG micromass 30B mass spectrometer at DSIR Physical
Sciences (Nuclear Sciences Group), using
standard methods (Graham, 1986). 87Sr/86Sr
ratios are normalised to NBS987----- 0.71015
(measured value = 0.71005 + 0.00005 ).
The chemical compositions of thirteen Rotokawa Andesite cores are compiled in Table 2
(strongly altered rims of four cores are given
for comparison, denoted by subscript a). Although the number of samples analysed are too
few for rigorous statistical treatment and to allow firm petrogenetic deductions, they permit
assessment of chemical variation within the
andesite sequence.
The silica contents of the andesites range, on
a volatile-free basis, from 56.2 to 62.2 wt.%;
the least altered cores, as judged by petrography and their total volatile contents (Table 2;
analyses 2-4, 6-10) show a narrower range of
56.9-58.6 wt.%. Despite the possible effects of
hydrothermal alteration, these rocks are of
clearly calc-alkaline, medium- to low-K type
(Fig. 3 ) and may be classified as orogenic andesites on the basis of their Ba/La ( 17-48 ) and
C r / N i (1.4-4.8) ratios (Gill, 1981). Major
elements show small but systematic variations
with respect to SiO2 content (e.g., AlzO3, Fig.
4), similar to those exhibited by other ande-

204

~ 0

d d ~ d M ~ d ~ d d ~

- ~

N~

O 0

~V

--~

mV

--~--~

xl
U-I

.<
[.-,

~'~

205

r~
~l~eq

r~

-S.

('-I

It
c5 I
I'N

c5c5

Z
~ d ~ d d ~ d ~ d d

e,,l~

N : ~ d ~ d d d =

"
o

N ~ N N ~ N 2 N N N ~ N

dd

,:.Z

N~

,...1

NN
~m
-r.

<
m
.o

~u

206

K20
Wt %
3.

VO

Rotokawa Andesite

Ngatamariki Andesite

Ngatamariki Diorite
Tauhara Andeslte
RUAPEHU-

2"
WHITE
ISLAND

LOW-K
T--I-- l-

0
50

--T--I--I--

55

60

--F
65

Si02 Wt%
Fig. 3. K20 vs SiO2 wt.%, plotted on a 100% normalised, volatile-free basis. Classification fields from Peccerillo and
Taylor (1976). Data sources for TVZ lava fields are as follows: high-alumina basalt (HAB), Gamble et al. ( 1990); Ruapehu, Graham and Hackett ( 1987) (field includes types 1-4 and 6 ); Tongariro (including Ngaruhoe) and Kakaramea,
Maungakatote, Pihanga (K-M-P), Cole (1978), Cashman (1979), IJG unpublished data; Type 5 (V), Graham and
Hackett ( 1987) [field includes Titiraupenga, Pureora and Karangahape, Cole ( 1978), Froude and Cole ( 1985) ]; White
Island, Graham and Cole, 1991; Rolles Peak (RP) and Tauhara, Graham and Worthington (1988).
sites in the TVZ. Sr isotopic compositions range
from 0.70481 to 0.70553, similar to Tongariro
Volcanic Centre lavas (Fig. 5), but show no
correlation with Sr content. Although there are
slight but consistent changes in chemical composition within the andesite suite, these are not
related to stratigraphy (Fig. 2 ); the lavas form
a geochemically coherent group despite their
substantial thickness (at least 1 k m ) .

Ngatamariki Andesites
Andesite lavas and occasional pyroclastic
rocks were penetrated by two of the four wells
drilled in the Ngatamariki field (Table 1 ),
namely NM2 ( 9 5 3 - 9 5 5 m; 1786-2002 m ) and
NM3 ( 1 9 9 0 - 2 0 0 0 m ) . Andesite xenoliths also

occur in ignimbrites recovered from these drillholes. The andesite lavas encountered by NM3,
which correlate with cores recovered from 1786
and 2000 m in NM2, underlie welded ignimbrites here identified as Wairakei Ignimbrite.
They are thus in the same stratigraphic position as the andesites at Rotokawa. However,
basement greywacke was not reached by any
drillhole at Ngatamariki ( m a x i m u m depth is
2749 m ) . Instead, below the andesite lavas in
NM2 is a welded ignimbrite of unknown age or
affinity.
The Ngatamariki Andesites are hard, dense,
and crystal-rich. Phenocrysts are plagioclase,
augite, and brown hornblende and these phases
occasionally occur as glomerocrysts. The
groundmass is fine grained and was perhaps

