Research Methodology

Research Methodology
Chapter I
What is research?
o
Research is NOT just collecting facts, the way you do your research is important. Analyze
your research in a strict and systematic way. Need to have a clear purpose to do a research,
you need to find something out from this research?
o
Research IS collecting date & interprets in a systematic way! It is not only base on
intuition and gut feelings. If you do the research it is for a specific purpose, you have the
motivate why you are doing this in a logic way.
o Activia example: is this advertising research? This is not the type of research that
we are going to study! Research is not trying to confirm what you are trying to
though
Research is something that people undertake in order to find out things in a
systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge.
Business and management research

Often the problem that youre dealing with is not in one discipline. Sometimes you need the
knowledge and discipline from others, to make your research a success.
Theory and practice? Is theory or practice necessary to do a good research? Yes, you need that to
apply in your research! Not separate but can influence each other; theory can apply in practical
cases and vice versa. In the best system there are not separate aspects BUT they influenced each
other.
Fundamentals
research
research
Vs.
PURPOSE
o
Expand knowledge of processes
o
Universal principles
o
Findings of significance and value to
society in general
PUROPOSE
o
Improve understanding of particular
problem
o
Results in solution to problem
o
New knowledge limited to problem
o
Findings of practical relevance
Applied
CONTEXT
o
Universities
o
Choice determined by researcher
o
Flexible time scales
CONTEXT
o
o
o
Organizations and universities

Negotiation with originator
Tight time scales
In sum, research (also business and management research) should

Collect data systematically
Interpret data systematically
Different types of
Have a clear purpose: to find things out
research depending on
its purpose and context
Examples:
Research team investigate the idea of a new supermarket
o
Why applied research?
It is for a commercial purpose! MEAN problem is that a supermarket is
trying to open a new store.
Web address on TV advertisement

Applied or fundamental?
Fundamental
Fundamental research because student can try to see if people see the
website on a commercial TV
Rise of the internet

Fundamental or applied
Applied
It
is
more
global
research
You want to understand
the general process,
Jewelry set of a specific brand
Fundamental or applied?
Applied
Because it is a
specific brand
Consultant
research more for one company
Wherever your research project

Lies on this continuum,
You should undertake it with rigour
Pay careful attention to

the research process!
During the following lectures, we will deal with the various phases of this
research process
Exam questions: example
Fundamental research is better than applied research = B
o False, it has another purpose
Which of the following statements is wrong? = A

o Research can be a mix of the 2, not extreme fundamental or extreme applied.
Because fundamental research can be applied in practice
Chapter II - Research Topic
The starting point of research process = research topic

In general, a good research topic should meet the criteria of
Capability is it feasible?
Appropriateness is it worthwhile?
What is a good research topic? Youre able to do the research
Examples:
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For the master thesis @ HUB, Sarah would like to investigate whether information about the
financial crisis influences the spending behavior of Mexican politicians during 2012-2013.
Language issue; need to learn how the talk Spanish in a short amount of time
The time; dont have the time to talk about their private life
The currency; still value in this current period
The financial resources; money to go to Mexico
Access to the data; meet the politicians
Not always link to theory, whit a new subject.
Capability: is it feasible?
Fascination
Research skills
Time
Currency
Financial resources
Access to data
Appropriateness: is it worthwhile?
Fit with the specifications and standards of examining institution
Clear link to theory
Clear research questions
Fresh insights
Fit with idea you have been given
Fit with career goals
The starting point of research process = Research topic
More concrete?
Problem
definition
Research
Question(s
)
First of all define your problem
Problem can be situated in the practical context
Indicate the value of the problem
Define your research question in order to give more direction to your research process
Problem
definition
Research
question(s)
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Research
Objective(s)
What? Operationalize how you intend to conduct your research by proving a set of coherent and
connected steps to answer your research question
Why? - Likely to lead to greater specificity compared to research question
Require more rigorous thinking
What kind of work do I need to do in order to answer my research question? What successive
steps do I need to take in order to answer my research question?
These are statements, not questions
These are numbered in a list
Examples:
As sales manager, you notice that your sales staff becomes less and less motivated to sell the
companys products. Therefore, you decide to investigate in which way you could increase the
level of motivation among your sales staff.
To define the concept of motivation

To review key literature on the existing measures to motivate sales people
To identify the strengths and weaknesses of the identified measures
To determine which measures are most relevant to use in the context of my company
To carry out primary research in my company to measure the effectiveness of the
selected measure
Research question vs. hypotheses

Research question
Hypotheses
Core question of your project

Refer to a specific problem with which the
researcher is confronted and to which an
answer should be found
EXAMPLES
Is there a relationship between European
regions and the consumption of candy?
What is your expectation from your research?

An unproven statement or proposition about a
factor or phenomenon that is of interest to a
researcher
People living in South-Europe consume more
candy compared to people living in NorthEurope
Hypotheses
Refer explicitly to the existence of a/no relationship between variables
- there is no relationship between variables
o E.g., country of origin (Belgium vs France) and the extent of candy
consumption are not related.
-
there is a relationship between variables (no specified direction)
E.g., country of origin (Belgium vs France) and the extent of candy

consumption are related.
there is a relationship between variables in a specified direction

o E.g., Belgium shows higher levels of candy consumption compared to France.
COMMON MISTAKES to avoid!!!!!
Ambiguous formulation
o E.g., Belgians consume much candy, Americans dont.
o Be more specific
No point of reference
o E.g., adolescent consumer much more alcohol
o Need reference support
Unfounded
o Theory as fuel
o Based on your feeling, try to take advice from existing theory
Example Belgian adolescent have a better self-image vs. French adolescent this is a little bit
ambiguous self-image we dont know what they refer to (its a little bit ambiguous)
Case
The Flemish government wants to reduce the annual amount of waste with 1.5 percent. This is
only possible if less waste is produced by Flemish households. Therefore, the government asked
CEDON, a research center of HUB to examine how to tackle this issue.
To do
General research question
How the waste is produced?
How the Flemish households are structured?
2 specific research question
How many of the waste can be recycled?
How many of the waste is produced in Flemish Households
2 relevant research objectives
To analyses the amount of waste in Flemish households
To define different types of waste to reduce the amount
2 hypothesis/ relevant!
Households in suburban areas produce more waste than households in
rural areas
Households with children produce more waste than the one without
children
What is the role of theory and literature review in this phase of the research
process?
Theory is about how or more variable are related to each others. Why do literatures review? To
see if there is a gap in literature so that your research question till that gap, to check if there was
already some research about your topic and to come up with insightful outcomes.
Chapter III a Research Design

-
How will we investigate our research topic? How will you define your research?
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DEVELOP THE RESEARCH DESIGN!
What is research design?

Its a kind of plan that you make, you look at the step to get information to respond to your
research. Research design is a general framework or plan for conducting a research project; it
details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to answer the research
question
(EXAM: if you are able to motivate your answer and explain in a good way for her is OK)
MOTIVATE the choices you make!!!!!
What is a research paradigm?

It is a broad philosophical theory terms, it is about a philosophical way to investigate, measure
the knowledge that you have for your research project.
NL: the development of your research topic design will be influenced by your research
paradigm
The difference between research paradigms is based on assumptions within three domains:
Ontology: what is the reality? how does reality look like? Is there a reality external to
humans? If yes, what does it look like?
Epistemology: how can we built knowledge about that reality? How do we know what
we know? What counts knowledge, what doesnt? How is the relationship between
research and subject?
Methodology: how can the researcher acquire knowledge about his beliefs? Is limited
by ontological and epistemological viewpoints.
POSITIVISM
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Listening from a distance
empathic listening
What is the truth?
What do stories tell about the story teller and his/her
context?
What are the facts behind the stories?
YOUTUBE VIDEO research paradigm
A paradigm is a lens or way of thinking about the world, when you think about a paradigm
think about looking through colored glassed. This lens directs everything we do as a
researcher. In research there are two paradigms. Lets think about the qualitative paradigm
like looking through pink glasses and the quantitative paradigm like looking through blue
glasses, each paradigms as a specific ontology (= beliefs about reality. Ontology refers to
perspectives of reality. Is there a truth to be discovered? Realism is the ontology within the
quantitative paradigm. Realists believe that there is a truth about reality waiting to be
discovered. Within the qualitative paradigm the ontology is referred to as relativism;
relativists believe that there are multiple perspectives of reality.
Within each paradigm there are also distinct epistemologies or approaches to research, the
epistemology determine the relationship between the researcher and the researched
(epistemology = approaches to knowing ) The quantitative or positivist approach to
knowing is based on realist ontology. Researchers approach knowledge discovery from an etic
perspective, this means that researchers are on the outside striving for an objective measure of
the topic The qualitative or naturalist approach to knowing is based on relativist
ontology; qualitative researchers do not believe that reality is fixed, but that there are multiple
perspectives of reality. They assume that knowledge is maximized by increasing the proximity
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between the researcher and the researched. An emic or insiders approach to knowledge
discovery is used. Reality is co-constructed.
A methodology is an approach to obtaining information which is informed by theories (=
methodology ways of obtaining evidence/knowledge) and developed into a rigorous form of
inquiry. The methods undertaken are only one component of a methodology. In general
quantitative studies will have either experimental or non-experimental studies and use a
scientific method. This paradigm often considers the phenomena in an objective way. The
goal is to discover the truth. Qualitative research generally occurs in a natural environment
where reality is constructed, therefore it is also called a constructive paradigm. The focus of
qualitative research is subjective in nature.
The goal is to uncover perceptions of reality, despite ontological, epistemological and
methodological differences; researchers share common overall goals and face many similar
challenges. Both paradigms have similar goals of gaining understanding and developing
evidence. They each have ethical constraints and follow ethical principles all studies,
regardless of their paradigm, have limitations. Every research question can be answered in
different ways. No study can ever definitely answer a research question. Each study adds to
the body of accumulating nursing evidence.
POSITIVSM
Explaining (causal) relationship
Objective process
Knowledgeable
researcher,
subjects
Verification of theory
Mainly deductive
Often (not always) quantitative
known
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Understanding subjects meaning
Intersubjective process
Researchers becomes involved with subjects
Theory building
Mainly inductive
Often (not always) qualitative
- Which of the following statements is false? C

a) Is correct IF you said that it can start with a deductive approach and finish with a
inductive.
b) Qualitative is more induction BUT can be deduction as well.
c) FALSE research paradigm try to intervenes in a positive way
d) If you would like to know peoples motivation you may be given a questionnaire instead
or an interview (to have a honest answer do a qualitative research)
- Are the following statements true or false?
a) The positivist paradigm focuses on the subjective meaning of the subject under
investigation false you have to look at the reality in a objective way he/she
would not intervenes in a subjective view, look at the fact that he/she can generalize
the population
b) Which research paradigm is better depends on the research question(s) you are
seeking to answer. true research question is about motivation, in that case is
better to focus on a positivism research paradigm if you really are looking for a
number to generalize the population youll probably be better with a positivist
paradigm
Research paradigm influences the design that you would use. If you are a
positivist person you are more likely to use quantitative method, and you will
probably use a quantitative data collection method into your design, but your
research approach also influence the element of your research design. Research
approach is about deduction vs. induction
8
Research approach
The development of your research design will also be influenced by your research
approach
DEDUCTION
Theor
INDUCTION
Dat
Dat
Testing theory
Theor
Building
theory
Deduction and induction can be combined within the

same research project!
The deduction, you start with hypothesis and finish with the data. Into your research design it is
more likely that a questionnaire or experiment would be used. Induction you start with data base
on that you focus on the theory in that case it is more likely that you would use a qualitative data
in that case induction will influence your research approach. Again it can be a combination but it
is more likely like describe above.
Positivism deduction
Explaining (causal) relationships
Objective process
Knowledgeable researcher, known subjects
Verification of theory
Mainly deductive
Often (not always) quantitative
Constructivism induction
Understanding subjects meaning
Intersubjective process
Researcher becomes involved with the subjects
Theory building
Mainly inductive
Often (not always) qualitative
Some practical criteria of deduction or induction:

- Emphasis of the research and nature of the research topic /
- Wealth of literature induction, you dont know the domain you have to explore it.
Better use the induction research approach
- Time available induction would take more time, because you have to gather every
data to develop the theory
- Risk induction, you dont know what is the theoretical inside. Because you are
collecting all information to see if it fit with the theory
- Audience in many case if you work into a company and make a research you are
more likely to use a deduction approach
- Is the reasoning below in line with an induction or deductive approach? Deduction
because the car is outside so it will become wet
o If it rains, everything outside becomes wet, it rain, the car is outside the car
will become wet
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Is the reasoning below in line with an induction or deductive approach? Induction

because the data says all the duck would be brown
o First duck in the park is brown, the second duck in the park is brown, the
third duck in the park is brown every duck in the park is brown
Which of the following statements is true?
a) With deduction, data are collected and a theory developed as a result of the data
analysis.
b) Research projects should include either the deductive or inductive research approach
c) A research topic about which little literature exists, is more likely to result in an
inductive research approach than a deductive research approach
d) The deductive research approach is less strict compared the inductive
research approach.
-
Patrick is a member of the Human Relation Research Group of HUB. He read about
the large amount of adolescents slipping into shoplifting behavior and wonders how
this behavior cold be prevented. Therefore, he runs a study in which he tests whether
the Protection Motivation Theory is applicable to this particular issue. Patricks study
leans towards:
o An inductive research approach
o A deductive research approach he start with the theory and gather some
date and then hes going to say if the theory is applicable yes or no
Research paradigms & research approach
Research design
Ok but which aspects are to be considered when developing my research design?
Research design: elements to be considered

Think in systematic way to collect data
Recognizing the nature of your research design (i.e., research purpose)
o EXPLANATORY
DESCRIPTIVE
EXPLANATORY
Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods research design (i.e., research
choice)
Choosing a research strategy or strategies
Establishing the ethics of the research design
Choosing a time horizon
Establishing the quality of the research design
Explanatory research
to discover what is happening and gain insights about a topic of interest. It is particularly
useful if you wish to clarify your understanding of a problem, such as if you are unsure of
the precise nature of the problem. It may be that time is well spent on exploratory research, as it
might show that the research is not worth pursuing! () has the advantage that it is flexible
and adaptable to change
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It establish relationship between variables

o E.g., quantitative study investigating whether certain colors in the shop layout result in higher levels of customer satisfaction
o E.g., qualitative study investigating whether Corporate Social Responsibility
in a company influence employee involvement
Recognize the nature of your research
Research projects may serve more than

one purpose!
EXPLORATOR
Y
DESCRIPTIV
E
EXPLANATOR
Y
AN EXAMPLE:
- Cinite, I., Duxbry, L.E. & Higgins, C. (2009). Measurement of perceived
organizational readiness for change in the public sector. British journal of
Management, 20 (2), 265-277.
o Exploratory phase: to identify behavior, based on participants
experiences, of organizational change (interviews)
o Descriptive phase: used as a forerunner for the next phase (web-based
survey)
o Explanatory phase: to explain the relationship between organizational
actions and readiness or unreadiness to implement change based on
employees perceptions. (web-based survey)
Example questions: example
Which of the following statement is false?
a) Profiling HUB-students in terms of gender and age is an example of descriptive research.
b) Exploratory research may follow descriptive or causal research
c) When little is known about the problem situation, it is desirable to start with exploratory
research
d) Investigating whether a decrease in price leads to increased sales and market share results in
descriptive research

