Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Editors
P. Srinivasan
Dr. J. K. Dattatreya
Dr. B. H. Bharatkumar
CBA Publishers
Foreword
A sound and eective built environment is critical for socioeconomic development and economic growth in the country. Expanding and improving infrastructure such as roads, rail networks, bridges,
ports, airports, buildings and other facilities is a national priority
and must be achieved without forfeiting environmental sustainability. Concrete is widely used for the construction of structures such as
buildings, infrastructures such as bridges, dams, power plant structures, harbour structures, etc., Defects such as cracks, honeycombs
and voids are likely to be present in the hardened concrete due to construction deciencies. The concrete also undergoes degradation due to
unfavourable environment, ageing of materials, overloading etc., The
infrastructure which are becoming older are to be strengthened or
repaired for extending its service life. There are approximately 125000
bridges of Indian Railways. Of these, around 45% are more than 100
years old. Infrastructure such as Power plants structures (Thermal
and Nuclear), bridges, etc., which are more than 40 to 50 years old
are to be strengthened/ repaired for extending the service life. Even,
one day of shutdown in a thermal/nuclear power stations will cause
a loss of power in the order of few crores of rupees. Non Destructive Testing and Evaluation has become a regular feature in assessing
new concrete structures for their quality and structural integrity and
also the condition assessment of aging structures. The advancement
in Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation (NDTE) for concrete structures has led to methods such as Impact Echo, Ultrasonic Pulse Echo
and Ground Penetrating Radar besides the commonly used rebound
hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests. With these techniques,
critical features such as voids, cover thickness, delamination, location
of reinforcement and ducts, can be obtained, which enables better
assessment of structural integrity and more accurate identication of
defects. In the recent past, bre optic sensors have been used for
health monitoring of concrete structures. The residual prestress in
PSC members can be obtained by core drilling technique. In addition
to the advancements in condition assessment techniques, considerable progress has also been made in developing new repair materials,
enhancing the performance of existing repair materials and repair techniques to produce durable and sustainable repair of existing reinforced
and prestressed concrete structures. Protecting the civil engineering
structures is essential for a sustainable building that is likely to experience high-consequence natural hazard over its lifetime. CSIR-SERC,
Chennai has acquired considerable expertise in the latest NDTE techniques for condition assessment of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete
iv
structures, and performance evaluation of new/improved repair materials and techniques. This course addresses recent developments and
advances on non destructive techniques and evaluation, repair materials and retrofitting techniques. My scientist colleagues at CSIR-SERC,
who have first hand experience and expertise due to their involvement
in various field problems, have documented the technical notes.
I congratulate the coordinators Shri. P. Srinivasan, Dr. B.H.
Bharatkumar and Dr. J. K. Dattatreya for their excellent efforts in
bringing out this course volume for the advanced course on Recent
developments in condition assessment, repair materials and repair
/ retrofitting techniques for concrete structures. I also thank CBA
Publisher, Chennai, for the excellent cooperation in bringing out this
course volume in time.
February, 2011
Contents
Foreword
1
iii
1
23
35
59
79
109
135
159
177
199
vi
211
223
259
275
INTRODUCTION
methods are preferred because they will not alter the appearance or
functionality of the structure. Durability of concrete structures is the
main objective for the assessment of existing structures. Safety is an
issue where a sudden collapse of a structure might occur. This kind of
accidents fortunately is very unusual, structure do usually show visible signs of distress before collapse. However, post tensioned concrete
structures may collapse without warning and endanger lives.
Non-destructive testing can be applied to both old and new structures. For new structures, the principal applications are likely to be
for quality control or the resolution of doubts about the quality of
materials or construction. The testing of existing structures is usually
related to an assessment of structural integrity or adequacy. In either
case, if destructive testing alone is used, for instance, by removing
cores for compression testing, the cost of coring and testing may only
allow a relatively small number of tests to be carried out on a large
structure which may be misleading. Non-destructive testing can be
used in those situations as a preliminary to subsequent coring.
Typical situations where non-destructive testing may be useful are,
as follows:
quality control of pre-cast units or construction in situ
removing uncertainties about the acceptability of the material
supplied owing to apparent non-compliance with specication
conrming or negating doubt concerning the workmanship
involved in batching, mixing, placing, compacting or curing of
concrete
monitoring of strength development in relation to formwork
removal, cessation of curing, prestressing, load application or
similar purpose
location and determination of the extent of cracks, voids, honeycombing and similar defects within a concrete structure
determining the concrete uniformity, possibly preliminary to core
cutting, load testing or other more expensive or disruptive tests
determining the position, quantity or condition of reinforcement
increasing the condence level of a smaller number of destructive
tests
determining the extent of concrete variability in order to help in
the selection of sample locations representative of the quality to
be assessed
1.2
conrming or locating suspected deterioration of concrete resulting from such factors as overloading, fatigue, external or internal
chemical attack or change, re, explosion, environmental eects
assessing the potential durability of the concrete
monitoring long term changes in concrete properties
providing information for any proposed change of use of a
structure for insurance or for change of ownership
CAUSES OF DISTRESS IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES
1.2.2
Cracking in Concrete
1.3
1.6
CONCLUSION
Non destructive testing and evaluation is adopted for concrete structures during its entire life to assess its health. NDT is used for a
number of tasks to locate and quantify a certain damage in a structure. Basic instruments, advanced methods and combined methods are
available for this task. Proper use and qualied interpretation needs to
be ensured through training and education. Beyond damage detection,
integrated quality control uttilizing NDT techniques is the application
with far reaching benets. Disaster mitigation is an area where NDT
is of potentially great value. Research is needed to develop the right
tools for such applications.
1.8 REFERENCES
1. ACI manual of Concrete Practice, 2009, Part 6 ACI 506 R.05 to
AC II TG- 5-1-07.
2. Bhaskar S., Srinivasan P., Prabakar J., Neelamegam M., Nagesh
R. Iyer Corrosion damage studies in cracked RC components
subjected to aggressive chloride environment, CSIR-SERC Research report No. OLP-15241-RR-01, December 2010.
3. Srinivasan P., Murthy S.G.N., Bhaskar S., Wiggenhauser H.,
Ravisankar K., Nagesh R. Iyer and Lakshmanan N., Application of radar and pulse echo for testing concrete structures, 7th
International Symposium on Non Destructive Testing in Civil
Engineering, Nantes (France), June 30th to July 3rd 2009.
4. Lai W. L., Kind T., Wiggenhauser H., Using ground penetrating
radar and time-frequency analysis to characterize construction
materials NDT & E International, Volume 44, Issue 1, January
2011, pp 111120.
P. Srinivasan
Assistant Director,
CSIR-SERC Campus, Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
Email: sriniv@sercm.org
2.1
INTRODUCTION
10
2.2
Radar and Ultrasonic Pulse Echo for Non Destructive Evaluation of Concrete Structures
11
Temperature of material;
Moisture content of material;
Salt content of material (only dissolved salt ions are important);
Pore structure; and Pulse frequency
12
Antennas
Control Units
2.2.3
A test method and the procedure are given in ASTM D 4748 for the
nondestructive determination of thickness of bound pavement layers
using short-pulse radar. This test method permits accurate and nondestructive thickness determination of bound pavement layers. This
Radar and Ultrasonic Pulse Echo for Non Destructive Evaluation of Concrete Structures
13
14
Radar and Ultrasonic Pulse Echo for Non Destructive Evaluation of Concrete Structures
15
Measurements were made on the slabs of the large scale NDT specimen
constructed at SERC. The slab is divided into grid markings from the
bottom side of 50 50 mm in both horizontal and vertical directions.