207

AI20a
Wt %
20

15-

10

I
50

55

I
60

I
65

Si02 Wt %
Fig. 4. AI203 vs. SiO2 wt.%, plotted on a 100% normalised, volatile-free basis. Lava fields I - V I originally defined on
Ruapehu rocks have been refined using data from Tongariro and Kakaramea-Maungakatote-Pihanga. Included in type
5 are Karangahape and Titiraupenga-Pureora. All data sources as for Fig. 3. White Island iavas generally fall within
appropriate fields and have been omitted for clarity.

once glassy; tiny feldspar laths have a preferred orientation, and in places, the andesite
breccia clasts have a vesicular texture. No
completely unaltered samples occur, but in one,
hornblende is fresh and some original plagioclase and augite remains.
The two samples chemically analysed (Table 2, analyses 14 and 15 ) have differing SiO2
contents (56.9 and 61.8% respectively) and
low LOI ( < 2%) suggesting a low degree of alteration. TiO2 is relatively high, but otherwise
the compositions are typically calc-alkalic, medium-K orogenic andesites, like those at Rotokawa (Figs. 3 and 4).

Ngatamariki Diorite
Dioritic rocks were encountered by one well
at Ngatamariki, below 2460 m depth. They are
topped by 1300 m of altered volcanics and a
quartz-muscovite phyllite zone. These are ov-

erlain by silicic lavas, lacustrine sediments and


pyroclastic rocks, including the WairakeiWhakamaru Ignimbrite, all of which lie outside the metamorphic aureole around the pluton. This indicates that intrusion and alteration occurred prior to 330 ka. The diorite is a
dense, veined and mottled rock comprising
50% oligoclase (partly albitised) intergrown
with green fibrous amphibole (25%) and titanomagnetite (5%), with interstitial quartz
(5-10%). Accessory hydrothermal titanite,
epidote, calcite, chlorite and apatite are present, and veining is of at least two generations,
both containing green amphibole and one with
quartz.
The major-element composition indicates
the diorite (Table 2; analysis 16), like those of
the Rotokawa and Ngatamariki Andesites, is
broadly calcalkalic and medium-K type (Figs.
3 and 4). Cr and Ni contents are low, and highfield-strength (HFS) elements (P, Ti, Y) are

208

a'sr

a6Sr
.7060

To%,_,,,oJ o

u ..u w,

.7050

.7040
HAB
i

I
.001

I
.002

t
.003

I
.004

I
.005

I
.006

1
.007

1/Sr
Fig. 5.87Sr/a6Srv s 1/Sr for RotokawaAndesitesand NgatamarikiDiorite. Fieldsand data sourcesas for Fig. 3. Note that
Titiraupenga-Pureoraplots separatelyfrom other type 5 lavas.
relatively high. The elevated Pb (84 ppm ) and
Zn (206 ppm) values can be attributed to the
presence of trace amounts of galena and sphalerite which both occur in some cores from
Ngatamariki.

Metasedimentary basement
Mesozoic metasedimentary basement rocks
penetrated by drillhole RK4 (Fig. 2 ) were analysed for their bulk rock chemical composition
and Sr isotopes (Table 2; analyses 22,23 ). Although the samples described here may have
been slightly modified by hydrothermal alteration, they bear a striking resemblance to Torlesse terrane metasediments analysed from
west of the Kaimanawa Ranges (south of Rotokawa, Fig. 1 ) (Graham, 1985 ). Based on this
comparison, both samples are intermediate in
composition between greywacke and argillite
(cf. table III, Graham, 1985) and together
yield a two-point "isochron" of 123 Ma with
an initial S7Sr/StSr ratio of 0.70778. These values are close to those of the Kaimanawa Ranges

of 139_+6 Ma and 0.70735_+ 0.00012 respectively (Graham, 1985), suggesting that the
rocks belong to the Torlesse Terrane (initial
S7Sr/S6Sr ratios > 0.7065 ), rather than the less
radiogenic Waipapa Terrane to the west (initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios <0.7055) (see Graham
and Mortimer, 1992 ). Pb isotope data further
support this interpretation and show the cores
to be largely unaltered (Graham et al., 1991 ).
Preliminary oxygen isotope data, however,
suggest considerable isotopic exchange has occurred (P. Blattner, pers. commun. 1991 ).