-

Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods research
design
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Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods

research design
-
How will you combine quantitative and qualitative data collection

techniques and data analysis procedures?
o Quantitative
Often used as a synonym for data collection techniques/data
analysis procedures that generate or use numerical data
o Qualitative
Often used as a synonym for data collection techniques/data
analysis procedures that generate or use non-numerical data
This distinction is both problematic and narrow
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: problematic distinction

o
Why problematic ?
o Many research designs are likely to combine quantitative and
qualitative elements
o E.g, research design using a questionnaire in which respondents
also have to answer some open questions in their own words
o E.g, qualitative research data may be analysed quantitatively (i.e,
qualitative data being quantised)
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: narrow distinction

Why narrow ?
o Reinterpret quantitative and qualitative methodologies through
their associations to research paradigms, research approaches
and research strategies
Quantitative research design
Qualitative research design
Research paradigm: positivism
Research paradigm: constructivism
Research approach: deduction
Research approach: induction
Characteristics: causal relationships,
Characteristics: meanings, text,
numbers, statistical analysis techniques,
interpretation, non-standardized, nonstandardized, probability sampling,
probability sampling, develop conceptual
generalizability, independent researcher,
framework, researcher part of research
process,
Research strategies: experiments,
Research strategies: case study,
surveys,
Why narrow?
o Reinterpret quantitative and qualitative methodologies through
their associations to research paradigms, research approaches
and research strategies
Still, it is perfectly possible that a quantitative

research design is more in line with induction,
and that a qualtitative research design is more in
line with deduction, !!!
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research design
Many research designs are thus likely to combine quantitative and

qualitative elements
Mono methods use of single data collection technique and
corresponding analys procedure(s)
Multiple methods use of more than one data collection technique
and analysis procedure(s)
Multi-method use of more than one data collection technique and
corresponding analysis procedure(s), but restricted within either a
quantitative or qualitative research design
Multi-method quantitative studies use of more one quantitative
analysis procedure(s)
Mixed-method use of both quantitative & qualitative data
collection techniques and analysis procedures
Mixed-method research use of quantitative and qualitative data
collection techniques and analysis procedures either at the same
time or one after the other but not in combination
Mixed-model research use of quantitative and qualitative data
collection techniques and analysis procedures as well as combining
these quantitative and qualitative approaches
Advantage of using more than one data collection technique and analysis
procedure?
o Triangulation: multiple methods may be used in order to combine
data to ascertain if the findings from the other method
o Confidence: findings may be affected by the method used. Use of a
single method will make it impossible to ascertain the nature of that
effect. To seek to cancel out this method effect, it is advisable to
use more than one method. This should lead to greater confidence
in your results.
o Different methods for different research purposes

research design
-
Whatever methods you use to collect and analyse data

Be explicit about the grounds on which multiple methods research is
conducted!
And do not forget that they must serve your research question
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Exam question: example
Suzan chooses to collect numerical data using both a standardized questionnaire

and an experiment. She analyses these data using statistical procedures. This is an
example of:
- A multi-method quantitative research
- A multi-method qualitative research
- Mixed-method research
- Mixed-model research

-

Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods research design
(i.e., research choice)


-
Various research strategies exist:

o Experiment
Choice of research strategy (strategies) is
o Survey
guided by research question, research
o Archival research
objectives, research paradigm, research
o Case study
approach and research purpose, as well as by
more practical concerns (e.g., existing
o Ethnography
knowledge, time and other resources, access
o Action research
to potential participants and other sources of
o Grounded theory
data).
o
Experiment
-
Commonly used to infer causal relationships

Simply stated, to interfere whether a change in one or more independent
variables produces a change in one or more dependent variables.
Classic experiment
Participants randomly assigned to either the experimental group of control

group
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Each group should be similar in all aspects relevant to the research other than
whether or not they are exposed to the planned intervention or manipulation.
Experimental group: some form of planned intervention/manipulation will be
tested
Control group: No such intervention/manipulation is made try to control
the possible effects of alternative explanations to the planned
intervention/manipulation eliminate threats to internal validity
Classic experiment
Between-subjects
design
measurement
=
Participants
belong
behavior
to either to
experimental or
Post-test
Pre-test
of purchasing
Measurement of
Purchasing behavior
Buy two get one
free
Promotion: yes
or no
Experiment
Internal validity
The extent to which the findings can be attributed to the interventions rather than
any flaws in your research design
External validity
Whether the cause-and-effect relationship(s) found in the experiment can be
generalized
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Chapter 3B: Research design

-
As marketer, you are wondering whether rock versus pop music in

supermarkets influences the time consumers spend in these supermarkets.
Design an experiment which would enable this marketer to find an answer
on his problem

o
o
o
o
o
Survey
-
Experiment
Survey
Archival research
Case study
Ethnography
Action research
Choice of research strategy (or strategies) is

guided y research questions, research
approach and research purpose, as well s b
more practical concerns (e.g, existing
data)
These strategies are not mutually
exclusive (e.g., survey might be used as
part of case study)
Involves the structured collection of data from a sizeable population
Questionnaire
Structured observation
Structured interviews
Survey
-
Usually associated with the deductive research approach

Popular and common research strategy in business and management
research
Most frequently used to answer what, who, where, how much, and
how many questions
Collection of standardized data from a sizeable population in highly

economical way, allowing easy comparison
Perceived as authoritative by people in general
Easy to explain and to understand
When sampling is used, it is possible to generate findings that are
representative of the whole population at a lower cost than collecting
the data for the whole population
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Survey
-
Data collected by the survey strategy is unlikely to be as wide-ranging

as those collected by other research strategies
Limited number of questions can be included
- In case a questionnaire is used
Capacity to do it badly
Survey: example
Student Employment Survey

(Stef Adriaenssens, Dieter Verhaest, Anja Van den Broeck, Karin Proost, Dries
Berings)
In the past decades, social-scientific research about student employment has quite
effectively documented the positive as well as adverse effects of student
employment on well-being and school performance. In short, adolescent students
employment concurrently poses considerable threats to and holds significant
opportunities for educational outcomes. The outcome is mainly determined by the
intensity and the quality of the job. Two elements are lacking, however, in order to
apply these insights to school and labor market policies: precise knowledge of local
labor markets of adolescent student employment on the one hand and empirically
well informed policy guides for schools on the other. Provided that these elements
are available, the basis to minimize adverse effects and maximize positive outcomes
through everyday school policy would be within hand reach. In order to fill this gap,
the Student Employment Survey (SES) has been set up. This survey has been
conducted during the last months of 2010 among a representative group of
secondary education students in Flanders.

- Experiment
- Survey
Archival research
- Case study
- Ethnography
- Action research

data)
Archival research
-
Analysis of administrative records and documents as principal source

of data because they are products of day-to-day activities
Recent as well as historical documents
secondary data analysis
o Data are part of the reality being studied rather than having been
collected originally as data for other (research) purposes
Allows research questions which focus upon the past and changes over
time to be answered
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Disadvantages might be the nature of the records and document, missing

data, and access to data (confidentiality )
Choosing a research strategy or strategies:

- Experiment
- Survey
- Archival research
Case study
- Ethnography
- Action research

data)
Case study
-
Empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within

its real-life context, using multiple sources of (data) evidence
The boundaries between the phenomenon being studied and the context
within it is being studied are not clearly evident
Experiment: research undertaken in a highly controlled context
Surveys: ability to explore and understand the context is limited by

the number of
variables for which data can be collected
Relevant strategy if you wish to gain a rich understanding of the
context
Has considerable ability to generate answers to why, what and how
questions
Likely to use multiple sources of data ( interviews, observation,
documentary analysis, questionnaires,)
TRIANGULATION
The use of two or more independent sources of data or data colection

methods within one study in order to help ensure that the data are telling you
what you think they are telling you
Actually, the term triangulation is often used various

ways
Data (sources) triangulation
-
The use of multiple data sources in the same study

Three possible types are tie, space and person
The robustness of data can vary based on the time data were collected,
people involved in the data collection process and the setting from which
the data were collected
slices of data at different times and (social) situations, as well as on a
variety of people, are gathered
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Data (sources) triangulation
For example, suppose you are evaluating an afterschool program that you are
overseeing. You would first identify the stakeholder groups such as youth in the
program, their parents, school teachers, school administrators, afterschool program
staff and volunteers. You decide to conduct in-depth interviews to gain insight on
what the stakeholders perceive as outcomes of the program. You would then
interview representatives of each stakeholder group. You would triangulate by
looking for outcomes that are agreed upon by all stakeholder groups. The weight of
evidence suggests that if every stakeholder, who is looking at the issue from
different points of view, sees an outcome then it is more than likely to be a true
outcome.
Theoretical triangulation
-
The use of multiple theories in the same study

Both related and/or competing theories can be used
e.g., Criminology, social psychology, behavioral economics, to explain
the results of a shoplifting study
Investigator triangulation
-
The use of more than one researcher in any of the research stage s of
the same study
E.g., the use of multiple observers, interviewers, data analysts, in the
same study
(Data) analysis triangulation

-
The use of more than one method to analyze the same set of data
E.g., Analyzing results from semi-structured interviews by means of SPSS
and by means of qualitative data analysis technique (e.g., open, axial,
selective coding)
Methodological triangulation
-
The use of more than one method for gathering data in the same study
Often used to indicate the use of both qualitative and quantitative data
collection methods
E.g., Using interviews, focus groups and questionnaires to study the
relationship between CSR-activities and employee involvement

-
Suppose a researcher is involved in exploratory qualitative research. More

specifically, he uses in-depth interviews as well as focus group to explore
factors that motivate shoplifting among adolescents.
o Which types of triangulation is used by this researcher: data
sources, investigator, theoretical, data analysis or methodological
triangulation?
Case study
-
Four case study strategies

Single case vs. Multiple case
o Single: critical, extreme, unique, typical, hardly investigated, case
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o Multiple: can findings be replicated across cases?

Holistic case vs. embedded case (unit of analysis?)
o Holistic: e.g., organization as a whole
o Embedded: e.g., sub-units within the organization
Case study: example
Building high quality interaction and cooperation during organizational

change (Grieten & Lambrechts, 2007, 2009)
Problem definition: 2/3 of change processes fails, although it is known that
these failures are often caused by relational aspects
Research question: What makes relational practices of such a quality that
they improve common progress during organizational change?
Case selection: Two organizations with contrasting change processes in terms
of results (best practice and worst practice), but similar in terms of relational
approach
Data collection methods: (participant) observation, in-depth interviews, focus
groups, document analysis (Triangulation!)

- Experiment
- Survey
- Archival research
- Case study
Ethnography
- Action research

data)
Ethnography
-
Used for studying people in groups, who interact with one another and
share the same space (e.g., street level, work group, organization, )
Origins in (colonial) anthropology
Focuses upon describing and interpreting the social world through firsthand field study
o Research living amongst those whom they study, to observe and
talk to them in order to produce detailed cultural accounts of their
shared beliefs, behaviors, interactions, language, rituals and the
events that shaped their lives
Ideas about this strategy or not unified!

Various
-
research strategies exist:

Experiment
Survey
Archival research
Case study
Ethnography

20data)
Action research
- Grounded theory
-
Action research
-
An emergent and iterative process of inquiry tat is designed to develop

solutions to real organizational problems through as participative and
collaborative approach, which uses different forms of knowledge, and
which will have implications for participants and the organization beyond
the research project
research in action rather than research about action
Demanding strategy in terms of the intensity involved and the
resources and time required
The action research spiral

- Experiment
- Survey
- Archival research
- Case study
- Ethnography
- Action research
Grounded theory
-

data)
Grounded theory
-
Develop as a response to the extreme positivism of past social

research
Theory is developed through the systematic and simultaneous process of
data collection and analysis involving a mainly inductive approach
21
To generate theory grounded in your data

A process of constant comparison moving between inductive and
deductive thinking
Abduction = research approach involving the collection of data to
explore a phenomenon, identify themes and explain patterns, to
generate a new (or modify an existing) theory which is subsequently
tested
Theoretical sampling until theoretical saturation is reached
a) = conceptual density
b) = conceptual saturation
Time-consuming, intensive and reflective
Will something significant emerge?
a) Will something emerge that is more than simply descriptive?
Grounded theory: example

-
Nyilasy, G., & Reid, L.N. (2009). Agency practitioners metatheories of

advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 28(4), 639-668
What do advertising agency practitioners think about how
advertising works? This studys basic aim was to understand
practioners thinking about the work of advertising in their own terms. As
there was little substantive research of this perspective, a grounded
theory approach to qualitative research was used
Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were used until theoretical
saturation was achieved

- Is the following statement true or false? Explain your answer
A case study strategy enables the researcher more to gain insight into the context of
the research phenomenon compared to a survey strategy
-
Which of the following statements is wrong?

a) Abduction is an approach in which deduction and induction are
combined
b) The main goal of the grounded theory research strategy is to
generalize findings from a sample to the whole population
c) Experiments consider less contextual elements of the research
phenomenon compared to case studies
d) The grounded theory research strategy leans more towards the
constructivism paradigm than the positivism paradigm
Suppose a researcher is involved in exploratory qualitative research. More
specifically, he uses in-depth interviews as well as focus groups to explore
factors that motivate shoplifting among adolescents. The researcher is
not sure about how many adolescents he should interview. Which concept
might be useful for this researcher to determine the appropriate sample
size?
Research design: element s to be considered

-

22
- Choosing a research strategy or strategies

- Establishing the ethics of the research design
- Establishing the quality of the research design

-
Cross-sectional studies
o The study of a particular phenomenon or phenomena at a particular
time, i.e., a snapshot
o Choice of moment may be important
Longitudinal studies
o The study of a particular phenomenon or phenomena over an extended
period of time (different moments in time)
o Possible to study changes and developments
o Be careful for relevant changes in variables you dont take into
account!
o E.g., consumer sentiment Index (University of Michigan)
Which of the following statements is false?
a) Longitudinal research has the capacity to study change and
development
b) Archival research is not only for historians, but also for those
involved in management and business research
c) Action research is concerned with the resolution of organizational
issues
d) Qualitative research is cross-sectional and not longitudinal in nature

-

- Choosing a time horizon
- Establishing the quality of the research design

-
Choice of research topic and design is governed by ethical considerations

The research design should not subject the research population to the risk
of embarrassment, harm, or any other material disadvantage
E.g., should the research population be aware of the fact that they are the
subject of research?