The data is obtained over each point. Fig. 2.12 shows the measurement
with A1220 equipment from the bottom side of the slab. The data
was transferred from the instrument to the computer and the data
was analysed using the Introvisio Software. Fig. 2.13 shows the Bscan and the back wall reection and the thickness of dierent slabs
can be seen.
Fig. 2.14 shows the C- scan (parallel to the surface of the top slab)
and the steel plate buried in the concrete is being located.
2.5
CONCLUSIONS
The application of radar and ultrasonic pulse echo have been demonstrated for the thickness measurement, identication of reinforcements, steel embedment, and honeycombs. The B-scans and C-scans
as obtained for the radar measurements gives the reinforcement distribution. The depth slice also provide useful information in identifying
the steel embedment and the PVC conduits. For the radar measurements it was observed that the spacing of the reinforcement aects
the penetration of the waves in to the concrete. The ultrasonic pulse
echo technique provide information on the exact thickness of the concrete member. In addition, the embedments such as steel plate or PVC
pipe can be identied. With the radar method, additional research is
required for the eect of spacing and the size of the reinforcement on
the penetration of radar waves in concrete.
16
2.6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Radar and Ultrasonic Pulse Echo for Non Destructive Evaluation of Concrete Structures
17
400MHz
Field of application
Structural concrete,
Roadways, Bridge decks
Concrete structures,
Archaeology, shallow
soils
Geological eld
Fig. 2.1
4.00
18
Display unit
Control unit
Fig. 2.2
Fig. 2.3
Rebars
Fig. 2.4
Radar and Ultrasonic Pulse Echo for Non Destructive Evaluation of Concrete Structures
Fig. 2.5
Fig. 2.6
19
Fig. 2.7
20
Fig. 2.8
Fig. 2.9
Radar and Ultrasonic Pulse Echo for Non Destructive Evaluation of Concrete Structures
Fig. 2.11
Fig. 2.12
21
22
Thickness - 150 mm
Fig. 2.13
Thickness - 250 mm
C - Scan
Fig. 2.14
Steel Plate
at a depth
of 70mm
S. Bhaskar
Scientist
CSIR-SERC, Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
Email: bhaskar@Sercm.org.
3.1
INTRODUCTION
24
3.1.1
Basic Principle
In the impact-echo technique (IE) a transient stress pulse is introduced into a test object by mechanical impact on the surface. The
stress pulse propagates into the object along spherical wavefronts as
P- and S-waves. In addition, a surface wave (R-wave) travels along
the surface away from the impact point. The P- and S- stress waves
are reected by internal interfaces or external boundaries. The arrival
of these reected waves at the surface where the impact was generated produces displacements which are measured by a receiving
transducer. If the receiver is placed close to the impact point, the
displacement waveform is dominated by the displacements caused by
P-wave arrivals.
If the receiver is close to the impact point, the round trip travel
distance is 2T, where T is the distance between the test surface and
the reecting interface. The time interval between successive arrivals
of the multiple reected P-wave is the travel distance divided by the
wave speed. The frequency, f, of the P-wave arrival is the inverse the
time interval and is given approximately by the relationship:
f=
Cpp
2T
(3.1)
Use of Impact Echo Method for Determination of Thickness and Defects in Concrete ...
25
Cpp
2f
(3.2)
In the case where the wave encounters a aw, a part of that wave
reects back to the surface of the slab. Here two distinct peaks will be
observed: one large amplitude peak at a lower frequency, corresponding
to the slab bottom, and another smaller amplitude peak at a higher
frequency corresponding to the aw7 .
3.1.3
Test Specimen
The specimen used for IE scanning is the bottom and top slab of NDT
model test specimen constructed exclusively for NDT data collection
at CSIR-SERC, Chennai. Fig. 3. 2 shows the photograph of NDT
model test specimen. Both, bottom and top slabs are resting on four
columns and beams. The bottom slab is of dierent thicknesses and
the thicknesses are about 200mm, 300mm and 400mm as per drawings. The top slab is of 2.4m 2.4m and is of two dierent thicknesses,
150mm and 250mm. Also, defects in the form of PVC pipes, honeycombs, cracked specimen and a steel plate are introduced in the top
slab during casting. The slab surfaces are polished/ground to get a
uniform and smooth surface that is essential for scanning
3.1.4
The IE technique is a punctiform test method. It means one measurement only gives information about one point of the structure. To
get more detailed information about the structure scanning techniques
measuring at multiple points are more useful. The combination of measurement results of several points to a line (B-Scan) or, measurements
in two dierent orientations, to an area representing a surface of a
structure (C-Scan) will give a better idea of the structure.
The impact scanning on bottom slab is carried out on a 2m 2m
area covering the three regions of slab thickness. For scanning, the grid
lines are marked at a spacing of 50mm 50mm. Figs. 3.3 and 3.4 shows
the grid marking for scanning and cross section details of bottom and
top slab. A calibrated wave velocity of 4200 m/s is used during the
data collection. Scanning has been carried out systematically along
each line and average of two impacts that are repeatable in response
have taken at each grid point. For simplicity and easy understanding,
bottom slab is analysed to determine the thickness and top slab is
analysed to predict aws/defects.
26
3.1.5
Thickness Determination
Detection of Defects
Use of Impact Echo Method for Determination of Thickness and Defects in Concrete ...
3.2
27
SUMMARY
This chapter presents the application of impact echo technique for the
determination of thickness and identication of aws/defects. The test
specimen used is a slab with simulated variabilities such as dierent
thicknesses, intentionally created defects, etc. From the analysis of
experimental data, it is observed that the thickness obtained is found
to be in close agreement with the actual value. The technique is also
successful in identifying the location of buried pipes/ducts and the
identication of defects. Further, number of studies is needed for the
exact identication of voids, their size, etc.
3.3
REFERENCES
28
Data acquisition
system
Transducer
Steel ball
Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.2
C4
C3
Use of Impact Echo Method for Determination of Thickness and Defects in Concrete ...
B1
1
10
20
15
25
30
35
40
5
10
A
15
20
2000
2400
3000
25
30
35
40
C1
C2
2000
B2
TOP VIEW
200
100
100
300
2400
3000
SECTION A-A
Fig. 3.3
B2
HONEY COMB B
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
C2
C1
12
14
16
18
STEEL
PLATE
11
CRACKED
SPECIMEN -2
111
20
22
24
26
28
B4 30
10
B3
HONEY COMB A
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
B1
TOP VIEW
C3
C4
150
250
2400
1500
1500
SECTION X-X
Fig. 3.4
29
30
Fig. 3.5
12
Frequency = 10528.5645
10
8
6
4
2
Fig. 3.6
104
Use of Impact Echo Method for Determination of Thickness and Defects in Concrete ...
Fig. 3.7
3.5
Frequency = 16174.3164
Amplitude
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
Frequency in Hz
104
31
32
Frequency Spectra
60
Frequency = 14801.0254
50
Amplitude
40
30
20
10
0
0
Frequency in Hz
Fig. 3.9
7
104
Use of Impact Echo Method for Determination of Thickness and Defects in Concrete ...