Discussion

Effects of hydrothermal alteration on


Rotokawa Andesites
The general effects of alteration on the Rotokawa Andesites have an important bearing
on the usefulness of chemical analyses in discussions of their petrogenesis and relationship
to other TVZ lavas. This has been addressed by
considering the LOI values of the samples and

209
of alteration, as assessed by LOI content and
petrography, their relative densities are similar since their alteration has been mainly by replacement of primary phases. The more altered parts of the four cores studied are
consistently higher in LOI, A1203,K20 and Rb
(Fig. 6 ), lower in MgO and Cr and have similar concentrations of the immobile elements Ti,
V and Zr. Elements such as Si, Fe, Ca, Na and
Ba show variable differences in concentration
but, with few exceptions, these are relatively
small, indicating that alteration was largely isochemical. The slight but significant increase
in K and Rb in the more altered parts of these
cores is consistent with their usual behaviour
during alteration of silicic volcanic rocks
(Browne, 1984; Henneberger and Browne,
1988). High Rb (and K) contents shown in
analyses 3 and 4 (Fig. 6) therefore indicates
substantial alteration of these samples, despite
their fresh appearance and low LOI values.

comparing the compositions of less and more


altered sections of cores recovered from the
same depths.
The n20 contents of variably altered andesite samples differ to a small degree (compare
more altered rims with adjacent centres, Table
2 ), but across the full spectrum of samples the
LOI ranges from 1% (analysis 3) to 6% (analysis 12). This compares with 0.1-1.5 wt.% for
the majority of fresh andesites elsewhere in the
TVZ. Samples with the highest LOI contents
(analyses 1, 5, 12, 13 ) have noticeably higher
abundances of calcite, clays and pyrite. Qualitatively then, the LOI reflects the intensity of
alteration.
Chemical changes produced by hydrothermal fluids have also been assessed by comparing more-altered with less-altered parts of four
selected samples (RK4, 1840 m; RK6, 1861 m;
RKS, 2280 m; and RK8, 2219 m). Although
these cores range widely in their overall degree
150

Rb ppm

RUAPEHU

100

0
0

TONGARIROK-P-M

50
&

Zr p p m
O

100

200

3O0

Fig. 6. Rb vs. Zr variation diagramshowingRb enrichmentdue to increaseddegreesof hydrothermalalteration (dots are


more altered parts of linked samples). Fields and data sourcesas for Fig. 3.

210

Hydrothermal alteration at Rotokawa reflects the permeability of the andesites, the


thermal regime and, to some extent, the composition of the circulating fluids. Fluid inclusion measurements and fluid/mineral equilibria considerations (Browne, unpublished data)
indicate that the observed alteration formed,
under the present-day thermal conditions and
hydrological regime. The chemical compositions of the lavas do not, however, strongly reflect either their intensity of alteration nor the
identity of the hydrothermal phases formed.
Obviously, the altered cores must have been
affected by the addition of at least some water,
carbon dioxide, and sulphur since these are
needed to form chlorite, illite, calcite and pyrite. However, alteration has generally occurred without significant major-element addition or loss. The results (Table 2) suggest
that the observed alteration, even in the most
intensely altered cores, was largely isochemical
(though Pb isotopes do indicate partial equilibration with pore fluids circulating within the
overlying silicic volcanics; Graham et al.,
1992 ). This contrasts with the usual style of alteration in silicic pyroclastic rocks where extensive element transfer between rock and fluid
phases has taken place (e.g., Bogie and Browne,
1979; Kakimoto and Browne, 1986; Henneberger and Browne, 1988). Hence, in the following discussion we assume that the chemistry of the Rotokawa (and Ngatamariki)
Andesites reflect closely their primary compositions and observed variations are largely due
to magmatic processes.