-

- Choosing a time horizon
- Establishing the ethics of the research design
23
RELIABILITY
VALIDITY
Refers to whether your

research would produce
consistent findings if it
was repeated on
another occasion or if
they were replicated by
a different researcher
The extent to which

research findings are
really about what they
profess/appear to be
about
Examples of threats to reliability

-
Completing a questionnaire just before lunch break may affect the way
participants respond compared to choosing a less sensitive time
Conducting an interview in an open space may lead participants to provide
falsely positive answers compared to a space in which they can retain their
anonymity
Researcher might be tired and misunderstand some of the more subtle
meanings of his or her interviewees
RELIABILITY IS ABOUT
Examples of threats to validity

-
Informing participants about a research project may alter their work

behavior or response during the research if they believe it might lead to
future consequences for them
During a study, is was difficult to say if customer satisfaction to a store
was caused by frequency of shopping in that shore or if frequency of
shopping in a store was caused by customer satisfaction to a store
VALIDITY IS ABOUT
Validity
-
There are many types of validity: for now, we will discuss one type
External validity
a) Can a studys research findings be generalized to other relevant
settings, groups, times,?
b) In other words, generalizability of findings to other contexts
Reliability & validity: an example by means of a scale as

measurement instrument
1. 73 k
2. 73 kg
24
3. 73 kg
4. 73 kg
RELIABILITY
Real weight = 78 kilo VALIDITY
Reliability does not involve validity!!! And validity does

not involve reliability!!!
Reliability & validity
Reliability
Validity
reliability
validity
Reliability
Reliability
Validity
Validity

-
The student administration department of HUB examines the extent to

which HUB-student are satisfied with the teaching skills of the HUB-staff.
By means of a questionnaire on Time 1, researcher X finds that the overall
satisfaction is equal to 8.7 on 10. Two weeks later (time 2), researcher X
conducts the same research (among the same respondents) and finds that
the overall satisfaction is equal to 8.7 on 10. Consequently, researcher Xs
results are:
a) Valid
b) Reliable
You developed a measurement instrument to examine employees level of

job autonomy perceptions (i.e., the extent to which they experience
autonomy in their job). This measurement instrument seems to be
sensitive to social desirability (i.e., respondents tendency to give answers
that may be desirable from a social standpoint)
Questions: what is the implication of social desirability for the quality of your
measurement instrument?
25
Which of the following statement is correct?

a) Experiments are more valid compared to surveys
b) If a study is reliable, it means that it measures what we think it
should measure
c) External validity is about the extent to which the reliability of a
study can be generalized
d) An interviewed who writes down a wrong answer from absentmindedness threats the reliability of his study
To conclude
-
Make sure that you end up with a coherent research design that is in
line with your research question
Motivate the choices you make when designing your research
Research black-and-white (flexibility)
Theoretical questions
-
Define the term research design

The development of your research design is influenced by your research
paradigm. Explain.
What is a research paradigm?
What are the main differences between the positivistic and constructivistic
research paradigms?
The development of your research design is influenced by your research
approach. Explain
Explain the main differences between the deductive and inductive
research approach
Which practical criteria determine whether the deductive or inductive
research approach is most suited?
Which elements are to be considered when designing your research?
What types of purpose might research projects have?
What is descripto-explanatory research?
What is the goal of the research choice component of the research
design?
Quantitative research is about numerical data, while qualitative research is
about non-numerical data. Why is the distinction problematic and narrow?
What is the advantage of using more than one data collection method and
analysis procedure?
Which criteria influence the suitability of the various available research
strategies?
What are experiments about?
How a classic experiment does looks like?
What is a between-subjects experimental design?
What are the following research strategies about: survey, archival
research, case study, ethnography, action research and grounded theory?
What are the (dis) advantages of a survey strategy?
How is a case study different than an experiment and a survey strategy?
What is meant by triangulation?
26
Define the following terms: data triangulation, theoretical triangulation,

methodological triangulation, investigator triangulation, analysis
triangulation.
Which four case study strategies do exist?
Define the term action research spiral
What is mean by abduction?
What is theoretical sampling?
What is meant with theoretical saturation?
What is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
What is meant by an ethical research design?
Define the terms reliability, validity and external validity
Chapter 4a: sampling

Introduction
Research question = how many beers do Belgian adults drink a week?

Case are not necessarily
people !
e.g., what is the
average price of
chicken soup in Chinese
restaurants located in
Research question = how many beers do Belgian adults drink a week?
You could collect and analyze data from every possible case in the population (=
census)
Restrictions in terms of time, money, access, currency, speed, practice, accuracy,

detail,
Considering data from a subgroup (= sample) rather than all possible cases or
elements of the population
27
Sampling is about
selecting a number of element from a population you would like to study, with the
intention to derive characteristics of the population from characteristics of the
sample
The sampling process
Define the population

-
Depends on your research question!

a) E.g., how satisfied are HUB-students with the teaching skills of the
HUB-professors?
Defining the population is not always that straightforward
a) E.g., research project assessing consumer response to a new brand
of mens moisturizer
Be careful for population specification error = consequences of not studying a

specific part of the target group

-
Define the population for the following research questions:

a) How do employees of Carrefour think the proposed introduction of
compulsory Sunday working will affect their working lives?
b) What is the normal range in miles that can be travelled by electric
cars in everyday use?
28
Determine the sampling frame

-
= a list of all elements in the population from which your sample will be
drawn
Examples:
Telephone book
Companies customer database
Membership lists
in some cases, you will have to develop the sampling frame
yourself!
Sampling frame error

-
= sampling frame is not a perfect reproduction of the research population

= the variation between the population defined by the researcher and the
population as implied by the sampling frame used
Examples of causes of sampling frame errors:
Not up to date
Elements of sampling frame that are not part of the population
Elements of population are not in sampling frame
Elements that are included multiple times
Checklist:
o Are elements listed in the sampling frame relevant to your research
question?
o How recently was the sampling frame compiled, in particular is it up
to date?
o Does the sampling frame includes all elements, in other words is it
complete?
o Does the sampling frame contain the correct information, in other
words is it accurate?
o Does the sampling frame exclude irrelevant cases, in other words is
it precise?
o For purchased lists and online panels, can you establish and control
precisely how the sample will be selected?
29
For an online panel, can you establish whether incentives will be

used to enhance the likely response and provide an assessment of
the impact of this on respondent characteristics and consequently
responses?
You should not generalize beyond your sampling frame

o E.g., sampling frame consist of all employees of an organization you
can only generalize to employee of that particular organization
Sometimes not possible (or very hard) to develop a sampling frame!

Which sampling frame is suited for the following research questions?
How do employees of Carrefour think the proposed introduction of
compulsory Sunday working affect their working lives?
Which factors influence Belgian lawyers decision to work in other
European countries?
First of all, you need to decide
whether you will examine all elements of the population (= census; see
introduction) or whether you will draw a sample
For populations of fewer than 50, it is usually more sensible to collect data
from the entire population.
whether you will examine all elements of the population (=census; see
intro) or will draw a sample conditions:
Practical constraints
Budget constraints
Time constraints
Access constraints
Results need to be quickly available
Testing includes destroying of population (e.g., establish the actual
duration of long-life batteries)
30
Census vs. sample
Using sampling might results in higher overall accuracy compared to a

census
o More time can be spent designing and piloting the means of
collecting data
o You can collect information that is more detailed
o In case you are employing people to collect data (e.g., interviewers),
you can afford higher-quality staff
o You can devote more time trying to obtain data from more difficult
to reach cases
o More time can be devoted to checking and testing the data for
accuracy prior to analysis
In case you decide to draw a sample.
you can choose between two types of sampling

o Probability or representative sampling
o Non-probability sampling
Probability sampling techniques
Sampling techniques in which each element of the population has a fixed

probabilistic chance (usually an equal chance) of being selected for sample
It becomes possible to answer research questions that require you to

estimate statistically the characteristics of the population from the sample
(i.e., with a certain level of confidence, you are able to generalize the
findings to the population)
Consequently, probability sampling is often associated with survey and

experiment research strategies.
Non-probability sampling techniques
The probability of each case being selected from the total population is not
known.
It is impossible to answer research questions that require you to make

statistical inferences about the characteristics of the population
Note: you may still be able to generalize from non probability samples about the
population, but not on statistical grounds.
Sampling techniques
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
31
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Simple random sampling

Systematic random sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
Multi-stage sampling
Quota sampling
Judgmental sampling
Snowball sampling
Self-selected sampling
Convenience sampling
Which of the following statements is true?

a) With probability samples the chance, or probability, of each case being
selected from the population is unknown.
b) Generalizations about populations from data collected using any probability
samples are based on intuition.
c) Sampling provides a valid alternative to a census when it would be not
practical for you to survey the entire population
d) The sampling frame gives an overview of all the elements which will be
included in your final sample
Sample techniques
Cluster sampling
TECHNIQUES
Quota sampling
Judgmental sampling
Snowball sampling
= a probability sampling technique in which each element has a known

and equal probability of selection. Every element is selected independently
of every other element, and the sample is drawn by a random procedure
from a sampling frame
e.g.,
- Each element of the sampling frame s assigned a unique identification
number (0, 1, 2,)
- Random numbers are generated to determine which elements to include
in the sample (e.g., by means of a random number table) and until sample
size is reached
Random number table example
Select your first random number at random!

if 78 is read off a second time, it must be disregarded as you need different cases.
This means that you are not putting each cases number back into the sampling
32
frame after is has been selected.

This is termed sampling without
replacement. If a number is
selected that is outside the range
of those in your sampling frame,
you simply ignore it and continue
reading off numbers until your
sample size is reached.
Disadvantages of this procedure:
Time-consuming
Requires adapted table with sufficient random numbers
Other random procedures
Computer generated random numbers/ online random number

generator (~random number tables)
Random telephone numbers
o Often used when doing computer-aided telephone interviewing
(CATI)
o Dialing telephone numbers at random from an existing database
o Or random digit dialing
+ does not consider the telephone book
- some households have more than one telephone number
Sample without (systematic) bias

Best used when you have an accurate and easily accessible sampling
frame that lists the entire population
o Disadvantage: these lists are not always available!
If your population covers a large geographical area, random selection
means that selected cases are likely to be dispersed throughout the area
o Disadvantage: this sample is not suited if collecting data over
a large geographical area using a method that requires face to
face contact (high travel costs)
Simple random sampling: an example

Jemma was undertaking her work placement at a large supermarket, where 5011 of
the supermarkets customers used the supermarkets Internet purchase and delivery
scheme. She was asked to interview customers and find out why they used this
scheme. As there was insufficient time to interview all of them, she decided to
interview a sample using the telephone. Her calculations revealed that to obtain
acceptable levels of confidence and accuracy she needed an actual sample size of
approximately 360 customers. She decided to select them using simple random
sampling.
= a probability sampling technique in which the sample is chose by

selecting a random starting point and then picking every 1th element in
succession from the sampling frame
33
Selecting the sample at regular intervals from the sampling frame
Systematic random sampling: an example
Sometimes not necessary to develop a sampling frame (e.g., every

tenth visitor of website)
Easy to understand and to explain
Despite these advantages, be careful when using existing lists as sampling
frames
o You need to ensure that the lists do not contain periodic
patterns!
Systematic random sampling is suitable for geographically dispersed
cases only if you do not require face-to-face contact when collecting
data (= simple random sampling)
The impact of periodic patterns on systematic random

sampling
Consider the use of systematic random sampling to generate a sample of monthly

sales from the Harrods store in London. The sampling frame contains monthly sales
for the last 60 years. A sampling interval of 12 is chosen.
A high street bank needs you to administer a questionnaire to a sample of

individual customers with joint bank accounts
Sampling fraction = = you will need to select every second customer on
the list
The names of the customer list, which you intend to use as the sampling
frame, are arranged as depicted below
34
You divide the population into two or more relevant strata based on
one or a number of attributes (e.g., gender, income, region, ; these
attributes are relevant for you research)
o In other words, your sampling frame is divided into a number of
subsets
A random (simple or systematic) sample is then drawn from each of
the strata.
More concrete
o Choose the stratification variable(s)
These variables need to be relevant for the research problem
Stratification needs the results in homogeneity within each
strata with regards to the stratification variable(s)
o Divide the sampling frame into the discrete strata
o Number each of the cases within each stratum with a unique
number
o Select your sample using either simple random or systematic
random sampling
Stratified random sampling: an example
Sarah worked for a major supplier of office supplies to public and private
organizations. As part of her research into her organizations customers, she needed
to ensure that both public and private sector organizations were represented
correctly. An important stratum was, therefore, the sector of the organization. Her
sampling frame was thus divided into two discrete strata: public sector and private
sector. Within each stratum, the individual cases were then numbered.
Dividing the population into a series of relevant strata means that the
sample is more likely to be representative, as you can ensure that each of
the strata is represented proportionally within your sample.
Proportionate stratified random sampling = the sample size drawn from
the strata are proportionate to the stratas share of the total population
Disproportionate stratified random sampling (oversampling
enables separate analyses)
Despite the advantages of proportionate and disproportionate sampling,
there are some disadvantages as well:
o Only possible if you can easily distinguish significant strata (in
your sampling frame)
35
Extra
large of sampling procedure

more time
more expensive
more difficult to explain compared to simple and systematic
random sampling
Cluster sampling
all elements of a number of randomly selected clusters are selected

more concrete:
o choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame
Heterogeneity in clusters is important! Cluster = mini
universe (e.g., population=football lovers ; Cluster=football
stadium)
Number each of the clusters with a unique number (0, 1, )
Select your sample of clusters using some form of random
sampling
Select all elements of the selected clusters
Every cluster has an equal chance to be selected random technique
Every cluster has an equal chance to be selected random sampling
technique
o Still, the technique normally results in samples that represent the
total population less accurately compare to stratified random
sampling (make sure that clusters are thus heterogeneous!)
Advantage: restricting the sample to a few relatively compact
geographical sub-areas (clusters) maximizes the amount of data you
can collect using face-to-face methods within the resources available
Cluster sampling: an example
Abdel needed to select a sample of firms to undertake an interview based survey