Fig. 3.10
33
J. K. Dattatreya
Scientist
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus Tharamani, Chennai-600 113, India.
email: datta@sercm.csir.res.in
4.1
INTRODUCTION
The worlds infrastructure is largely built of concrete. For todays concrete structures, we look for materials with four distinctive properties:
strength, workability, durability and aordability. Since ancient time,
mankind has been searching for construction materials with higher
and higher performance so they can build taller, longer and better
structures. The denition high performance is meant to distinguish
structural materials from the conventional ones, as well as to optimize
a combination of properties in terms of nal applications. The need
for new materials with improved properties, which can provide higher
performance, is as imperative now as ever before. To address the problem of rapid deterioration of infrastructures and massive utilization of
construction materials and in turn natural resources, an exciting alternative has emerged in the form of advanced cementitious composites,
which include Slurry Inltrated Cementitious Composites (SIFCON
and SIMCON), Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) and
Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC). They
are engineered in such a way that the contribution of each constituent
is optimized and results in a synergetic composite performance with
emphasis on strength or strain capacity or energy absorption as the
case may be. The target properties can reach levels unattainable with
conventional concretes. The ultra high strength materials result in
reduced material consumption by virtue of their enhanced strength
characteristics and provide a possibility of using thin sections, slender elements and new geometries. Two distinct approaches have been
explored in an attempt to improve mechanical performance The rst
36
4.2
37
UHPFRCS
38
39
for pre-cast or cast-in-place applications[ short bers of moderate volume fraction to facilitate exible processing, reduce cost and weight;
Isotropic properties with no weak planes under multi-axial loading
conditions; high performance with improvements in strength, ductility,
fracture toughness and exhibiting pseudo strain-hardening[Table.4.4].
ECC is an easily moulded and shaped reinforced cementitious mortar based with short random bers, usually polymer bers. It is a
micro-mechanically designed such that the mechanical interactions
between ber, matrix and its interface are taken into account by a
model which utilizes these constituent properties to compute the composite response. As a result, guidelines for selection of ber, matrix
and interface characteristics advantageous for composite properties
have been made available.
4.4
The past decade has seen an increased use of prefabricated cementbonded berboard around the world. Such elements are used for wall
panels, exterior siding, pressure pipes, and roong and ooring tiles.
The use of reinforcement in these elements is essential to improve the
tensile and exural performance. The reinforcements can be either
short bers or continuous reinforcements in a fabric form. The use
of reinforcement in thin cement-based elements is essential to improve
the tensile and exural performance. The reinforcements can be either
short bers or continuous reinforcements, in a fabric form. Practical
use of fabric-cement composites requires an industrial, cost-eective
production process. Woven fabrics made from low-modulus polyethylene and glass meshes are used to produce the composite by pressure
moulding or pultrusion.
In addition to ease of manufacturing, fabrics provide benets such
as excellent anchorage and bond development. The exural strength of
TFRC with low-modulus polyethylene (PE) fabrics is almost two times
higher than the strength of composites reinforced with straight continuous polyethylene yarns. In addition, they exhibit strain-hardening
behavior Cement composites containing 5% alkali resistance (AR) unidirectional glass bers achieved tensile strengths of 50 MPa, compared
with an average tensile strength of approximately 6 to 10 MPa of
conventional glass ber-reinforced cement (GFRC) composites. Pultrusion products reinforced with polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon
40
continuous laments achieve superior exural strength of approximately 600 MPa with 16% content by volume and 800 MPa with
23% content by volume.
Production of UHPC In order to achieve sucient ductility and
strength, ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) is produced with
41
42
4.5
PROPERTIES OF ECC
43
44
test results revealed the high capability of the material to seal cracks
and improve its water-tightness with time.
RPC Overlay: Katrin Habel et al [2007] investigated to assess the
rehabilitation potential of RPC for r existing concrete structures. 12
full-sized exural beams with UHPFRC layer in tension were tested.
UHPFRC signicantly improved the composite member structural
response, including the ultimate force, stiness, and cracking behavior.
Composite UHPFRC-RC elements behaved monolithically under service conditions. Interface cracks developed only once localized exural
macrocracks had propagated through the UHPFRC layer and intersected the interface zone near the ultimate load. The interface cracks
developed into localized debonding cracks for composite elements
without reinforcing bars in the UHPFRC layer (NR beams). Interface
cracks remained suciently small and did not cause UHPFRC layer
debonding in elements with reinforcing bars in the UHPFRC layer; 3.
Composite UHPFRC-RC element stiness and resistance was further
increased when reinforcing bar was embedded in the UHPFRC layer.
A 2 Vol.-% of reinforcing bars were embedded in the UHPFRC layer
and increased the composite elements apparent hardening magnitude
by three times and signicantly delayed the formation of localized
macrocracks. In the UHPFRC softening domain, the force transfer
through the reinforcing bar enhanced the composite element structural
response by preventing debonding.
4.6.1
45
46
high shear and spall resistance to avoid integrity loss by diagonal fractures, and (iv) enhanced mechanisms that increases inelastic energy
dissipation. In a recent study, the use of a strain-hardening ECC to
achieve these objectives instead of increased shear steel reinforcement
was investigated [Fig. 4.14].
The hysteretic behavior showed that for the PC hinge, the displacement ductility factor is about 4.8. For the ECC hinge, the displacement
ductility factor increases to 6.4, with less amount of pinching and a
much reduced rate of stiness degradation. The damage is mostly
in the form of diagonal multiple cracking in perpendicular direction.
Unlike the control specimen which fail in a predominantly shear diagonal fracture, the ECC specimen fails by a vertical exural crack at
the interface between ECC plastic hinge zone and the plain concrete
at the column face.
Resistance to Delamination and Spalling in Repaired Concrete
Structures[Lim et al, 1997]: In patch repairs, the common failure
modes are spalling and/or delamination between the new and old
concrete. In bridge deck or pavements overlay repairs, reective crack
and spalling in the concrete overlays and/or delamination between the
bonded overlay and the old concrete substrate are often observed. Lee
found that the delamination and spalling modes can be both eliminated by means of a kink-crack trapping process (Fig. 4.15) As the
load increases, the initial interface crack extends slightly but quickly
kinks into the ECC overlay. The kink crack was subsequently trapped
in the ECC so that further load increase forces crack extension into
the interface. The kinking-trapping process then repeats itself, resulting in a succession of kink cracks in the ECC. However, spalling of the
ECC was not observed since the kink crack does not propagate to the
specimen surface. Delamination of the interface was also eliminated
since the interface crack tip repeatedly kink into the ECC. In contrast,
the specimen with a regular FRC overlay shows the expected kinkspall brittle fracture behavior. Fig. 4.15 illustrates the improvement
in load-deection characteristics.
4.7
CONCLUDING REMARKS
47
REFERENCES
48
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
49
50
Cement
DSP paste
Concrete
DSP mortar
DSP mortar
+6% vol. of fiber
CRC
RPC
Youngs
modulus E
MPa
7000
15000
30000
50000
60000
Tensile
strength, t
MPa
4
20
3
20
40
Fracture
energy,
GF, N/m
20
20(*)
60
100
16000
Ductility
EG t2
(mm)F
10
0.8
200
12.5
600
100000
50000
10
20
1.2 106
1200
-2000
8300
150
HPC (80MPa)
90 RDF**
RPC200
100RDF**
80 g /cm2
2 mm
< 10 g/cm2
0 mm
275 *10-12 m2 /s
1.2*10-12 m2 /s
51
N.A.