Ngatamariki. The chemical composition of the


andesite lavas of Ngatamariki, particularly
their high TiO2, P205 and Zr contents (Fig. 7 )
and their petrography (abundance of hornblende), further show that these do not correlate with the Rotokawa Andesites.
The Ngatamariki Diorite has a mineralogy
and chemistry which suggests that it is also genetically unrelated to the Rotokawa Andesite
lavas. This is best seen from their different major-element contents (higher Fe203a- and
Na20) and high-field-strength element contents (higher P205, TiO2, Y, Table 2; Fig. 7).
They do, however, have similar 878r/86Sr ratios (Fig. 5 ) The spatial relationship of the two
units is uncertain since plutonic rocks do not,
so far as is known, intrude into the andesite lavas at Ngatamariki and none were penetrated
by drillholes at Rotokawa. This contrasts with
some geothermal systems in the Philippines
and Indonesia (e.g., Leach and Bogie, 1982;
Lawless et al., 1983 ); where plutonic rocks of
gabbroic to quartz diorite composition intrude
andesite lavas and pyroclastic rocks of equivalent composition. It is curious, nonetheless,
that intrusive rocks encountered in these systems are dominantly diorite; this is not a surprise for the Philippine and Indonesian systems perhaps, but is certainly so in the TVZ
where granite or granodiorite might be expected (Ewart and Cole, 1967).
Magma of andesitic composition clearly ascended at Ngatamariki and Rotokawa via separate vents, and at the latter location must have
constructed a large volcano, but flows from it
apparently did not reach Ngatamariki.

Relationship between andesitic lavas and


plutonic rocks in the Ngatamariki-Rotokawa
areas

Comparison of Rotokawa and Ngatamariki


Andesites with Rolles Peak, Tauhara and
Ruapehu Andesites

An unknown number of andesite lava flows,


locally accumulated to thicknesses exceeding
1100 m, occur at Ngatamariki and Rotokawa.
Individual flow units cannot be correlated between locations, nor even between individual
wells at Rotokawa but can be correlated at

Rolles Peak volcano, located some 5 km east


of Rotokawa (Fig. 1), was mapped by Grindley (1965 ) as being Late Pleistocene in age,
and described by him as the eroded remnant
of a much larger edifice. Recently obtained paleomagnetic evidence and radiometric dates

211

1.6

Ti02
1.4

Wt%

1.2-

1.0-

HAB

.8-

.6-

.4-

.2-

Zr ppm
I

100

200

300

Fig. 7. TiO2 wt.% vs Zr ppm for Rotokawa and Ngatamariki cores. Fields and data sources as for Fig. 3. Tongariro
Volcanic Centre lavas (except type 5 ) are combined for clarity.

(B.F. Houghton, unpublished data) show


Rolles Peak Andesite predates WairakeiWhakamaru Ignimbrites and is therefore older
than 330 ka. Andesite lava examined at Rolles
Peak is porphyritic and partly devitrified containing euhedral to subhedral phenocrysts of
andesine-labradorite, augite and hypersthene.
Its groundmass is locally coarse grained and
comprises plagioclase, pyroxene, hornblende
and both tridymite and microcrystaUine quartz
(Graham and Worthington, 1988 ). The lava is
also of calc-alkalic and medium-l( orogenic
type and has intermediate silica contents (Fig.
3 ). Many of its major and trace constituents
lie within the ranges of the Rotokawa and Ngatamariki Andesites; however, AI203 (Fig. 4),
and Sr contents are significantly higher and its

Sr isotopic composition is much lower (Fig. 5 ).


The significant geochemical differences outlined above suggest that neither the Rotokawa
nor the Ngatamariki Andesites are related to
the Rolles Peak Andesite, despite their possibly having similar ages. An andesite xenolith
incorporated in rhyolite lava at Tauhara (Fig.
1; Graham and Worthington, 1988) is compositionally similar to Rotokawa Andesites
(Figs. 3 and 4). However, it too has a higher
Sr content, a lower STSr/86Sr ratio (Fig. 5 ) and,
like Rolles Peak Andesite, lower Zr (Figs. 6 and
7).
The Rotokawa Andesites show a much closer
geochemical and isotopic affinity to plagioclase-pyroxene phyric lavas of the Tongariro
Volcanic Centre (i.e. type 1 of Graham and

212

Hackett, 1987); some samples, particularly


those of higher SiO2 content, fall partly into the
pyroxene-phyric (type 3 ) field. These samples
are probably accumulative in pyroxene as indicated by their higher Ni and Cr contents (Fig.
8). 87Sr/86Sr ratios show a similar range to
those of (type 1-3 ) Tongariro Volcanic Centre
lavas (Fig. 5 ), significantly higher than type 5
lavas (including those for Titiraupenga and
Pureora, 2 Ma volcanoes to the southwest of
Rotokawa, Fig. 1 ) and most high-alumina basalts. Although the Sr isotopic compositions of
Rotokawa Andesites are similar to those of
White Island, their Sr contents are considerably lower (Fig. 5 ). Two lines of evidence suggest that the Sr isotope compositions of Rotokawa Andesites are close to their original
values, despite their susceptibility to exchange
during water-rock interaction. Firstly, there is
800 --