about the use of large multiple-purpose digital printer copiers. As he had limited
resources with which to pay for travel and
other associated data collection costs, he decided to interview firms in four
geographical areas selected from a cluster grouping of local administrative areas. A
list of all local administrative areas formed his
sampling frame. Each of the local administrative areas (clusters) was given a unique
number, the first being 0, the second 1 and so on. The four sample clusters were
selected from this sampling frame of local administrative areas using simple random
sampling. Abdels sample was all firms within the selected clusters. He decided that
the appropriate telephone directories would probably provide a suitable list of all
firms in each cluster.
36
Stratified random sampling vs. cluster sampling
Modifying a cluster sample by adding at least one more stage of

sampling that also involves some form of random sampling
Procedure:
o Choose the cluster grouping for your sampling frame
Heterogeneity in clusters is important!
o Number each of the clusters with a unique number (0,1,)
o Randomly select a number of clusters
o Repeat the above steps (e.g., districts cities neighborhoods
streets)
o Randomly select elements of the most recently selected clusters
Multi-stage sampling: an example
Laura worked for a market research organization that needed her to interview a
sample of 400 households in England and Wales. She decided to use the electoral
register as a sampling frame. Laura knew that selecting 400 households using either
systematic or simple random sampling was likely to result in these 400 households
being dispersed throughout England and Wales, resulting in considerable amounts of
time spent travelling between interviewees as well as high travel costs. By using
multi-stage sampling, Laura
Knew these problems could be overcome. In her first stage, the geographical area
(England and Wales) was split into discrete sub-areas (counties). These formed her
sampling frame. After numbering all the counties, Laura selected a small number of
counties using simple random sampling. Since each case (household) was located in
a county, each had an equal chance of being selected for the final sample. As the
counties selected were still too large, each was subdivided into smaller
geographically discrete areas (electoral wards). These formed the next sampling
frame (stage 2). Laura selected another simple random ample. This time she
selected a larger number of wards to allow for likely important variations in the
nature of households between wards. A sampling frame of the households in each of
these wards was then generated using a combination of the electoral register and
the UK Royal Mails postcode address file. Laura finally selected the actual cases
(households) that she would interview using systematic random sampling.
37
Advantages:
o Geographically dispersed population becomes possible against
lower cost
o Compared to normal cluster sampling, larger clusters with many
cases is possible
Disadvantages:
o Selecting smaller and smaller subgroups might impact the
representativeness of your sample
Can be solved through applying stratified random sampling
techniques as well
Impact of various factors on choice of probability sampling

techniques
Sampling frame required

Size of sample needed
Geographical area to which suited
Necessity of personal contact with respondent
Relative cost
Easy to explain to support workers?
Advantage compared with simple random sampling
BNP Paribas Fortis has about 400 000 Benelux-clients using their credit
card. The credit card application form contains common information such
as name, address, age, telephone number, educational level, etc.
BNP Paribas Fortis wants to examine whether there is a relationship
between the way in which credit cards are used (e.g., frequency of use)
and the socio-economic profile of its users.
Questions: identify the population and the sampling frame. Consider the suitability
of the various probability sampling techniques in this situation
Chapter 4b: sampling

Sampling techniques
Cluster sampling
38
TECHNIQUES
Quota sampling
Judgmental sampling
Snowball sampling
Remark!
In the power point of chapter 4a about sampling, the term self-selecting sampling
was used rather than self-selection sampling. Although these terms indicate similar
concepts, we prefer to use the term used in the textbook, that is self-selection
sampling.
Quota sampling
Stratified sampling though the selection of cases is not random (often

used for structured interviews as part of a survey strategy)
Procedures
o Divide the population into specific subgroups (quota) based on
relevant variables
o Calculate, based on relevant and available data, for each subgroup
the amount of elements to be selected
o Give each researcher an assignment which states the number of
cases in each quota from which they must collect data
o Combine the data collected by researchers to provide the full
sample
Quota:
o Are usually relative to the proportion in which they occur in the
population (e.g., 48% female in population 480 females in a
sample of 1000 participants)
Precision control= proportions in sample perfectly

mirror the proportions in the population
Precision control: example
Interest in consumption habits among +16 in a medium village

Sample must be representative in terms of residence and age
Population: 24 420 16+-residents
Sample: 1/12 of population 2035 sample cases
3 districts and 4 age groups 12 quota
39
Interest in consumption habits among +16 in a medium village

Sample must be representative in terms of residence and age
Population: 24 420 16+-residents
Sample: 1/12 of population 2035 sample cases
3 districts and 4 age groups 12 quota
40
Frequency control: representative in terms of criterion

An association has 750 members. In table below, the distribution of these members
is given in terms of gender and age
1825
98
75
173
Males
Females
26-49
191
188
379
50+
78
120
198
367
383
750
Draw a quota sample of 125 subjects, taking into account:

Gender
o Males: 125 * (357/750) = 61
o Females: 125* (383/750)= 64
Age
o 18-25: 125 * (173/750) = 29
o 26-49: 125 * (379/750) = 63
o 50+ : 125 * (198/750) = 33
Gender & age
o Males 18-25: 125 * (98/750) = 16
o Males 26-49: 125 * (191/750) = 32
o
Quota sampling
Advantages (compared to probability sampling techniques)

o Less costly
o Can be set up very quickly
o Does not require a sampling frame
Disadvantage
o Because the researcher can choose within quota boundaries whom
they interview, your quota sample may be subject to bias (e.g.,
easily accessible respondents who appear to be willing to answer
the questions)
o As the sample is not probability based, you cannot measure the
level of certainty, margins of error,
41
Judgmental sampling
= purposive sampling
You need to use your judgment to select cases that will best enable you to
answer your research question
Often used when:
o Working with very small samples (such as in case study research or
when you wish to select cases that are particularly informative)
E.g., industrial research among experts
o Doing qualitative research
o Doing exploratory researchThose samples cannot be considered
to be statistically representative of
the total population!
The more common judgmental sampling strategies:
o Extreme case or deviant sampling
o Heterogeneous or maximum variation sampling
o Homogenous sampling
o Critical case sampling
o Typical case sampling
o Theoretical sampling
Snowball sampling
Commonly used when it is difficult to identify members of the desired

population
Procedures:
o Make contact with one or two cases in the population
o Ask these cases to identify further cases
o Ask these new cases to identify further new cases (and so on)
o Stop when either no new cases are given or the sample is large
enough
Main problem = making initial contact
Bias
o Respondent are most likely to identify other potential respondents
who are similar to themselves, resulting in a homogenous sample
Self-selection sampling
It occurs when you allow each case, usually individuals, to identify

their desire to take part in the research
You therefore:
o Publicize your need for cases either by advertising or by asking
them to take part
o Collect data from those who respond
Problem = representativeness
o Cases that self-select often do so because of their feelings or
opinions about the research question
42
Self-selection sampling: example
Patricks research was concerned with the impact of student loans on studying
habits. He had decided to administer his questionnaire using the internet. He
publicized his research on Facebook in a number of groups pages, using the
associated description to invite people to self-select and clicking on the link to the
questionnaire. Those who self-select by clicking on the hyperlink were automatically
taken to the online questionnaire he had develop using the Qualtrics survey software
Involves selecting cases haphazardly only because they are easily

available (or most convenient) to obtain for you sample
o E.g., the person interviewed at random in a shopping center for a
television program
Widely used
Though prone to bias and influences that are beyond your control
cases appear in the sample only because of the ease of obtaining them
o bias decreases as the population becomes more homogenous
nevertheless, samples ostensibly chosen for convenience often meet
purpose sample selection criteria that are all relevant to the research aim.
o E.g., organization selected to use as a case study that represent, at
the same time, a typical case
Advantages:
o Cheap
o Quick (suited for exploratory research)
Impact of various factors on choice of non-probability sampling

techniques
Likelihood of sampling being representative

Types of research in which useful (e.g., non-probability techniques often
used in exploratory research)
Relative costs (Note: non-probability techniques are often used as the
imply less costs compared to probability sampling techniques)
Control over sample contents
Note: where it is not possible to construct a sampling frame you will need
to use non-probability sampling techniques

For the following research question, it has not been possible for you to obtain a
sampling frame. Suggest the most suitable sampling technique to obtain the
necessary data, giving reasons for your choice.
Research question: would users of the tennis club be prepared to pay a 10 percent
increase in subscriptions to help fund two extra tennis courts? You need the answer
by tomorrow morning.
For many research projects, you will need to use a

combination different sampling techniques!
43
Is the following statement true or false? Give reasons for your answer.
stratified sampling can be seen as random quota sampling
Determine the sample size


44
The confidence interval

First of all, brushing up statistics
Normal distribution
95% of the value/scores is in between -1.96*

standard deviation and +1.96* standard
Normal distinction standard normal distribution

Z = value mean/standard deviation
AZ-score of (-)1.96 corresponds with a
Statistical inference
Important in research is to calculate statistics, such as the sample mean

and sample proportion, and use them to estimate the corresponding true
population values (e.g., population mean and population proportion)
Statistical inference: the process of generalizing the sample
results to a target population
45
Confidence intervals
We are thus interested in using the sample statistics (e.g., the sample
mean) as an estimate of the value in the population
An approach to assessing the accuracy of the sample mean as an estimate
of the mean in the population is to calculate boundaries within which we
believe the true value of the mean will fall
Confidence
Typically, we look at 95% confidence intervals

This means that for 95% of the time, the true value of the population will
fall within the boundaries of the confidence interval
In other words, if you would collect 100 samples, calculated the means
and then calculated a confidence interval for that mean, then for 95 of the
samples, the confidence intervals we constructed would contain the true
value of the mean in the population
= sample mean
= population mean
= standard deviation of
= sample size
population
Confidence level (Z)
= sample mean
= population mean
= standard deviation of
population
= sample size
Confidence level (Z)
46
We already determined the level of precision (D) but what about Z and
Specifying Z is about specifying the level of confidence

o A 95% confidence level is desired Z = 1.96
Determine
o
(= the standard deviation of the population)
Secondary sources, pilot study or (max value-min value)/6
An example
Suppose a researched wants to estimate the monthly household savings investment
more precisely so that the estimate will be within +/- 5 of the true population
value. What should be the size of the sample?
An example
Suppose a researcher wants to estimate the monthly household savings investment

more precisely so that the estimate will be within +/- 5 of the true population
value. What should be the size of the sample?
47
Confidence level = 95% Zvalue=1.96
Sample size
Your choice of sample size is thus governed by
The confidence you need to have in your data: the level of certainty that
the characteristics of the data collected will represent the characteristics
of the total population.
The margin of error that you can tolerate: the accuracy you require for
any estimates made from your sample
The variability in the population in terms of the variable(s) of interest
48
Also other factors influence the determination of the sample

size, such as
Time resources
Financial resources
Type of data analysis
Access
Expected response
A big company wants to know how much money (in euro) each of its managers
spends on lunches per month. They know that the maximum amount of money
spent is 700 euros while the minimum is 400 euro. The company wants that the
result is accurate in terms of 5 euro and wants to make a prediction with
a confidence level of 95%.
How large should be the sample size?
Level of precision = D = 5
Confidence 95% z = 1.96
= 700-400/6=50
Sample size determination: proportions

? Population proportion?
Secondary sources, pilot study,
or conservative (=0.5)
An example
Suppose a researched is interested in estimating the proportion of households in a

particular region that have bought clothes online? What should be the sample size?
49
Chapter 4c: sampling


Non-probability sampling: determine the sample size
Formulas of probability sampling techniques

o Are based on the assumption that the sample cases are randomly
selected
o Formulas are just guidelines
Larger sample sizes do not necessarily lead to higher levels of confidence and
precision
However, take into account
o Variability in the target group
o Goal of sampling
o Importance of research for management/client
Or you could consider samples sizes used in similar studies, for instance,
Sampling: the non-response problem
In reality, you are likely to have non-responses

Possible causes of non-response
o Refusal to participate
o Intelligently to respond
o Inability to locate respondent
o Respondent located but unable to make contact
Possible consequences non-response
o Lower confidence and precision levels due to smaller sample size
o Non-response bias: people who refuse differ from actual respondent
As part of your research report, you will need to include the response rate:
Total response rate =
total number of responses

total numbersampleinteligible
50
Active response rate =
total number of responses

total number sample(ineligible +unreachable)
Total and active response rate: example
Suzan has decided to administer a telephone questionnaire to people who had left
her company over the past five years. She obtained a list of the 1034 people who
had left over this period (the total population) and selected a 50 per cent sample.
Unfortunately, she could obtain current telephone numbers for only 311 of the 517
ex-employees who made up her total sample. Of these 311 people who were
potentially reachable, she obtained a response from 147. In addition, her list of
people who had left her company was inaccurate, and 9 of those she contacted
where ineligible to respond, having left the company over five years earlier.
Estimating response rates and actual sample size required
Non-response = reality you should estimate the likely response rate and
increase the sample size accordingly
o First of all, determine the minimal sample size (taking into account
certain confidence and precision levels)
o Second, estimate the likely response rate
o Third, calculate the actual sample size you require
Total response rate = 147/ (517-9)=

28.9%
Active response rate = 147/311-
Estimating
rates and
size required: example
response
actual sample
Peter was a part-time student employed by a large manufacturing company. He had

decided to send a questionnaire to the companys customers and calculated that a
minimum sample size of 439 was required. From previous questionnaires that his
company had used to collect data from customers, Peter knew the likely response
rate would be approximately 30 per cent. Using these data he could calculate his
actual sample size:
na =439 x 100 /30=43 900 /30=1463
Peters actual sample size, therefore, needed to be 1463 customers. The likelihood
of 70 per cent non-response meant that Peter needed to include a means of
checking that his sample was representative when he designed his questionnaire.
Estimating response rates and actual sample size required
Consider the response rates achieved for similar research that has already
been undertaken
51
o
o
o
Beware, response rates can vary considerably when collecting primary

data!
E.g., postal questionnaires: often lower than 50%
E.g., face-to-face contact: often higher
E.g., online questionnaires: often lower than 30%
Alternatively, err on the side of caution
In reality, you are likely to have non-responses
Possible causes of non-response
Refusal to participate ineligibility to respond
Inability to locate respondent
Respondent located but unable to make contact
Possible consequences of non-response
Lower confidence and precision levels due to smaller
sample size
Increasing the actual sample size useful in case nonresponse only results in less confidence and
precision
However, increasing the actual sample size is no solution
When doing longitudinal research in which the same respondents need to be

re-examined
If it is a matter of non-response bias
o Refusers differ on observable characteristics (gender, education,)
compared to respondents
o Refusers might also differ on non-observable characteristics!
How to trace non-response bias?
Comparing characteristics of respondents with refusers

o On moment of refusal
o Afterwards by means of additional contact
Comparing characteristics of respondents with population
Still not the solution when there would be differences in terms of nonobservable characteristics
How to tackle non-response bias?
Increasing the number of contacts