Use high Vf
Fiber
Any type,
Vf usually
Mostly Vf
steel, usually >
5%;
df 150m
Micromechanics
based,
minimize Vf for
cost and
processibility
Tailored,
polymer fibers, Vf
df < 50m
df < 50m
steel 500 m
Coarse
aggregates
Matrix
Fine
aggregates
Interface
Not controlled
Not
controlled
Mechanical
Properties
Tensile
strain
Crack
Strain
-softening:
0.1%
Strain
-hardening:
1.5%
8% max
Typically
several
hundred
micrometers,
unlimited
beyond 1.5%
strain
Unlimited
width
Controlled
for matrix
toughness, flaw
size; fine
sand
Chemical and
frictional
bonds controlled for
bridging properties
Strain
hardening:
>3% (typical);
Typically
< 100
micrometers
during strainhardening
Cement
SF
SP
w/c
ECC
FRC
1
1
0.10-020
-
0.01-0.03
-
0.30-0.32
0.45
Aggregates,
FA/CA
1.73/1.73
52
Fig. 4.1
Mechanism of DSP
Fig. 4.2
Principle of UHPFRC
Fig. 4.3
Evolution of of ACCs
Fig. 4.4
Fig. 4.5
Fig. 4.6
53
54
Fig. 4.7
20 mm
Fig. 4.8
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 4.9
Fig. 4.10
55
56
Fig. 4.11
Fig. 4.12
114
16
=5
102
127
= 10
152
25
16
13
Unit = mm
152
305
305
305
Control RC Beams
20
1.2
10
0.8
0.4
0
0
Fig. 4.13
Moment (kN/m)
1.6
15
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0
0.25
Fig. 4.14
57
58
Fig. 4.15
Meyappan Neelamegam,
S cientist-G
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus, Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
Email: nellm@serc.org
5.1
INTRODUCTION
In a tropical country like India that has more than 3000 KM of coastal
line and where approximately 80% of the annual rainfall takes place
in the two monsoon months, corrosion related problems are alarming.
In metro cities, the carbon and nitrogen oxide emissions aggravate
the situation further by neutralizing the concrete cover. Typically, a
R.C. Structures require major restoration work within 15 years of its
construction. With the ageing of nations infrastructures, many of the
existing concrete structures have outlasted their useful life and it is
rather dangerous to continue to use them without any strengthening,
keeping in view the present day requirements. In recent years, the
concrete construction industry has faced a very signicant challenge
in view of the rapid rate of deterioration of infrastructure. One of the
major reasons is that infrastructure is required in such severe exposure
condition where construction activity was not even imaginable earlier.
A large number of bridges, buildings and other structural elements
require repair, rehabilitation and retrotting. Eect of environment,
increase in both trac volume and truck weights and re-design and
strengthening of old structures, which may have been adequate as per
old codes of practice but are not structurally adequate as per the
current codes of practice, are all the factors that contribute to the
infrastructure becoming either structurally decient or functionally
obsolete. Because of the dwindling of resources and serious economic
crunch faced by the construction industry, abandoning of existing
structures/ or replacement by a new construction fullling the present
needs, does not seems to be an economical agenda. Hence, the current
60
Repair Methodology
61
Dimensional stability
Eective adhesion with parent concrete
Development of positive grip with rebars
Coecient of thermal expansion
Modulus of elasticity
Permeability
Chemical compatibility
Electrical properties
Fast gain in strength
Durability even under adverse atmosphere conditions
Easy of application
POLYMERS
62
a string of glass beads. The small parts or beads in the string are called
monomers (mono means single). They are the building blocks of the
polymer chain. These monomers are organic molecules consisting of
carbon atoms as their base with the atoms of some other elements
like hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine or sulphur sticking to them. All the
monomers in a polymer chain are identical but the monomers of two
dierent polymers dier in their chemical composition.
5.3.1
Types of Polymers
Thermoplastic polymers
Thermosetting polymers
Applications of Polymers
Nonstructural polymers
Structural and semi-structural polymers
Auxiliaries to other materials
5.4
63
64
5.5.2
Polymer-Cement Grout
65
rebars. After patch repairing with PMC or PMM, it is a common practice to coat the entire repaired surface with a protective coating using
elastomeric membrane forming materials like.
Acrylics in order to arrest the diusion of harmful CO2 and Cl,
while at the same time, permitting escape of moisture, and thus
enabling the repaired structure to breathe.
Nowadays, PMC used for repair works generally consists of one dry
and one or two liquid components. The dry component is a ready
mixed mortar containing cement, gravel, and additives like redispersible polymer powder, shrinkage compensators, etc. The liquid
may be pure water or water mixed with acrylic or epoxy emulsion.
An advantage of solvent free PMC/PMM is the ease of adjusting
the working rhythm as against the pot life and lm forming resistance of polymer solutions. They are economical while maintaining
the technical value .
Several case histories on the use of PMC/PMM for the repair of
buildings and bridges have been documented. It has been estimated
that about 60000 m3 of SBR based LMC is used in US every year for
new as well as old construction. Fig. 5.1 shows the typical applications methods for repair materials for deteriorated reinforced concrete
structures.
5.5.4
Epoxies
Crack width less than .05mm are generally not treated or considered
treatable. Very thin cracks may seal themselves due to autogeneous
healing, which occurs when the cement continues to hydrate and carbonates, forming calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide crystals
that can seal the cracks. Epoxies are used to repair cracks ranging
from 0.05 to 6.00mm in width. The most common method of application in the range of 0.05 to 0.12mm is pressure injection method
into the cracks. Epoxy resins are the most common materials used in
pressure injection to repair cracks in this width range. Cracks in horizontal slabs that are between 0.01 and 6.00mm. may lled by grouting
or ponding the epoxy over the crack. The depth of penetration is determined by the viscosity, pot life and surface tension of the epoxy resin.
The standards classies into seven dierent types of epoxies depends
upon the applications. Typical properties of epoxy resins are given in
Table 5.3.
66
5.5.5
Silicone sealants
67
performance life typically is 3 to 10 years. Silicon sealants are generally used to seal cracks that are from 2.5 to 50mm in width.Typical
properties of silicon sealant are shown in Table. 5.6a and 5.6b
5.5.7
Polymer Grout
Polymer Concrete(PC)
68
69
been a general reluctance in adopting MMA based PCs. The development of HMWMA seems to have solved this problem to a great
extent. They have low viscosities and can be poured or sprayed onto
concrete and brushed on concrete surfaces. They are especially suitable for sealing of narrow cracks because of their excellent wettability
and can ll cracks as narrow as 0.2mm in width. They are odourless,
possess higher ash point (> 100 C), higher solvent resistance, and
are non toxic. They can be cured by ultra violet radiation in 2 5 hours
even at low temperatures.
5.5.9
PIC was developed in the 1950s and received wide publicity in the 60s
and 70s. However, full depth PIC never became a commercial reality
in US, although partial depth PIC (PD PIC) was used for providing
durability to oors, bridge decks, and hydraulic structures in 1970s.
When it was discovered that some bridges had developed high chloride contents beneath the impregnated zone, apparently due to cracks
caused by the high temperature required for drying and/or polymerization, the wide scale applications of PD PIC also received a set back.
Besides this, the complicated process technology for impregnation creates an undesirable balance between their performance and cost for
various practical applications. However, interest in this technique has
not completely subsided and quite a few applications continue to be
reported in the recent literature.