close agreement between unleached and


strongly leached (hot 4 N HC1) splits of the
same sample (Table 2 ) and secondly, the greywackes from the bottom of drillhole RK4 have
remained isotopically unchanged despite noticeable shifts in their 5~aO and Pb isotopic
compositions; by analogy the volcanic rocks at
shallow depth may have also undergone only
slight Sr isotopic exchange.
The Ngatamariki Andesites studied show
broad chemical affinities with other type 1 TVZ
andesites (Figs. 3 and 4) but also exhibit a
number of notable differences. The abundance
of hornblende in andesite is unusual in the TVZ
but is shared by rare lavas at Ruapehu (i.e. type
4, Graham and Hackett, 1987), Kakaramea,
Maungakatote (Cashman, 1979; Cole et al.,
1983) and Rolles Peak-Tauhara. As noted
previously, the latter are unlike the Ngatama-

Cr ppm

700 -

600

500

400

300
0
200

100

so

55

60

65

Si02 Wt %
Fig. 8. Cr p p m vs. SiO2 wt% for Rotokawa and Ngatamariki cores. Fields and data sources as for Fig. 4.

213

riki Andesites in terms of their Sr contents and


875r/86Sr ratios, whereas other type 4, hornblende-bearing lavas from Tongariro Volcanic
Centre have typically higher Ni and Cr (Fig.
8) and lower Ti and Zr contents (Fig. 7).
Hence there are no known equivalents to the
Ngatamariki Andesites either chemically or
stratigraphically elsewhere in the TVZ.
If the Rotokawa Andesites are indeed analogues of plagioclase-pyroxene phyric lavas
from the Tongariro Volcanic Centre then it
may be assumed that their petrogenesis was
also similar. Graham and Hackett (1987) interpreted type 1 lavas from Ruapehu as the
products of combined assimilation and fractional crystallisation of basalt parents, a mechanism supported for Tongariro lavas by Patterson and Graham (1988). Rotokawa lavas
may well have had a similar origin although the
low LILEcontents (e.g., analyses 7, 11, 12 ) and
low 87Sr/86Sr of some samples (e.g., analyses
11, 13 ) indicates that the amount of contamination was slight. The narrow SiO2 range of the
andesite suite overall could be the result of a
coring bias but suggests minimal differentiation within a short-lived magmatic event.

Andesite lavas and the Taupo Volcanic Zone


One drillhole (RK4) shows that the Rotokawa Andesite lavas rest directly upon the Mesozoic metasedimentary basement rocks although by the time of their eruption, products
of silicic volcanism may have already deposited at Ngatamariki. Nevertheless, there was
certainly a large volcano exposed in the Rotokawa area prior to 330 ka; this now has no surface expression, but it is recognisable from a
large magnetic signature (M.P. Hochstein,
pers. commun., 1990). There is also a suggestion, from the occurrence of andesite cobbles
present in fluviatile sediments, that other andesire lavas were exposed between 22 and 1.85
ka in the Rotokawa area elsewhere than at
Rolles Peak. Chemically and mineralogically,
the Rotokawa volcano is closely analogous to

the historically active Tongariro Group stratovolcanoes, more particularly to the plagioclase-pyroxene phyric lavas and pyroxene-accumulative variants to which they are
chemically and isotopically similar.
The geothermal drilling experience also
shows that andesitic volcanism played a major
part in the history of the eastern part of the
central section of the TVZ, especially in the Rotokawa area. This is consistent with the suggestion of Cole (1982), that the initial TVZ volcanism may have been andesitic in character;
for example, the Rotokawa Andesites rest upon
greywackes and the prehistoric Hauhungatahi
andesite volcano of the Tongariro Group produced andesitic lavas that lie directly upon
Miocene marine sediments. The occurrence of
plutonic rocks at Ngatamariki where they intrude silicic volcanic deposits is also important and implies that minor andesitic magmatism continued apace with the generation of
rhyolite magmas as the TVZ developed prior to
the eruption of the Whakamaru-Wairakei Ignimbrites (330 ka). The intrusions are of diorite and not granite composition, and are thus
not the intrusive equivalents of the volumetrically much more abundant silicic volcanic
rocks.

Acknowledgements
We thank the Gas and Geothermal Trading
Group for permission to publish this paper. We
also thank I.E.M. Smith, A.R. Duncan, A.
Ewart, P.R. Kyle and A. Grunder for their
helpful comments.

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