Work with substitutes that are randomly selected, but which match on crucial
characteristics (e.g., gender)
o However, this measure is not able to solve the bias completely
52
Validate the sample
Once data are collected from a sample, comparisons between the structure of
the sample and the structure of the population should be made
If it is found that the structure of a sample does not match the target
population (due to population specification error, sampling frame error,
sample selection bias, non-response bias)
o A statistical procedure that attempts to account for these errors/biases
by assigning differential weights to the data depending on the response
rates.
Weighting
Each case in the database is assigned a weight

The effect of weighting is to increase or decrease the number of cases in the
sample that possess certain characteristics
Most widely used to make the sample data more representative of a target
population on specific characteristics
Also used to adjust the sample so that greater important is attached to
participants with certain characteristics
Because it destroys the self-weighting nature of the sample design, this
procedure should be applied with caution! Do not forget to report this
procedure!
Explain the following terms:

o Sampling
o Population
o Case/element
o Census
o Sample
o Population specification error
o Sampling frame
o Sampling frame error
Why do researchers make use of samples rather than examining the whole
populations?
Define the steps of the sampling process
Which are the two main types of sampling techniques? Explain the difference
53
Why does sampling often results in higher overall accuracy compared to

examining the whole population?
Explain the following sampling techniques and give their advantages as well
as their disadvantages:
o Simple random sampling
o Systematic random sampling
o Stratified random sampling
o Cluster sampling
o Multi-stage sampling
What is a random number table? What are the advantages and disadvantage
of such a table?
Which random procedure can be used when applying the simple random
sampling technique?
What is the advantage and disadvantage of random digit dialing?
Explain the term sampling fraction
What is the difference between a proportionate and disproportionate stratified
random sampling technique?
What is the difference between cluster sampling and stratified random
sampling?
Which factors impact the choice of a probability sampling technique?
Explain the following sampling techniques and give their advantages as well
as their disadvantages:
o Quota sampling
o Judgmental sampling
o Snowball sampling
o Self-selection sampling
o Convenience sampling
What is the difference between quota sampling and stratified random
sampling?
What is the goal of the precision control and frequency control procedure?
In which situations is purposive sampling often used?
What are the more common judgmental sampling strategies?
Which factors impact the choice of a non-probability sampling technique?
How should the sample size be determined when applying a probability
sampling technique?
Define the terms statistical inference and confidence interval
Which factors influence the sample size in case of probability sampling
technique?
How should the sample size be determined when applying a non-probability
sampling technique?
What are the causes and consequences of non-response?
What is the difference between the total response rate and the active
response rate?
How should the actual sample size be calculated?
How can the response rate be estimated?
Non-response can be tackled by increasing the sample size? However, this
procedure is not always the solution explain why not
54
How could non-response bias be traced and dealt with?

What happens during the final stage of the sampling process that is the stage
in which the sample gets validated?
Why do researchers apply the weighting procedure?
Chapter 5 using secondary data

When thinking about executing your research design to be able to answer your
question, you probably think in terms of collecting your own data
Primary data = data collected specifically for the research project being
undertaken
However, it is also possible to use secondary data that is data that were originally
collected for some other purpose
Research questions might be answered using some combination of

primary and secondary data as well!!
Types of secondary data and uses in research
May be both quantitative and qualitative data

May be raw data (received little if any processing) or compiled data (received
some form of selection or summarizing)
Primarily used in descriptive and explanatory research (also possible in
exploratory research!)
Within business and management research, secondary data are most
frequently used as part of a case study or survey research strategy (also used
as part of other research strategies!)
55
Three main subgroups of secondary data
Documentary secondary data
Often used in research projects that also collect primary data (but you can
also use them on their own or with other sources of secondary data!)
Include text materials and non-text materials
Can be analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively
Can be used to help to triangulate findings based on other data
Documentary sources you have available can depend on access issues as well
as success in locating these sources
Survey-based secondary data
Data collected using a survey strategy (e.g., questionnaires) that have

already been analyzed for their original purpose
Collected through one of three distinct subtypes of survey strategy:
o Censuses
o Continuous and regular surveys
o Ad hoc surveys
Survey-based secondary data: censuses
Usually carried out by governments data are often:

o Clearly defined
o Well documented
o Of high quality
o Easily accessible
o Widely used
56
Are unique as, unlike surveys, participation is obligatory therefore, they

provide very good coverage of the population surveyed
Survey-based secondary data: continuous and regular surveys
Those surveys, excluding censuses, that are repeated over time

o E.g., surveys where data are collected throughout the year
E.g., UKs General Lifestyle Survey (GLF)
o E.g. surveys repeated at regular intervals
E.g., EU Labor Force Survey
Comparative data
Also caried out by non-government bodies
o E.g., market research surveys
o Data often costly to obtain
Also carried out by large organisations
o E.g., employees attitude survey
o Often difficult to gain access due to sensitive nature
Survey-based secondary data: censuses & continuous and

regular surveys
Provide useful resource with which to compare or set in context your own
research findings from primary data
Check when data were collected (there can be some time between collection
and publications!)
Sometimes the only way in which you can obtain the required data
Survey-based secondary data: ad hoc surveys
= a general term normally used to describe the collection of data that only
occurs once due to the specificity of focus
Usually one-off surveys
Usually far more specific in their subject matter
Because of their ad hoc nature, it will probably be more difficult to discover
relevant surveys
Multiple-score secondary data
= secondary data created by combining two or more different data sets prior
to the data being accessed for the research. These data sets can be based
entirely on documentary or on survey data, or can be an amalgam of the two
E.g., various compilations of company information
o E.g., Europes 15,000 Largest Companies
Some methods of compliation
o Extract and combine selected comparable variables from a nuber of
surveys or from the same survey that has been repeated a number of
times to provide longitudinal data (time-series data)
o Data compiled from the same cases over time using a series of
snapshots to form cohort studies
o Secondary data from different sources can be combined, if they hve the
same geographical basis, to form area-based data sets (e.g., Europe
in figures: Eurostat yearbook)
57
The facebook-page of McDonalds is an example of:

a) Documentary secondary data
b) Survey-based secondary data
c) Multiple-source secondary data
d) None of the above types secondary data
How o locate secondary data?
Require you to:
Establish whether the sort of data you require are likely to be

STEP
available as secondary data
STEP
Locate the precise data you require
Step 1: establishing the likely availability if secondary data
Literature review (reference list)

Quality national newspapers
Subject-specific textbooks
Tertiary literature (e.g., indexes and catalogues)
Informal discussions
Step 2: locate secondary data
Once you have ascertained that secondary data are likely to exist, you need
to find their precise location
o Relatively straightforward for secondary data held in online databases
or held by specialist libraries
o Data held by organizations are more difficult to locate (time consuming,
quality?,)
o Once you have located a possible secondary data set, you need to be
certain that it will meet your needs
Advantage of secondary data
Disadvantage or secondary data
May have fewer resource
May be collected for a purpose that
requirements
does not match your need
Unobtrusive
Access may be difficult or costly
Longitudinal studies may be feasible
Aggregations and definitions may be
unsuitable
Can provide comparative and
No real control over data quality
contextual data
Can results in unforeseen discoveries Initial purpose may affect how data
are presented
Permanence of data
Evaluating secondary data sources
Secondary data must be viewed with the same caution as any primary data!
58
You need to be sure that:

o They will enable you to answer your research question
o The benefits associated with their use will be greater than the costs
o You will be allowed access to the data
Most authors suggest a range of validity and reliability criteria against which
potential secondary data can be evaluated
These criteria can be incorporated into a three-stage process
1. Overall suitability
2. Precise suitability
3. Costs and benefits
Overall suitability
Measurement validity
o Do the measures used match those you need?
o E.g., a manufacturing organization recording monthly sales whereas
you are interested in monthly orders
o E.g., use minutes of company meetings as a proxy for what actually
happened in those meetings
Coverage and unmeasured variables
o De secondary data cover the population about which you need data, for
the time period you need, and contain variables that will enable you to
answer the research questions?
o Some secondary data sets may not include variables you have
identified as necessary for your analysis (i.e., unmeasured variables)
Overall suitability: checklist

Does the data set contain the information you require to answer your research
question(s)?
Do the measures used match those you require?
Is the data set a proxy for the data you really need?
Does the data set cover the population that is the subject of your research?
Does the data set cover the geographical area that is the subject of your
research?
59
Can data about the population that is the subject of your research be
separated form unwanted data?
Are the data for the right time period or sufficiently up to date?
Are the data available for all the variables you require to answer your
research question(s)?
Are the variables defined clearly?
Precise suitability
Reliability and validity

o Quick option: assess the authority or reputation of the source
o In-depth assessment:
Who is responsible for the data?
Method used to collect the data?
Context in which the data were collected?
How were data analyzed and reported?

Measurement bias: can occur for two reasons
1) Deliberate or intentional distortion of data
a. E.g., purpose of study is to reach a predetermined conclusion
b. E.g., people responding to a structured interview adjusting their
responses to please the interviewer
c. Triangulation!
2) Changes in the way data were collected
Particularly important for longitudinal data set!
Precise suitability: checklist
How reliable is the data set you are thinking of using?

How credible is the data source?
Is the clear what the source of the data is?
Do the credentials of the source of the data (author, institution or organization
sponsoring the data) suggest it is likely to be reliable?
Do the data have an associated copyright statement?
Do associated published documents exist?
Does the source contain contact details for obtaining further information
about the data?
Is the method described clearly?
If sampling was used, what was the procedure and what were the associated
sampling errors and response rates?
Who was responsible for collecting or recording the data?
(For surveys) is copy of questionnaire or interview checklist included?
(For compiled data) are you clear how the data were analyzed and compiled?
Are the data likely to contain measurement bias?
What was the original purpose for which the data were collected?
Who was the target audience and what was its relationship to the data
collector or compiler (where there any vested interest)
Have there been any documented changes in the way the data are measured
or recorded including definition changes?
60
How consistent are the data obtained from this source when compared with
data from other sources?
Have the data have been recorded accurately?
Costs and benefits: checklist
What are the financial and time costs of obtaining these data?
Can the data be downloaded into a spreadsheet, statistical analysis software
or word processor?
Do the overall benefits of using these secondary data sources outweigh the
associated costs?
Suppose you are undertaking a research project as part of your research methods
course in which you need to investigate the following research question: how has
Belgiums import and export trade with other countries altered since its entry into
the European Union?
List two arguments that you could use to convince the project leader of the
suitability of using secondary data to answer this research question
a) Primary data become secondary data
b) Primary data are more reliable and valid compared to secondary data
c) Research projects might combine primary and secondary data
d) Secondary data enable researchers to triangulate their primary research
findings
What is the difference between primary data and secondary data?

For which research purpose are secondary data most often used?
In which research strategies are secondary data most often used?
What types of secondary data exist?
What are documentary secondary data?
What are survey-based secondary data?
What types of survey-based secondary data exist?
What is the advantage of using ad-hoc surveys as secondary data?
What methods of compiling multiple-source secondary data sets can be
used?
What are cohort studies?
What are area-based data sets?
How can secondary data be located?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?
How should secondary data be evaluated?
What are the reasons for measurement bias in secondary data?
61
Chapter 6: collecting primary data through observation

Primary vs. secondary data
undertaken
Secondary data = data that were originally collected for some other
purpose
Research questions might be answered using some combination of primary
and secondary data as well
One way of collecting primary data is

through observation
Introduction
If your research question is concerned with what people do, an obvious way in
which to discover this is to watch them do it
This is essentially what observation involves:
o The systematic observation, recording, description, recording,
description analysis and interpretation of peoples behavior
Two types of observation are examined in this chapter
1. Participant observation
a. Qualitative
b. Emphasis is on discovering the meaning that people attach to their
actions
2. Structured observation
a. Quantitative
b. Emphasis is on the frequency of actions
Observation cna be used as either the main method

of data collection or to supplement other
methods!!!!
Before telling something more about those two types of

observations
What can be observed?
Behavior and physical actions
Verbal behavior
Body language
Special aspects of relationships
Time patterns
Physical objects
Activities from the past

Dimensions based on which observation methods differ

Natural
Personal
Manipulated
Mechanical
62
hidden
Not hidden
The sellers of a multimedia store visit competitive stores and write down their
prices. This observation is:
a) Natural Personal Not hidden
b) Manipulated Mechanical Not hidden
c) Manipulated Personal Hidden
d) Natural Personal Hidden
What is participant observation?
Observation in which the researcher attempts to participate fully in or

closely observe the lives and activities of the research subjects and thus
becomes a member of the subjects group(s), organization(s) or
community
This enables researchers to share their experiences by not merely
observing what is happening but also feeling it
E.g., Street Corner Society by W.F. Whyte
Typology of participant observation researcher roles
63
How to determine the participant observation researcher role?
Factors that will determine the choice of participant observer

role
Purpose of your research

o Which role is most suited to answer your research question?
64
E.g., a phenomenon about which the research informants would

be naturally defensive is one that lends itself to the complete
participant role
E.g., discovering what it is like to be a participant on a particular
training course is more appropriate to the participant-asobserver role
The time you have to devote to your research
o Some of the roles may be very time consuming
E.g., a period of attachment might be necessary
The degree to which you feel suited to participant observation
Organizational access
Ethical considerations
o The degree to which you reveal your identity as the researcher or adopt
a covert stance will be dictated by ethical considerations

A researcher wants to know how many customers of Delhaize complain at the
customer service desk, and how these customers behave while formulating their
complaints.
What would be a good researcher role in this particular situation?
Note making and recording data
Note making: your notes are likely to be composed of different type of data:
o Primary observations
What happened? What was said?
o Secondary observations
Statements by observers about what happened or was said
o Experiential data
Perceptions and feelings as you experience the process you are
researching
o Contextual data
Data related to the research setting and organizational
structures and communication patterns that will help you to
interpret other data
Data collection
No formal interviews but informal discussions
65
Recording must take place on the same day as the fieldwork in order to not
forget valuable data
Other ways of conducting observation and collecting data
Internet and video technologies