Recently, concrete sealing compounds like alkoxy silanes, alkoxy
siloxanes, and metallic stearates have entered the market with claims
of providing surface protection like surface impregnation. However,
they do not provide the same extent of surface penetration and abrasion resistance, and their long term durability and performance are
suspect, due to possibility of removal from surface due to shallow depth
of penetration.
The process technology of PIC, particularly for insitu applications,
needs further improvement to make it economically viable in order
that a process of rethinking may occur with regard to its large scale
commercial applications.
5.6
In several important industrial installations, often damaged or distressed reinforced concrete structural components may have to be
replaced or encased within shortest possible time. On account of high
70
71
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) is a composite material generally consisting of carbon, aramid or glass bres in a polymeric matrix. FRP
composites are, as the name suggests, a composition of two or more
materials which, when properly combined, from a dierent material
with properties not available from the ingredients alone. Depending
on the ingredients chosen and the method of combining them, a large
variety of properties can be achieved. A brittle material can be made
more ductile by adding a softer material; conversely a soft material
can be made stier. Fig. 5.3 shows the typical application procedure.
5.10
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
72
REFERENCES
1. Neol Mailavaganam, Repair and Production of Concrete Structures, CRC Press, 1991.
2. Dorel Feldman,Polymeric Building Materials, Elsevier Applied
Science, London-New York, 575 pp.
3. Satish Chandra and Yoshihiko Ohama, Polymers in Concrete,
CRC Press, 1994.
4. Yoshihoko Ohama, Hand Book of Polymer-Modified Concrete
and Mortars, Properties and Process Technology, Noyes Publications, 236 pp.
5. Rajamane N. P., Neelamegam M., Peter J. A., Dattatreya J. K
and Gopalakrishnan S., Development and Applications of Natural Rubber Latex Modied Concretes, Internal Technical Report,
No. MLP 06641/1/97, SERC, March 1997.
6. Bentur A., Properties of Polymer Latex-Cement Steel Fibre
Composites, International Journal of Cement Composite and
Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1981, pp 283289.
7. Viswanatha C. S., Restoration Materials for Concrete
Structures- a recent Trend, Proceedings of ICI-Asian Conference on Escasy in Concrete (ICI-ACECON-2000), Nov. 2000,
Bangalore, India, pp 393400.
8. Oshiro T., Yamada Y., Tanigawa S. and Goto N., Deterioration
of R.C Buildings Under Marine Environment, Concrete Under
Severe Conditions and Loading, Vol. 1, E & FN Spon, pp 523532.
9. Fowler D.W., Status of Concrete-Polymer-Materials, proceeding of the vi International Congress on Polymers in Concrete,
Shangai, China, 1990, pp 1027.
10. Shaw, J.D.N., Concrete Decay: causes and Remedies, proceeding of the Seminar on Corrosion and deterioration in Concrete,
1991.
11. New Millinium New Material, FRPs, Concrete Engineering
International, Vol. 2, No. 8, Nov-Dec. 1998, pp 2931.
12. Ir. Bart Herrelen, Triconsult N. V. and Ir.Kris Brosens, CFRC
Roof Repair Concrete Engineering International, Vol. 2, No. 2,
March 1998, pp 5556.
73
74
Polymer -cement
grout
Bond strength (MPa)
Direct tensile bond
(MPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Modulus of elasticity
(GPa)
Thermal expansion
Drying shrinkage (%)
Flexural strength
Compressive strength
(MPa)
Test
Method
Specimen
Age
ASTM C 1042
ACI 503 R
28 Days
28 Days
10 to 21
0.69 to 2.1
>10
>0.86
ASTMC496/C 496M
ASTM C 469
28 Days
28 Days
2.1 to 6.9
6.9 to 38
>2.1
-
ASTM C 531
28 Days
ASTM C 596
ASTM C 293
ASTMC109/C 109M
28 Days
28 Days
28 Days
1.37 to 6.4
10 5 C
0.05 to 0.15
8.3
28 to 85
Typical
Value
Values
Recommended
Value
0.1
>3.4
>20.7
Table 5.2 Ordinary mortar and PAE mortar, SBR mortar physics
mechanics performance
S.No
Ordinary
mortar
50.1
PAE
mortar
47.7
SBR
mortar
42.5
8.8
10.4
9.5
3.5
4.6
4.9
4
5
1.4
9
3.4
2
4.2
2.6
2.56
F300
2.29
F300
2.19
220
318
306
Specimen size 10 cm
580
166
188
10 cm 515 cm
5.2
5.47
10.7
38.5
3.95
8.9
36.4
1.65
-
3.6
0.8
Water blasting
gun
-
>20
Immersion
12
0.8
3.3
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Remark
Specimen size
7.07 cm 7.07 cm
7.07 cm
Anti-permeability
test machine
Slant shear
bond (MPa)
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Elongation at
break (%)
Modulus of
elasticity (GPa)
Deection
temperature ( C )
Flexural
strength (MPa)
Compressive
strength (MPa)
Compressive
modulus (GPa)
Shear
Strength (MPa)
Gel time
Water
absorption (%)
Coecient linear
shrinkage
Viscosity (cP)
Test Method
Specimen Age
ASTM
C 882
ASTM
D 638
ASTM
D 638
ASTM
D 638
ASTM
D 648
ASTM
D 790
ASTM
D 695
ASTM
D 695
ASTM
D 732
ASTM
C 881
ASTM D 570
ASTM
D 2566
ASTM
D 2393
Values
Recommended
Value
>10
14 Days
Typical
Value
6.9 to 21.0
7 Days
28 to 55
>35
7 Days
1 to 10 %
1 to 10
14 Days
1.4 to 4.1
2.1 to 3.4
7 Days
43 to 71
>49
14 Days
35 TO 105
>6.9
7 Days
35 TO 105
>21
7 Days
0.52 to 3.4
>1
14 Days
17 TO 70
>14
>30 minutes
24 hours
5 minutes to
3 hours
0.25 to 1.5
0.002 to 0.01
<0.005
Immediately
50 to 2000
<1000
<1
Slant shear
bond (MPa)
Compressive
strength (MPa)
Viscosity (cP)
Gel time
Test Method
ASTM
C 882
ASTM
D 695
ASTM
D 2393
ASTM
C 881
Specimen Age
Values
Recommended
Value
>10
14 Days
Typical
Value
6.9 to 21
7 Days
21 to 70
>21
Immediately
20 to 200
< 100
5 minutes to
1 hour
> 10 minutes
75
76
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
C 881
C273
D 1623
D 1623
D 2126
14 Days
14 Days
5 minutes to 1 hour
-25 to 400
0 to 10
>10 minutes
>15
Adhesion in peel
(concrete) (Kg)
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Elongation at
break (%)
Shore A
hardness (%)
joint
movement (%)
Tack free
(hours)
Articial weathering
and staining (hours)
Tear strength
(Kg/mm)
Test Method
ASTM
C794
ASTM
D 412
ASTM
D 412
ASTM
C 661
ASTM
C719
ASTM
C 679
ASTM
C510
ASTM
D 624
Specimen Age
Values
Recommended
Value
>2.3
21 Days
Typical
Value
2.3 to 11
21 Days
0.69 to 2.1
0.69 to 2.1
21 Days
400 to 1000
>400
21 Days
5 to 15
5 to 15
21 Days
50 to 100
50 to 100
1 to 2
<72
21 Days
500 to 2000
>100
21 Days
0.36 to 0.71
>0.89
Slant shear
bond (MPa)
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Modulus of
elasticity (GPa)
Deection
temperature ( C)
Flexural
strength (MPa)
Compressive
strength (MPa)
Compressive
modulus (GPa)
Shear
strength (MPa)
Gel time
Thermal expansion
expansion
Test Method
ASTM
C 882
ASTM
D 638
ASTM
D 638
ASTM
D 648
ASTM
D 790
ASTM
D 695
ASTM
D 695
ASTM
ASTM
C 881
ASTM
C 531
Specimen Age
Values
Recommended
Value
> 10
14 Days
Typical
Value
6.9 to 21
14 Days
3.4 to 10
>5.2
14 Days
1.4 to 6.9
1.4 to 6.9
7 Days
43 to 71
> 49
14 Days
14 to 35
>6.9
7 Days
21 to 85
>21
7 Days
0.69 to 6.9
>1.0
14 Days
14 to 35
>14
Immediately
5 minutes to
3 hours
4.1 to 5.1 / C
105 / C
>30 minutes
Note 3
77
Reinforcing Bar
Patch Material
Corrosion-Inhibiting
Coating Material
Impregnant
Fig. 5.1
OH
Unhardened
Epoxy Resin
Unhardened
Epoxy Resin
Curing
Hardened
Epoxy
Resin
OH
After mixing of epoxy-modified
mortar without hardener
Hardened
Epoxy
Resin
Hardened
Epoxy
Resin OH
OH
Fig. 5.2
Microcracks
Self-capsuled
epoxy resin
Unhardened
Epoxy Resin
Unhardened
Epoxy Resin
Loading
Curing
Unhardened
Epoxy Resin
Hardened
Epoxy
Resin
Self-Repaired
Microcracks
78
Protective Coating
2nd Resin Coat
Carbon Fiber
1st Resin Coat
Epoxy Putty Filter
Primer
Concrete Substrate
Fig. 5.3
INTRODUCTION
GEOPOLYMER CONCRETE
80
natural/industrial byproducts that are rich in silicon(Si) and aluminium(Al). Since then considerable research has been carried out
on development of Geopolymer concrete and its applications in civil
engineering by several researchers27 . Fig. 6.1 and Table 6.1 summarized the dierence in features between Ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) and Geopolymer (GP) binder and the advantages of GP
over OPC. The majority of GP production technologies necessitate
thermal/hydro-thermal curing.
The CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre(SERC), Chennai has been working on room temperature curing Geopolymer Concrete (GPC) for the past ve years. Extensive research has been carried
out at SERC to structural grade GPCs with compressive strength
ranging from 20 to 70 MPa619 . The mechanical and durability characteristics of these materials have been studied in detail18,19 . Some
pilot studies were also carried out on the feasibility of using GPC for
the production of building blocks and pavers6 .
6.3
APPLICATIONS
Fig 6.2 shows the successful applications carried out since 1979 with
geopolymer cements of dierent types20
Geopolymer cementitious products are currently being developed
in the following areas21 :
81
still considered a relatively new material, given the limited commercial applications in recent history. Australia is currently leading the
world in the research and development of geopolymer applications,
with interest in the technology growing from within the building,
mining and quarrying industries21 .
6.4
The CSIR-SERC initiated the studies on GPCs with the aim of their
utility in structural concrete, both cast insitu and precast. Since the
reactivity and physical characteristics of Indian y ashes do not compare favorably with that from Canada and Australia, it is dicult
to achieve this target without heat treatment using y ash alone
as binder. Therefore, a judicious combination of FA and GGBS was
adopted as both the materials are available in plenty.
Following materials were used to produce GPCs:
Fly ash,
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag,
Fine aggregates and
Coarse aggregates
Alkaline activator system (AAS) for GPC. It is a combination of
alkali silicates and hydroxides, liquids and additives. The role of
AAS is to dissolve the active ingredients of y ash and GGBS
and promote polymerization.
Formulation of GPC Mixes: Unlike conventional cement concretes, GPCs area new class of materials and hence, conventional
mix design approaches for cement concrete are not directly applicable.
The formulation of the GPC mixtures requires systematic experimental investigations on the source materials available and the recipes
developed are more specic to the materials being used as the source
materials are not standard synthesized products.
Preparation of GPC Mixes1012
The production of GPCs can be carried out using conventional concreting machinery and tools used for conventional cement concretes.
The mix recipes developed at CSIR-SERC need moist gunny curing
for about a day and set and harden within this period and the stripping time and formwork removal time are rather short compared to
82
83
An investigation was taken up at CSIR-SERC to study the structural behaviour of large panel oor and wall elements, the connections
and the performance of joint assemblies. The performance was evaluated by means of experimental testing of large panel prefabricated
assemblages. In order to speed up erection of prefabricated building
components, a quick setting binder would be a promising material
84
85
Hence, geo polymer concretes have great potential for use in prefabricated constructions as it facilitates speeder construction and savings
in cost of construction.
6.5 GEOPOLYMER FOR REPAIR APPLICATIONS
6.5.1 Geopolymer for Repair and rehabilitation of reinforced
concrete beams
Balaguru et al29 have carried out an experimental investigation of
the behaviour of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with carbon
ber fabrics bonded using geopolymer adhesive in lieu of conventional
organic polymers for fastening the carbon fabrics to concrete. The
major disadvantage of composite is their lack of re resistance and
degradation under UV light leading to long-term durability problems.
The inorganic polymer (geopolymer) used in this study was an alumino
silicate which can sustain up to 1000 C, durable and does not degrade
under UV light. Three beams were strengthened using 2, 3, and 5
layers of unidirectional carbon T 300 carbon bre fabrics after the
bottom surface of the beams were roughened by dry grinding and sand
blasting. The fabrics were impregged with the adhesive and axed to
the bottom surface of the beam. The beam with two layers was allowed
to dry for 24 hrs while the beams with 3 and 5 layers were subjected
to a vacuum of about 711 mm of mercury for better adhesion. All the
beams were subsequently heat cured at 80 C.
The beams were instrumented to measure the beam deections and
the strains in concrete, tension steel, and the fabric using bonded
strain. The simply supported beams were tested over a span of 3000
mm and two one third point loading. All the strengthened beams failed
by rupturing of the composite demonstrating the eective bond provided by geopolymers adhesive even when ve layers of fabric were
used. As the number of layers increased, the length of composite
that rupture also increased. Hence, if the repair system is properly
applied, failure by delaminating of composite can be eliminated. The
strengthened beams showed higher service and ultimate loads (Fig.
6.5).
86
The primary dierence between the organic and the geopolymer adhesives is the failure pattern. In the Sherbrooke study30
using organic adhesive, the composite peeled o, whereas with GPC
adhesive, the composite ruptured in this study (Fig. 6.6). Delamination failure not only underutilizes the composite strength, but is
also extremely brittle. The deections and crack patterns of beams
with organic and geopolymers were comparable. The composite in
this study recorded larger strains than the strains reported in the
Sherbrooke study.
Field implementation of geopolymer coating31
The primary objectives of the current study was to
87
88
The results obtained from the exure testing of these samples indicate that the system is resistant to scaling conditions. The exural
strength and ductility of the specimens were determined before and
after exposure to the scaling conditions. Comparable results were
observed regardless of the type of carbon reinforcement used.
Evaluation of plain concrete strengthened with an inorganic
geopolymer coating and subjected to wetting and drying and scaling
conditions led to the following conclusions:
89
90
case of vertical walls, the surface deterioration varied from a weathered but good concrete surface to completely spalled (with exposed
aggregate) surface.