Video diary (observational data from the perspective of the subject)
Data analysis
Data from participant observation are analyzed like other qualitative data (not
part of this course)
Data will start to be analyzed at the time you collect them (i.e., data
collection and data analysis will be carried out simultaneously)
Promising lines of enquiry that you wish to follow up in your continued
observation will emerge
Issues related to reliability and validity
Participant observation has high ecological validity as it involves studying

social actors and social phenomena in their natural settings
However, using participant observation may lead to a number of threats to
reliability and validity:
o Observer error: lack of understanding of or overfamiliarity with setting
may lead you to unintentionally misinterpret what is happening
o Observer bias: the observer uses his or her own subjective view or
disposition to interpret events in the settings being observer
Always question you own interpretations and conclusions
Informant verification: form of triangulation in which the
researcher presents written accounts to informants for them to
verify the content
o Observer effect: by simply being present, the researcher may affect the
behavior of those being observed
Covert observation vs. ethics
Minimal interaction (observer melts into the background)
Habituation: the informants being observed become familiar with
process of observation so that they take it for granted and
behave normally
In sum, advantages of participant observation
Good at explaining what is going on in particular social settings

Heightens the researchers awareness of significant social processes
Particularly useful for researchers working within their own organizations
Affords the opportunity for the researcher to experience for real the
emotions of those who are being researched
Virtually all data collected are useful
Can be very time-consuming
Can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researcher
Can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher (e.g., colleagues vs.
researcher)
66
Closeness of researcher to the situation being observed can lead to significant

observer bias
Very demanding role to which not all researchers will be suited
Access to organizations may be difficult
Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher
What is structure observation?
In contrast to participant observation:

o A high level of predetermined structure
o Adopt a more detached stance
o Concern is to quantify behavior (how often do things happen?)
The internet has widened the scope to conduct forms of structured
observation
Internet may be used in real time to make virtual structured observations
(e.g., count the number of visitors to websites in a given period)
Internet behavior may also be tracked and analyzed (e.g., search engines
such as Google regularly do research on the search behavior of their users;
indirect observation)
Advantages of using the internet for structured observation:
o Non-intrusiveness
o Removal of possible observer bias
What is structured observation? An example
Mintzberg, H (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper &
Row
o Mintzberg questioned whether managerial work is rational process
of planning, controlling and directing
o Therefore, he studied what five chief executives actually did during
one of each of the executives working weeks
o He did this by direct observation and the recording of events on
three predetermined coding schedules (which were developed
based on a period of unstructured observation)
Using coding schedules to collect data
One of the key decisions you need to make before undertaking structured
observation is whether:
o To use an off-the-shelf coding schedule
Often used in management and business to record
interpersonal interactions in social situations such as
meetings or negotiations
Advantages of using off-the-shelf coding schedules:
You save a lot of time
Has been tried and tested reliability and validity
o Or to design your own coding schedule
An alternative to the use of an off-the-shelf

schedule or the development of your own may
be a combination of the two!
67
Questions to ask when choosing an off-the-shelf coding

schedule
For what purpose was the coding schedule developed? Is it consistent with
your research question?
Is there overlap between the behaviors to be observed?
Are all behaviors in which you are interested covered by the schedules?
Are the behaviors sufficiently clearly specified so that all observers will place
behaviors in the same category?
Is any observer interpretation necessary?
Are codes to be used indicated on the recording form to avoid the necessity
for memorization by the observer?
Will the behaviors to be observed be relevant to the inferences you make?
Have all sources of observer bias been eliminated?
Developing your own coding schedule: checklist
Are the codes you have developed strictly relevant for the behaviors that you
wish to observe and record?
Do the range of codes you have developed cover all the behaviors you wish to
observe and record?
Are the meanings of codes to be used transparent and have you written these
down?
Have you ensured that the meanings of different codes do not overlap?
Are the codes you have developed flexible enough in practice to be applied
across different settings?
Are the codes you have developed simple to understand and undemanding to
apply so that you will not need to memorise or check their meanings
Data analysis
The complexity of your analysis will depend on your research question
o It may be that you are using the coding schedule to establish the
number of interactions by category in order to relate the result to the
output of the meeting. Simple manual analysis may be sufficient for
this purpose
o Alternatively, you may be using the coding schedule to see what
patterns emerge. This level of analysis is more complex and will usually
need statistical software
Issues related to validity and reliability
Observer error
Observer effect
Informant error: errors that occur when informants are observed in
situations that are inconsistent with their normal behavior patterns,
leading to atypical responses
68
E.g., you want to observe the amount of orders sales administrators

process in a day and choose administrators in a section that was
short-staffed owing to illness
Time error: the time at which you conduct an observation provides data
that are untypical of the total time period in which you are interested
o E.g., the number of calls taken in a call center is often higher in the
hours surrounding lunchtime in comparison to any other two-hour
period
o
In sum, advantages of structured observation
Can be used by anyone after suitable training in the use of the measuring
instrument. Therefore, you could delegate this extremely time-consuming
task.
May be carried out simultaneously in different locations. This would present
the opportunity of comparison between locations.
Should yield highly reliable results by virtue of its reliability. The easier the
observation instrument is to use and understand, the more reliable the results
will be.
In sum, advantages of structured observation
Capable of more than simply observing the frequency of events. It is also

possible to record the relationship between events. For example, does a visit
to a website lead to the exploration of related pages and video recordings;
does this lead to a decision to purchase?
Allows the collection of data at the time they occur in their natural setting.
Therefore, there is no need to depend on second-hand accounts of
phenomena from participants who put their own interpretation on events.
Secures data that most informants would ignore because to them these are
too mundane or irrelevant
In sum, disadvantages of structured observation
Unless virtual observation is used, the observer must be in the research

setting when the phenomena under study are taking place
Research results are limited to over action or surface indicators from which
the observer must make inferences
Data are slow (and may be expensive) to collect

a) Data based on observational studies can be used as secondary data
b) Structured observation might serve and explanatory research purpose
c) Collecting data through observation is part of qualitative research designs
d) Not revealing your researcher role in observational studies is advantageous as
informants probably behave in less socially desirable ways
What is the difference between primary and secondary data?

How would you define observation?
69
What is the difference between participant and structured observations? What

are the main advantages and disadvantages of both data collection methods?
Which dimensions are relevant to distinguish different observational
methods?
What is eye tracking?
What is a psychgalvanometer?
What types of participant observation researcher roles exist? Explain the
differences between these types as well as their advantages and
disadvantages.
Which factors determine the suitability of each of the participant observation
researcher roles?
What types of data emerge from note taking during participant observation?
How are data resulting from participant observation analyzed?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of participant observation in
terms of reliability and validity? What measures could be taken to get rid of
these disadvantages?
What is the advantages of using the internet for structured observation?
What are the advantages of using off-the-shelf coding schedules?
Which questions should researchers ask themselves when choosing off-theshelf coding schedules?
Which questions should researchers ask themselves when choosing to
develop their own coding schedules?
How are data resulting from structured observation analyzed?
What are the possible disadvantage of structured observation in terms of
reliability and validity?
Chapter 7 collecting primary data using interviews

Primary vs. secondary data
undertaken
Secondary data = data that were originally collected for some other
purpose
Research questions might be answered using, some combination of primary
and secondary data as well
One way of collecting primary data is by

using interviews
Research interview
= a purposeful discussion between two or more people requiring the

interviewer to establish rapport, to ask concise and unambiguous questions
and to listen attentively
Is a general terms for several types of interview
o Structured interviews
70
o Semi-structured interviews
o Unstructured interviews
= data collection technique in which an interviewed physically meets the
respondent, reads them the same set of questions in a predetermined order,
and records his or her response to each
Also called interviewed-administered questionnaires
Are most often used to collect quantifiable data therefore, they are also
referred to as quantitative research interviews
Semi-structured and unstructured interviews
Semi-structured interview = wide-randing category of interview in which the

interviewer commences with a set of interview themes but is prepared to vary
the order in which questions are asked and to ask new questions in the
context of the research situations
Unstructured interview = loosely structured and informally conducted
interview that may commence with one or more themes to explore with
participants but without a predetermined list of questions to work through
Compared to structured interviews, those interviews are non-standardized
Are often referred to as qualitative research interviews
Types of interview
According to the nature of interaction between the researcher and those who
participate
o One-to-one versus one-to-many
o Face-to-face versus telephone, internet, intranet
Links to the research purpose and research strategy

Structured interviews are normally used to gather data which will then be
the subject of quantitative analysis (e.g., as part of a survey strategy)
Semi-structured and unstructured interviews are normally used to gather
data which will then be the subject of qualitative analysis (e.g., as part of a
case study strategy
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Next to the research purpose and the research strategy, which

other factors determine when to use qualitative research
interviews?
The significance of establishing personal contact

The nature of the data collection questions
Length of time required and completeness of the process
The significance of establishing personal contact
People are more likely to agree to be interviewed rather than complete a

questionnaire
An interview provides the opportunity to receive feedback and personal
assurance about the way in which information will be used
People may feel it is not appropriate to provide (sensitive and confidential)
information to someone they have never met
People may be reluctant to spend time providing written answers if the
meaning of any questions is not entirely clear
o Where appropriate, the use of personal interviews may achieve a
higher response rate than using questionnaires
More control over those who fill in the questionnaire
The nature of data collection questions
Qualitative research interviews will be the most advantageous approach to

attempt to obtain data in the following circumstances:
o Where there are a large number of questions to be answered
o Where the questions either complex or open-ended
o Where the order and logic of questioning may need to be varied
Length of time required and completeness of the process
Length of time required

o In case gathering data will involve much time, people are more likely to
agree to participate in an interview rather than filling in a questionnaire
o Interview can be arranged at a time that suits the interviewee
Completeness of the process
o You are able to convince the participant to still answer certain
questions
o You are able to form some indication of why a participant refuses to
respond, and to modify the question
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In sum, a checklist to help you decide whether or not to use

qualitative research interviews
Does the purpose of your research suggests using semi-structured and/or indepth (i.e., unstructured) interviews?
Will it help to seek personal contact in terms of gaining access to participants
and their data?
Are your data collection questions large in number, complex or open-ended?
Will there be a need to vary the order and logic of questioning?
Will it help to be able to probe interviewees responses to build on or seek
explanation of their answers?
Will the data collection process with each individual involve a relatively
lengthy period?
Suppose you are an economist. You would like to do research among the CEOs of
multinationals to examine their opinion about opportunities and threats for the
European economy during the next 10 years.
Questions: what kind of interview would you undertake? Why?

a) Structured interviews are suited for descriptive research purposes
b) Qualitative research interviews allow to check respondents interpretation of
questions
c) Quantitative research interviews are more appropriate in case you have
complex questions compared to qualitative research interviews
d) Unstructured interviews can be combined with quantitative data collection
methods in the same research project
What is a research interview?

Give the difference types of research interview
Explain the difference between these types
Base on the nature of the interaction between the interviewed and the
interviewee, different types of interview can be distinguished. Explain.
Explain the differences between the interview types by linking those types to
the research purposes for which they are suited.
Which factors determine the suitability of the use of qualitative research
interviews?
Chapter 8 collecting primary data using questionnaires

Introduction
Within business and management research, the greatest use of

questionnaires is made within the survey strategy. However, other research
73
strategies (e.g., experiments) can make use of these data collection methods
as well
Questionnaire = a general term to include all methods of data collection in
which each person is asked to respond to the same set of questions in a
predetermined order
o Thus also includes, for instance, structured interviews
When to use questionnaires?

Questionnaires usually work best with descriptive or explanatory research using
standardized questions that you can be confident will be interpreted the same way
by all respondents
Questionnaires are usually not particularly good for exploratory or other research
that requires larges numbers of open-ended questions
Types of questionnaire
How to choose a type of questionnaire?
Your choice of questionnaire will be influenced by a variety of factors:

Characteristics of the respondents from whom you whish to collect
data
Importance of reaching a particular person as respondent
Importance of respondents answers not being contaminated or
distorted
Required sample size for your analysis, taking into account the likely
response rate
Feasible length of questionnaire
Types of question you need to ask to collect your data
Number of questions you need to ask to collect you data
Time available to complete the data collection
Financial implications of data collection and entry
Availability of interviewers and field workers to assist
Use of automated data entry
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Internet and intranet-mediated questionnaires
Populations characteristics for which suitable: computer-literate individuals

who can be contacted by email, or accessed using the internet or intranet
Confidence that right person has responded: high if using email
Likelihood of contamination or distortion of respondents answer: low
Size of sample: large, can be geographically dispersed
Likely response rate: variable, 30-50% reasonable within organization/via
intranet, 11% or lower using internet
Feasible length of questionnaire: equivalent of 6-8 A4 pages, minimise
scrolling down
Suitable types of questions: closed questions but not too complex;
complicated sequencing fine if uses software; must be of interest to
respondent
Time taken to complete collection: 2-6 weeks from distribution (dependent on
number of follow-ups)
Main financial resource impications: if via a web page, web page design.
Subscription to online software
Role of the interviewer/field worker: none
Data input: automated
Online questionnaires at HUB
At HUB: Qualtrics: Online survey tool that allows you to design your
questionnaire, and collect, enter and analyse the data within the same
software
Other tools: snap surveys, sphinx survey, survey monkey
Postal questionnaires
Populations characteristics for which suitable: literate individuals who can be

contacted by post, selected by name, household, organization,
Confidence that right person has responded: low
Likelihood of contamination or distortion of respondents answer: may be
contaminated by consultation with others
Size of sample: large, can be geographically dispersed
Likely response rate: variable, 30-50% reasonable
Feasible length of questionnaire: 6-8 A4 pages
Suitable types of question: closed questions but not too complex, must be of
interest to respondent
Time to take to complete collections: 4-8 weeks from posting (dependent on
number of follow-ups)
Main financial resource implications: outward and return postage,
photocopying, clerical support, data entry
Role of the interviewer/field worker: non
Data input: closed questions can be designed so that responses may be
entered using optical mark readers after questionnaire has been returned
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Delivery and collection questionnaires
Populations characteristics for which suitable: literate individuals, selected by