Evaluation of the geopolymer matrix for eld applications led to
the following conclusions:
The geopolymer coating can be applied in the ambient temperature range of 40 to 90 F. At temperatures higher than 80 F,
the pot life might be less than 2 hours.
The coated surface should be protected from direct rain or
running water for the rst 24 hours.
The coating should not be subjected to freezing in the rst 24
hours.
The geopolymer coating can be applied to new or weathered
concrete surfaces that have exposed aggregates.
The surface should be pre-wetted. Loose and oily materials should
be removed. Light dust will not reduce the adherence of the
geopolymer coating material.
The geopolymer coatings are durable in eld conditions. The oldest application, under saltwater exposure conditions in Rhode
Island, is 9 (in 2008) years old.
91
6.6
From the studies conducted by CSIR-SERC and the eld demonstration projects, other strengthening and repair applications presented in
this paper show that:
92
6.7
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
93
94
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
95
96
OPC Binder
Calcium
monosilicate
GP Binder
Sodium / potassium
oligo-sialate-siloxo
Lime, clay,
gypsum
Metakaolin/y ash/
GGBS/red mud/other
slags
presence of alkaline
activators and subsequent
polymerization by
polycondensation
Required as a carrier for
activators and medium
for dissolution of silicon
and aluminium ions
from the feedstock,
promotes rheology of
paste.
Sodium / potassium
Poly-sialate-siloxo
Reaction
Hydration
Water
Essential for
hydration), promotes
rheology of paste,
hydrated water is
chemically bound,
excess water
forms capillary pores
Ca-disilicate hydrate,
lime, Ca-sulpho
aluminates
Relatively longer
ReactionProducts
Time scale of
reactions
Process
1450C
Short
750C
calcining of coal /
kaolinite clay /fusion
of lime
Sl No
Role of alkalies
Mixing and
curing procedure
OPC Binder
Formation of undes
irable silicate
and aluminous phases
of the type
KC12 S23 , and
NC8 A3 consequent
problems with
workability and
ASR
More or less
standardized
Microstructure
structure
-a 2-D chain or
layered molecular
structure,
bonding network.
Discontinuous
and inhomogeneous
structure in a
3-D, restricts material
performance
and durability, pores
ranging from
nanometers to
micrometers
CO2 emission
90-100%
97
GP Binder
Soluble alkali
compounds speed up
dissolution and
condensation
polymerization
Depends on the
chemistry of source
material and the
activator, thermal
curing is often
necessitated,
Variability of
feedstock
3-D Al-Si
network forming
amorphous (gel-like)
or partially
amorphous or
crystalline substances
depending on the
character of raw
materials and on the
concentration of the
activator. Relatively
dense and less porous
than HCP. The
Geopolymer gel is
constituted from an
array of non-spherical
aluminosilicate particles
with mesopores 2-50 nm
20%
98
Sl No
Shortcomings
OPC Binder
CSH, CH, CA, CF
and CSA that do
not occur as
natural
minerals are
susceptible to
degradation in
certain
environments,
CSH is
thermodynamically
unstable, and
tends to revert to
silica gel and
calcium carbonate
in the natural
environment and
even faster in
aggressive
environment,
CH and
CSH are prone to
sulfate attack.
Rheological
properties
High percentage
of y ash
improves the
rheological
behaviour, little
adhesion in early
stages
GP Binder
aluminosilicate
binding phase
extremely
durable in an
aggressive environment
and mechanically strong,
the alkali cation (Na,
K) is present
in the structure
in a solvated form
and bonded more
weakly than in the
crystalline zeolites and
possible occurrence of
eorescence, residual
alkali can easily
carbonate, higher
electrical conductivity,
susceptibility
to sulphate
attack and sulphuric
acids especially with
binders containing Ca,
water held in the pores
reduces strength
Static and
dynamic viscosity
of the geopolymers
concrete are substantially
higher, longer
processing time and
careful selection of
aggregates required,
pronounced adhesion
ability of the fresh
composition
coating even the
smallest grains of the
aggregate, higher air
entrainment due to low
mobility of the paste,
leaving closed
unconnected voids
Sl No
Shrinkage
ITZ
Miscellaneous
OPC Binder
Higher
shrinkage
susceptibility as
hydration mechanism
itself results
in shrinkage
Present at
paste-aggregate
interface, thickness
20 to 100 m,
presence of oriented
CH and
ettringite, ITZ porosity
higher than
matrix porosity
Time scale
of strength
development
extends up to year,
relatively poor
temperature
stability, low
resistance to chemical
degradation
and poor freeze thaw
resistance
99
GP Binder
No shrinkage
due to
hydration, however large
residual water can cause
drying shrinkage
No transition zone could
be detected either
morphologically or by a
direct measurement in
pure gel, no
compositional gradient
at aggregate interface
Time scale
shorter and
extends over several
day, higher temperature
stability, resistance to
chemical degradation
and freeze thaw
resistance
100
Fig. 6.1
Fig. 6.2
101
Fig. 6.3 (a) and (b) An Inside view of ACPL Production Yard
and Stacking of GPC blocks Produced on Steel Shelves
Fig. 6.4
102
12.5
5 layers
Failure load
(tonnes)
3 layers
10
2 layers
7.5
Control
2.5
2.5
500
Fig. 6.5
Fig. 6.6
Fig. 6.7
Deflection
1000
Load vs deection
3
2.5
2
Control
2 percent
4 percent
1.5
1
0.5
0
50
Cycles of wet-Dry
100
103
3
Control
1 ToW
2 Tows
3 Tows
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Fig. 6.8
50
Cycles of wet-Dry
100
3
2.5
2
Control
2 Tows
3 Tows
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
Fig. 6.9
50
Cycles of wet-Dry
100
1 in
Dam
0.25 in
Concrete
specimen
2 in
Saline solution
13 in
Fig. 6.10
104
3
2.5
Control
2 percent
4 percent
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
50
0
Cycles of Scaling
Fig. 6.11
Control
1 Tow
2 Tows
3 Tows
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Fig. 6.12
Fig. 6.13
50
Cycles of Scaling
2.5
2
Control
1 layer
2 layers
1.5
1
0.5
0
Cycles of Scaling
50
Fig. 6.14
105
Fig. 6.15
106
Fig. 6.16
Fig. 6.17
Fig. 6.18
Fig. 6.19
107
Fig. 6.20 (a) Column after cleaning (b) Column wrapped with
carbon tape (c) During nal coating application (d) Column after
nal coating
INTRODUCTION
110
111
Direct Tension
112
7.2.3
Flexure
cu
113
114
Flexural Toughness
Fatigue Strength
115
Studies in the last few decades indicate that use of steel bres as
shear reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams helps in enhancing
the tensile strength, resulting in increase in shear strength and possible prevention of shear failure. Studies carried out so far have shown
that steel bres upto about 1.5% by volume are eective as shear
reinforcement either by themselves or in combination with vertical
stirrups.
116
Impact
117
7.2.9
Abrasion/Cavitation/Erosion
Both laboratory tests and full scale trials have shown that SFRC has
high resistance to cavitation force resulting from high velocity water
ow and the damage caused by the impact of large water borne debris
at high velocity. Tests at the Waterways Experiment Station (USA)
indicate that steel bre addition do not improve the abrasion/erosion
resistance of concrete caused by small particles at low water velocities.