name, household, organization,
Confidence that right person has responded: low
Likelihood of contamination or distortion of respondents answer: may be
contaminated by consultation with others
Size of sample: depend on number of field workers
Likely response rate: variable, 30-50% reasonable
Feasible length of questionnaire: 6-8 A4 pages
Suitable types of question: closed questions but not too complex; simple
sequencing; must be of interest to respondent
Time take to complete collection: dependent on sample size, number of field
works,
Main financial resource implications: field workers, travel, photocopying,
clerical support, data entry
Role of the interviewed/field workers: delivery and collection of
questionnaires, enhancing respondent participation
Data input: closed questions can be designed so that responses may be
entered using optical mark readers after questionnaire has been returned
Telephone questionnaires
Populations characteristics for which suitable: individuals who can be

telephoned; selected by name, household, organizations,
Confidence that right person has responded: high
Likelihood of contamination or distortion of respondents answer: occasionally
distorted or invented by interviewer
Size of sample: dependent on number of interviewers
Likely response rate: high, 50-70% reasonable
Feasible length of questionnaire: up to half an hour
Suitable types of questions: open and closed questions, including complicated
questions; complicated sequencing fine
Time taken to complete collection: dependent on sample size, number of
interviewers, but slower than self-completed for same sample size
Main financial resource implications: interviewers, telephone call, clerical
support; photocopying and data entry if not using CAT; programming,
software, and computers if using CATI (= computer-aided/assisted telephone
interviewing)
Role of the interviewer/field worker: enhancing respondent participation;
guiding the respondent through the questionnaire; answering respondents
questions
Data input; response to all questions entered at time of collection using CATI
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Structured interview
Populations characteristics for which suitable: any; selected by name,

household, organization, in the street,
Confidence that right person has responded: high
Likelihood of contamination or distortion of respondents answer: occasionally
contaminated by consultation or distorted/invented by interviewer
Size of sample: dependent on number of interviewers
Likely response rate: high, 50-70% reasonable
Feasible length of questionnaire: variable depending on location
Suitable types of question: open and closed questions, including complicated
questions, complicated sequencing fine
Time taken to complete collection: dependent on sample size, number of
interviewers, but slower than self-completed for sample size
Main financial resource implications: interviewers, travel, clerical support;
photocopying and data entry if not using CAPI; programming, software and
computers if using CAPI (= computer-assisted/aided personal interviewing)
Role of the interviewer/field worker: enhancing respondent participation;
guiding the respondent through the questionnaire; answering respondents
questions
Data input: response to all questions entered at time of collection using CAPI
Many other factors to consider
Suitable for sensitive questions

Proneness to social desirability
Ability to show visual stimuli
Insight into reason of non-responses
Briefing and training of interviewers
Amount of information than can be gathered
Possibility to guarantee anonymity
Interviewer effects
Possibility to control correctness of information
Controlling peoples interpretation of questions
Possibility for clarification
Which of the following statement is correct?

a) Structured interviews can include more complicated questions than postal
questionnaires
b) The confidence about the right person responding to the questionnaire is
higher for postal questionnaires than telephone questionnaires
c) In general, online questionnaires have higher response rates compared to
structure interviews
d) The likelihood of answer being contaminated by consultation with others is
higher for online questionnaires than postal questionnaires
Once you have chosen a particular questionnaire type, you should decide what
data need to be collected
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Unlike semi-structured and unstructured interviews, the questions you ask in

questionnaires need to be defined precisely prior to data collection
The questionnaire offers only one chance to collect data as it is often difficult
to identify respondent or to return to collect additional information.
This means that the time you spend planning precisely what data you need to
collect, also how you intend to analyze those data and how you should design your
questionnaire to meet these requirements is crucial if you are to answer your
research questions.
Types of data variable that can be collected through

questionnaires?
Three types:
1. Opinion variables
2. Behavior variables
3. Attribute variables
Opinion variables
= record how respondents feel about something or what they think or believe is true
or false
Example: how do you feel about the following statement? teachers at HUB should
place their students interests before their own.
Strongly disagree
Middly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Middly agree
Strongly agree
Behavior variables
= contain data on what people (or their organisations) did in the past, do now or will
do in the future
Example: did you ever went to Paris?
Yes
No
Attribute variables
= contain data about the respondents characteristics; attributes are best thought of
as things a respondent possesses, rather than things a respondent does. They are,
among others, used to explore how opinions and behavior differ between
respondents as well as to check that the data collected are representative of the
total population
Example: what is your gender?
Female
Male
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Questions: what type of variable (opinion, behavior or attribute) is measured by

means of the following question?
What
is your marital status?

Single
Married or living in long-term relationship
Widowed
Divorced
Other (please describe)
Questions: what type of variable (opinion, behavior, or attribute) is measured by

Have
you ever been employed on a nil hours contract?

Yes
No
Not sure
Questions: what type of variable (opinion, behavior or attribute) is measured by

Do you agree or disagree with the right to euthanasia?
Strongly disagree
Middly disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Middly agree
Strongly agree
Deciding what data need to be collected
For most business and management research, the data you collect using
questionnaires will used for either:
Descriptive purposes
o It is important that you select the appropriate characteristics to answer
your research question. Therefore, you will need to have:
Reviewed the literature carefully
Discussed your ideas with colleagues, project tutor and other
interest parties
o Explanatory purposes
You need to be clear about which relationships you think are
likely to exist between variables:
Dependent variable(s)? Independent variable(s)?
Mediating variable(s)? Moderating variable(s)?
Independent variable (1): variable that causes changes to a dependent
variable or variables
Dependent variable (3): variable that changes in response to changes in
other variables
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Mediating variable (2): a variable that transmits the effect of an

independent variable to a dependent variable
Moderating variable (4): a variable that affects the relationship between
an independent variable and a dependent variable
You need to ensure that essential data are collected
= collecting data that enables you to answer the research question(s)

One way to do this is to create a data requirements table
o Step 1: decide whether the main outcome of your research is
descriptive or explanatory
o Step 2: Subdivide each research question into more specific
investigative questions about which you need to gather data
o Step 3: Repeat the second stage if you feel that the investigative
questions are not sufficiently precise
o Step 4: Identify the variables about which you will need to collect data
to answer each investigative question
o Step 5: Establish the level of detail required from the data for each
o
variable.
Step 6: Develop measurement questions to capture the data at the
level of data required for each variable.
An example of this six-step process

Research question/objective: To establish customers attitudes to the outside
smoking area at restaurants and bars.
Step 1: decide whether the main outcome of your research is

Research question/objective: To establish customers attitudes to the outside
smoking area at restaurants and bars.
Type of research: predominantly descriptive, although wish to examine differences
between restaurants and bars, and between different groups of customers.
Step 2: subdivide each research question into more specific

Some investigative questions:

o Do customers feel that they should have an outside smoking area at
restaurants and bars as a right? (opinion)
o Do customers opinions differ depending on age? (attribute)
80
Do customers opinions differ depending on whether or not they

smoke? (behavior)
You need to ensure the essential data are collected
= collecting data that enables you to answer the research question(s)

One way to do is the create a data requirements table
o Step 1: decide whether the main outcome of your research is
o Step 2: Subdivide each research question into more specific
o Step 3: Repeat the second stage if you feel that the investigative
o Step 4: Identify the variables about which you will need to collect data
o Step 5: Establish the level of detail required from the data for each
o
variable.
Step 4: Identify the variables about which you will need to

collect data to answer each investigative question
Investigative question
= Do customers feel that they should have an outside smoking area at
restaurants and bars a right? (opinion)
= Do customers opinion differ depending on age? (attribute)
= Do customers opinion differ depending on whether or not they
smoke? (behavior)
Variable required
= opinion of customers on restaurants and bars providing an outside
smoking area as a right
= Age of employee (independent variable)
= Opinion of customers on restaurants and bars providing an outside
smoking area as a right (dependent variable)
= Smoking behavior (independent variable)
Step 5: establish the level of detail required form the data for
each variable
Investigative question
= Do customers feel that they should have an outside smoking area at
restaurants and bars as a right (opinion)
= Do customers opinion differ depending on age? (attribute)
= Do customers opinion differ depending on whether or not they
smoke? (behavior)
81
Variable required
= Opinion of customers on restaurants and bars providing an outside
smoking area as a right
= age of employee
= smoking behavior
Detail in which data measured
= Feel should be a right, should not be a right, no strong feeling (NB
will need separate questions for restaurants and for bars)
= to nearest 5-year band (youngest 16, oldest 65+)
= non-smoker, smokes but not in own home, smokes in own home
Step 6: develop measurement questions to capture the data at

the level of data required for each variable
Detail in which data measured

o Feelshould be a right, should not a right, no strong feelings (NB will
need separate questions for restaurants and for bars)
Measurement question:
o Do you feel that smoking in restaurants:
Should be a right
Should not be a right
No strong feelings
Develop a data requirement table for the following research objective:

to establish HUB-students opinion about vegetarian meals in student restaurants
o
Step 1: decide whether the main outcome of your research is
o
Step 2: Subdivide each research question into more specific
o
Step 3: Repeat the second stage if you feel that the investigative
o
Step 4: Identify the variables about which you will need to collect data
o
Step 5: Establish the level of detail required from the data for each
variable.
o
What is a questionnaire?
When should questionnaires (not) be used?
Which types of questionnaires can be distinguished?
Which factors determine the choice for a certain questionnaire type? Apply
these factors to the different types
What is an optical mark reader?
What is CATI?
What is CAPI
What types of data variable can be collected by means of questionnaires?
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What are independent, dependent, mediating and moderating variables?

Which steps do you need to follow to ensure that essential data are collected?
Chapter 8 continued
Collecting primary data using questionnaires
So every question in your questionnaire is essential (i.e., each question

should be relevant for your research)
There are, however, some-exceptions:
o First question
o Cushion question (threatening questions)
o Control questions
Trace inconsistency
Interviewer fraud
o Filler items (reveal the true nature)
Ok, you have an idea about the data you should collect by means of your
questionnaire. In other words, you have an idea about the data you should collect to
be able to answer your research question(s).
Now, you should consider how to design those individual questions
Designing individual questions
The reliability and validity of the data you collect depend, to a large extent, on
the design of your questions
A valid questionnaire will enable accurate data that actually measure the
concepts you are interested in to be collected, whilst one that is reliable will
mean that these data are collected consistently
Stages that must occur if a question is to be reliable and valid
83
The design of each question should be determined by the data you need to
collect
When designing individual questions, researchers do one of three things:
o Adopt questions used in other questionnaires
o Adapt questions used in other questionnaires
o Develop their own questions
Adopting and adapting questions used in other

questionnaires
may be necessary if you wish to replicate or to compare your findings

with another study (reliability can be assessed)
More efficient than developing your own questions
Questions might be validated already
beware, there are poor questions in circulation as well
Copyright issues
Not always appropriate for own research goal
Question types
Open or open-ended questions: allow respondents to give answers in

their own way
Closed or closed-ended or forced-choice questions: provide a number of
alternative answers form which the respondent is instructed to choose
Open questions
Are widely used in unstructured and semi-structured interviews

In questionnaires they are useful:
o If you are unsure of the response (e.g., exploratory research)
o When you require a detailed answer
o When you want to find out what is uppermost in the respondents mind
The precise wording of the question and the amount of space partially
determine the length and fullness of the response
When questionnaires are returned by large numbers of respondents,
responses to open questions are extremely time-consuming to code (keep the
use of open questions to a minimum)
Closed question
Compared to open questions:

o Usually quicker and easier to answer as they require minimal writing
o Responses are easier to compare as they have been predetermined (if
these responses cannot be easily interpreted, then these benefits are
marginal)
We discuss six types of closed questions
1. List questions
2. Category questions
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3.
4.
5.
6.
Ranking questions
Rating questions
Quantity questions
Matrix questions
List questions
The respondents are offered a list of items, of which they can choose
one or more items
Example: which benefits do you receive in your job next to your salary?
Please tick the appropriate box(es)
Mobile phone
13th month
Laptop
Car
Free internet at home
Food cheques
Public transport
Other (please say:)
Dont know
List questions
Useful when you need to be sure that the respondent has considered all
possible responses (However, the list of responses must be defined clearly
and meaningfully to the respondent)
For structured interviews, it if often helpful to present the respondent with a
prompt card listing all responses
Extra items can be added
o Does not apply
o Dont know not sure
o Other
What in case of unmarked responses?
o Are often inferred as negative responses
o Non-response could also indicate uncertainty or, for some questions,
that an items does not apply
Category questions
Where only one response can be selected from a given set of

categories
Example: examine the pictures portraying several male celebrities below.
Which celebrity do you think is the most attractive?
Brad Pitt
Orlando Bloom
Chris Martin
Are particularly useful if you need to collect data about behavior or attributes
The number of categories that you can include without affecting the accuracy
of responses is dependent on the type of questionnaire (self-completed and
telephone questionnaires < structured interviews using a prompt card)
85
Arrange responses in a logical order so that it is easy to locate the response

category that corresponds to respondents answer
Categories should be mutually exclusive and should cover all possible
responses
Ranking questions
Where the respondent is asked to place something in rank order (you

can discover the relative importance to the respondent)
Example: please number each of the factors listed below in order of
importance to you in your choice of a new car. Number the most important 1,
the next 2 and so on.
Factor
importance
Carbon dioxide emissions
Boot size
Depreciation
Safety features
Fuel economy
Price
Driving enjoyment
You need to make sure that the instructions are clear and will be understood
by the respondent
In general, ranking more than seven items takes too much effort and reduces
motivation to complete the questionnaire
Respondents can rank accurately only when they can see or remember all
items
o This can be overcome with face-to-face questionnaires by using prompt
card
o Telephone questionnaires should ask respondents to rank fewer items,
as the respondents will need to rely on their memory
Can be combined with a list question: list-ranking question
Example: please number each of the factors listed below in order of
importance to you in your choice of a new car. Number the most important 1,
the next 2 and so on. If a factor has no importance at all, please leave blank.
Factor
importance
Carbon dioxide emissions
Boot size
Depreciation
Safety features
Fuel economy
Price
Driving enjoyment
Rating questions
A rating device is used to record responses

Often used to collect opinion data
Three types of rating question that are often used:
o Likert-style rating question
86
Allow the respondent to indicate how strongly he/she (dis)agrees

with a statement
Often used to examine attitudes, importance, intentions
Usually on a four-, five-, six- or seven-point rating scale
Each point is accompanied by a verbal description (sometimes
also a number)
Even number of points forces the respondent to choose, an odd
number of points allows to choose the middle not sure category
Numeric rating question
Uses numbers as
response options to
identify and record
the respondents
response. The end
response options, and sometimes the middle, are labeled (and
are known as self-anchoring rating scales)
Graphic may also be used to reflect the rating scale visually
An additional category of not sure or dont know may be
added and should be separated slightly form the rating question
Semantic differential rating question
Allows the respondent to indicate his or her attitude to a concept
denied by opposite adjectives or phrases (bipolar rating scale)
In case you have several bipolar rating scales, you should vary
the position of positive and negative adjectives from left to right
to reduce the tendency to read only the adjective on the left
Rating questions scale
Rating questions have been combined to measure a wide variety of

concepts (e.g., customer loyalty, service quality, job satisfaction,)
In other words, different rating questions are combined to form a scale
Each question is then referred to as a scale item
The resultant scale is represented by a scale score created by combining the
scores for each of the rating questions
An example: a scale to measure relationship commitment (De

Wulf et al., 2001)
To which extent do you agree with the following statements? (5-point
Likert-scale going from totally disagree to totally agree)
1. I am willing to go the extra mile to remain a customer of this store
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2. I feel loyal towards this store

3. Even if this store was more difficult to reach, I would still keep buying there
Scales
Since scaling techniques were first used in the 1930s, literally thousands of
scales have been developed to measure attitudes and personality
dimensions and to assess skills and abilities.
The scales can be used in your own research providing they:
o Measure what you are interested in
o Have been empirically tested and validated
o Were designed for a reasonably similar group of respondents
You should only make amendments to existing scales where absolute
necessary as significant changes could impact upon the validity of the scale
and thus the results!
Copyright issues
88
Quantity questions
The response is a number giving the amount of a characteristic

Such questions tend to be used to collect behavior or attribute data
Example: what is your year of birth? 19**
Because the data collected by the above question could be entered into the
computed without coding, the question can also be termed a be termed a
shelf-coded questions, that is one which each respondent codes her or
himself
Matrix questions
Grid questions; enable you to record the responses to two or more

(similar) questions at the same time using the same grid
Saves space
However, it is suggested that respondents may have difficulties
comprehending these designs and that they are a barriers to response
clear instructions might be a solution
More creative question types
Thermometer Scale
Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers by coloring in the
thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best
indicates how strong your preference is.

Questions: what type of question is the question below? Please describe what you
think is the main reason why students study at HUB.
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Questions: what type of question is the question below?

What is your age?
Less than 20 years
21-40 years
41-60 years
More than 60 years
Questions: what type of questions is the question below? How many computers do
you have at home?
When designing your individual questions, you should consider several

important questions!
o Will respondents have the necessary knowledge to answer your
question? Does the respondent has the requested information?
o Does your question appear to talk down to respondents? Are there any
words in your question that might cause offence? Is your question likely
to embarrass the respondent?
o Are the words used in your question familiar to the respondents? Will all
respondents understand the questions in the same way? Do you use
vague words that are open to all sorts of interpretation (e.g.,
sometimes,)?
o Are there any words that sound familiar and might be confused with
those used in your questions? Are there any words that look similar and
might be confused if your question is read quickly?
o Can your question be shortened?
o Are you asking more than one question at the same time?
o Does your question include a negative or double negative?
o Is your question unambiguous?
o Does your question imply that a certain answer is correct? (leading
questions)
Central tendency effect
During last week, how many hours have you watched television per day (on
average)
Less than 1 hour
Between hour and less than 2 hours
Between 2 hours and less than 3 hours
Between 3 hours and less than 4 hours
4 hours or more
Does your question prevent certain answers from being given? (e.g., Is this
the first time you have pretended to be sick?)
Are the instructions on how to answer and interpret each question clear?
o In case of a structured interview, include instructions for the
interviewer! (e.g., Read aloud all possible responses)
90
Introduce new topics (e.g., the following questions refer to)

does the respondent has to put lots of effort in providing the
information?
Example: van Kenhove (1989) 152 students: how many cups of coffee did you
had on average each day during last week?
o
o
Version 1
Version 2
none
- ..cups
1-5
- Dont know 30.6%
6-10
More than 10
Dont know 4.1%
Does the respondent remembers the requested information?
The extent to which respondents remembers facts from the past
depends on:
The importance of the event: routine and involvement
The time between the event and the question
The extent to which respondents memory is stimulated
Solutions for threatening questions

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Not at the beginning of the questionnaire

Sufficiently broad response categories
Graduality
Indirect
Different places in questionnaire in slightly different wording
Cushion questions
Frame the behavior as normal or frequent
Projective techniques
Guarantee anonymity
Order effects
o
Order effects within one multiple choice question

o Primary-effect
o Recency-effect

Questions: what is wrong with the following question?
o Would you rather not eat non-vegetarian dishes
o When did you stop smoking?
o Many students believe their advisors are not helping them with their master
theses. Do you believe this to be the case?
Questions: what is wrong with the following question?
o What is the income of your parents?
o Do you have a good relationship with your mother and your father?
o Does the government should prohibit promotion of tobacco products?
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Ok, you have designed your individual questions and the wording of each of these
questions is correct Now, you should consider how to construct the
questionnaire
Constructing the questionnaire

o
Consider the order and the follow of the questionnaire

o Should be logical to the respondent (and interviewer)
o To assist the flow of the questions it may be necessary to include filter
questions, but beware of using more than two or three of these in
paper and pencil questionnaires

Three categories
1. Key information
a. Related to research question
2. Classification information
a. E.g., Male vs. Female, Users vs. Non-users,
3. Identification information
a. E.g., name address, function,
Sometimes necessary to deviate from this main

principle of order
E.g., Quota sample
Are questions at the beginning of your questionnaire more straightforward

and ones the respondent will enjoy answering? (introduce the questionnaire
with some introductory and easy questions) Are questions at the beginning of
the questionnaire obviously relevant to the stated purpose of your
questionnaire?
Are questions and topics that are more complex placed towards the middle of
your questionnaire?
Are personal and sensitive questions towards the end of your questionnaire,
and is their purpose clearly explained?
Are questions grouped into obvious sections that will make sense to the
respondent?
92
Order effects
The effect of previously asked questions on the responses of subsequent

questions
o Example
Have you passed you driving test?
Did you have a good driving instructor?
Funneling = General specific questions
Consider the layout of the questionnaire. This is important for both

interviewer- and self-completed questionnaires:
o Make reading questions easy
o Make filling in responses easy
o Attractive to encourage to fill in and return
o Not appear too long
o Keep the visual appearance simple
When constructing your questionnaire, do not forget to explain the purpose
of the questionnaire. Next to developing a covering letter or email (affects
the response rate), you should:
o Introduce the questionnaire
Why you want the respondent to complete the survey
Summary of main messages of covering letter
Interviewer-administered questionnaire: short introduction that
interviewer reads to respondent
Prepare answers to some questions the respondent might ask
you
o Close the questionnaire
Thanking respondent
Providing contact details for any queries
When/How/Where to return
Test your questionnaire
The purpose is to refine the questionnaire so that respondent will have no

problems in answering the questionnaire. In addition, it will enable you to
obtain some assessment of reliability and validity
o Expert(s) to comment on your questionnaire
o Pilot test (trial run) among a smaller group (similar to population)
The number of people and pilot tests depends on research
question, size of research project, time and money resources and
quality of initial questionnaire design
You should find out:
o How long the questionnaire took to complete
o The clarity of instructions
o Which, if any, questions were unclear or ambiguous
o Which, if any, questions the respondent felt uneasy about answering
o Whether in their opinion there were any major topic omissions
o Whether the layout was clear and attractive
o Any other comments
93
In case of interviewer- completed questionnaires, you should find out

whether:
o There are any questions for which visual aids should have been
provided
o They have difficulty in finding their way through the questionnaire
o They are recording answers correctly
Once you collected your data, you can start analyzing
However, in some cases (e.g., some paper and pencil questionnaires) you will
have to code the answers yourself and enter these into a data matrix
(e.g., SPSS data set)
o Quantity question: actual numbers = codes
o Other question types:
Design a coding scheme yourself
Or use an existing coding scheme (enables comparison)
Question coding
Pre-coding: the process of incorporating coding schemes in questions prior

to a questionnaires administration
Is the quality of teaching you get
Question coding
Online form (questionnaire) using online software tools (e.g.; Qualtrics

returns the data electronically in a variety of formats such as SPSS and Excel)
Open questions = more complex coding

What is your full job title?
So now the data are entered into a data matrix (e.g., SPSS data set) either
manually (after coding) or electronically/automatically (e.g., be using Qualtrics). You
thus have raw data to be analyzed. In general, each column of this data matrix
represents a variable, while each row represents a case.
Remember from previous courses that there are different levels of

measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
94
These different levels numerical measurement dictate the range of technique

available to you for presentation, summary, and analysis of your data
Presentation, summary and analysis of your data is, however, part of previous
and future courses
So now the data are entered into a data matrix (e.g., SPSS data set) either
manually (after coding) or electronically/automatically (e.g., by using Qualtrics). You
thus have raw data to be analyzed. In general, each column of this data matrix
represents a variable, while each row represents a case.
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

Double click on the programme icon
SPP variable view
Variables and their properties get specified
95
Missing data
Four main reason for missing data:

1. Data not required from the respondent
2. The respondent refused to answer the question (non-response)
3. The respondent did not know the answer or did not have an opinion
4. The respondent may have missed a question by mistake, or the
respondents answer may be unclear
Before presenting, summarizing and/or analyzing your data, you should
check for errors. Main methods:
o Illegitimate codes: (e.g., letter o instead of zero)
o Illogical relationships: (e.g., no job but having an income of 5000)
o Check that rules in filter questions are followed. Certain responses to
filter questions mean that other variable should be coded as missing
values. If this has not happened, there has been an error.
In some cases, you will have to transform your data. For instance, recode
and compute
Recode
Example: three items to measure relationship commitment (7-point likertscale from disagree to agree)
96
Compute
Example: three items to measure relationship commitment (7-point Likertscale from disagree to agree
There are some exceptions to the general rule that every question in you
questionnaire should be essential. which exceptions,
What is meant with a reliable and valid questionnaire? Which stages must
occur if a question is to be reliable and valid?
What are the advantages and disadvantage of adopting or adapting questions
use in other questionnaires?
What is the different between open and closed questions?
In what types of interviews are open questions often used?
When are open questions useful?
What is the advantage of using open questions?
What are the advantages of closed questions compared to open questions
Explain the following question types: list questions, category questions,
ranking questions, list-ranking questions, rating questions, quantity questions,
and matrix questions
What types of rating questions exist? Explain the difference between these
different types?
What is a scale? what is a scale item?
When can existing scales be used in your own research project?
What are self-coded questions?
What are grid questions? What is the advantage and possible disadvantage of
this question type?
When designing individual questions, there are some important issues you
should consider. Give four examples of these issues.
What are leading questions?
What is meant with the central tendency effect?
97
Which factors influence the extent to which respondents remember

information?
How can you deal with threatening questions in your questionnaire?
Explain the primary and the recency effect
What are filter questions?
How should your questions be ordered in you questionnaire?
What is funneling?
What factors are important to consider when constructing the layout of your
questionnaire?
What is a covering letter?
How should you introduce and close your questionnaire?
How could you test your questionnaire before administering it? What should
you find out when pretesting the questionnaire?
What is a coding scheme?
What is pre-coding?
How does the general structured of a data matrix looks like?
What is SPSS? Explain the main structure of SPSS, more specifically, the two
main sheets.
What are the main reasons for having missing data into your data matrix?
What are the main methods to check for errors in your data matrix?
Before analyzing, it might be possible that your data should be transformed.
Explain by means of one example
Chapter 9 experiments
Example exam questions:

a) The extent to which findings from a laboratory experiment are able
to be generalized is likely to be lower than for a field experiment
b) Not only experiments, but also surveys can be used to examine
causal relationships
c) In general, a lab experiment is easier to implement compared to a
field experiment
d) Experiments are limited as they are only able to investigate one
independent variable
Which conditions must be satisfied before making causal inferences or

assuming causality?
What are extraneous or confounding variables?
What are the main differences between laboratory and field experiments?
Explain what internal and external validity is all about
What are possible threats to validity in experimental designs?
Explain how the Solomon four-group design and the post-test-only control
group design look like. For which reason are these designs used rather than
the classic experimental design?
98
Which measures can be taken to control the effect of confounding or

extraneous variables?
When is it more appropriate to use matching rather than randomization?
What is a completely randomized design?
What are factorial designs?
99

Research Methodology

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Research Methodology

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Research Methodology

Business and management research

Organizations and universities

In sum, research (also business and management research) should

trying to open a new store.

Web address on TV advertisement

Rise of the internet

You want to understand

the general process,

Jewelry set of a specific brand

Wherever your research project

Pay careful attention to

Which of the following statements is wrong? = A

Chapter II - Research Topic

The starting point of research process = research topic

First of all define your problem

Problem can be situated in the practical context

Indicate the value of the problem

To define the concept of motivation

Research question vs. hypotheses

Core question of your project

What is your expectation from your research?

there is a relationship between variables (no specified direction)

E.g., country of origin (Belgium vs France) and the extent of candy

there is a relationship between variables in a specified direction

Chapter III a Research Design

DEVELOP THE RESEARCH DESIGN!

What is research design?

What is a research paradigm?

- Which of the following statements is false? C

Deduction and induction can be combined within the

Some practical criteria of deduction or induction:

Is the reasoning below in line with an induction or deductive approach? Induction

Ok but which aspects are to be considered when developing my research design?

Research design: elements to be considered

Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods research design (i.e., research

It establish relationship between variables

Recognize the nature of your research

Research projects may serve more than

Research design: elements to be considered

Recognizing the nature of your research design (i.e., research purpose)

Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods

How will you combine quantitative and qualitative data collection

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: problematic distinction

Quantitative vs. Qualitative: narrow distinction

Still, it is perfectly possible that a quantitative

Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods

Many research designs are thus likely to combine quantitative and

Choosing a quantitative, qualitative or multiple methods

Whatever methods you use to collect and analyse data

Exam question: example

Suzan chooses to collect numerical data using both a standardized questionnaire

Research design: elements to be considered

Recognizing the nature of your research design (i.e., research purpose)

Choosing a time horizon

Choosing a research strategy or strategies

Various research strategies exist:

Commonly used to infer causal relationships

Participants randomly assigned to either the experimental group of control

Chapter 3B: Research design

As marketer, you are wondering whether rock versus pop music in

Choosing a research strategy or strategies

Choice of research strategy (or strategies) is

Involves the structured collection of data from a sizeable population