This is because adjustments in the mixture proportions to accommodate the bre requirements reduce coarse aggregate content and
increase paste content.
7.2.10
There has been little work on the creep of steel bre reinforced concrete. Fibres generally reduce the compressive and tensile creep. Test
by Mangat and Azari 28 have shown that steel bres restrain the
creep of cement matrices at all stress strength ratios. The restraint is
found to be more at lower stress and at higher bre content. Swamy
et al found that steel bres are more eective in controlling compressive creep than tensile creep and the reason for this is not fully
understood. Tests have shown that steel bres have little eect on
free shrinkage of SFRC. However, when shrinkage is restrained, steel
bres can substantially reduce the amount of cracking and mean crack
width.
7.2.11
Steel bres do not signicantly aect the freeze thaw resistance of concrete, although they may reduce the sensitivity of the visible cracking
and spalling as a result of freezing in concrete with inadequate air
void system. The freeze thaw resistance of non air entrained concrete
is similar for SFRC and control concrete, whereas SFRC was found to
be better in the case of air entrained concrete29 .
118
Polypropylene Fibres
119
Natural Fibres
There has been a growing interest in utilising natural bres for making
low cost building materials in recent years. Some investigations have
already been carried out on the use of natural bres from coconut husk,
sisal, sugar cane bagasse, bamboo, akara, plantain and musamba in
cement paste, mortar, and concrete. These investigations have shown
encouraging results.
Flexural strength increases with bre addition to a maximum and
then decreases. The decrease at higher bre content is due to incomplete compaction and increased porosity. A decrease in maximum
strength occurs with increase in sand cement ratio. A similar exural and tensile strength dependence on bre volume fraction and bre
length has been observed for coconut bre reinforced mortars. The
decrease in the strength for longer bres was mainly due to balling
eects of the bres.
Impact strength depends on curing period and bre volume fraction
for both jute and coir bre reinforced concretes. After 90 days of moist
curing, concrete made at a w/c ratio 0.5 has an impact strength more
than 3 times that of the control concrete. Incomplete compaction and
greater porosity contribute to a decrease in toughness at higher volume
120
Carbon Fibres
The use of two or more types of bres in a mix has been explored
to arrived at specic requirements. There are two main categories of
hybrid FRC, 1) Fibres of dierent sizes and/or shapes mix together
to achieve better packing and stability 2) Fibres of about the same
dimensions, but with dierent elastic moduli mixed together to provide
better toughness over a wide range of crack opening. Mazin Burhan et.
al have investigated the performance of steel-nylon hybrid FRC. 0.5%,
1% and 1.5% ber percentage by volume of concrete were used in the
study with ve dierent mixes of 100-0%, 70-30%, 50-50%, 30-70% and
0-100% for each bers percentage (nylon to steel). It has been reported
that the optimum performance in terms of compressive strength was
with a bre percentage of 0.5% for various combination of steel and
nylon bres. But in terms of split tensile strength the best performance
was at 1% bre, whereas the modulus of rupture increased with the
increase in the bre volume. Piti et. al., investigated a hybrid FRC
with dierent sizes of steel bres. Two macro bres and one micro
121
APPLICATIONS OF SFRC
Precast Products
One of the largest applications of SFRC in India has been in the production of precast concrete manhole covers and frames. It has been
estimated that every kilometer of urban road may require 15 to 20
manhole chambers. Presently, grey cast iron is being used for the
manufacture of these covers. Cast iron covers are expensive and are
susceptible to pilferage. They are also liable to break easily as the
material is brittle. The SFRC manhole covers and frames possess high
ductility and impact resistance and cost relatively less as compared to
cast iron manhole covers and frames. Manhole covers, in general, are
classied as heavy, medium and light-duty, based on the intensity of
the vehicular trac and their usage. The technology for production of
SFRC manhole covers developed by SERC, Chennai has already been
transferred to more than forty agencies in the country for commercial
exploitation. Thus, SFRC is being used extensively in our country for
the production of manhole covers and manhole frames and has much
potential for use in other precast concrete products such as lost forms,
dolosses, wall panels, etc.
Central Building Research Institute (CBRI), Roorkee used both
steel and vegetable bres in the development and production of building components, such as, precast doubly-curved roong tiles (1000
1000 20mm and 700 700 20mm), precast lintels (120 230
75mm) and precast planks (1200 400 25 or 50mm). In the early
1980s, corrugated roong sheets made out of coconut bre reinforced
concrete have been used in a major leprosy settlement in a village near
122
Titilagarh in Orissa, and have withstood many monsoon seasons. Similar FRC roong is also now being used in various villages in Andhra
Pradesh.
7.4.2
123
N-m, withstood by the 100mm thick panels with weld mesh at 25mm
deection is obtained with 50mm thick SFRS panels having bre volume of 0.5 percentage. Since the energy absorption of SFRS panels is
much higher than that of weld mesh shotcrete panels, to match the
energy absorption of 100mm thick weld mesh shotcrete panels, it would
be sucient to provide 50mm thick SFRS panels resulting in savings
in concrete. As already pointed out, with bre shotcreting, shotcrete
can be placed to follow the exact contours of the tunnel which would
result in additional savings in materials and due to elimination of weld
mesh placement, time of execution could be considerably reduced.
7.4.3
Beam-Column Joint
124
7.4.4
125
126
127
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is thankful to Director, CSIR-SERC for granting permission to deliver the lecture.
7.9
REFERENCES
128
129
130
131
39. Semsi Yazici, Eect of aspect ratio and volume fraction of steel
ber on the mechanical properties of SFRC, Construction and
Building Materials. Vol. 21, Issue 6, June 2007, pp 12501253.
40. Wang, X. W., Research on Fracture-CMOD Toughness of Steel
Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Advanced Materials Research, Vol.
168, No. 70, pp 17841787.
41. Xu, B. W., Correlations among mechanical properties of steel
ber reinforced concrete, Construction and Building Materials,
Vol. 23, Issue 12, December 2009, pp 34683474.
42. Piti Sukontasukkul, Post-crack (or post-peak) exural response
and toughness of ber reinforced concrete after exposure to high
temperature, Construction and Building Materials Vol. 24, Issue
10, October 2010, pp 19671974.
43. Kazuo Watanabe, Eect of Elevated Temperatures on Flexural
Behaviour of Hybrid Fibre Reinforced High Strength Concrete,
Journal of Structural Fire Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2010 pp
1727.
Table 7.1 Results of Static Flexural Tests on SFRC Beams 14
Load at (kN)
First
Maximum
Crack
m
Apparent
(Ultimate)
Flexural
Strength
(MPa)
Fibre
Type
% Volume
of Fibre
Ave. Cube
Compressive
Strength
(MPa)
Crimped
0.5
1
1.5
2
31.03
29.45
32.16
28.2
12
12.5
15
20
16.4
18.75
22.35
31.9
4.9
5.62
6.7
9.57
TroughShaped
0.5
1
1.5
2
31.13
33.76
36.25
32.35
13
14.5
20
20
17.9
25.5
32.75
34.75
5.37
7.65
9.82
10.42
Straight-1
0.5
1
1.5
30
28.17
29.12
13.7
15
17.5
17.37
19.37
22
5.21
5.81
6.6
Straight-2
0.5
1
1.5
32.5
32.7
31.11
12.5
15
17.5
19.38
26.75
32.25
5.81
8.02
9.68
Plain
28.6
12
12
3.6
132
Weld
mesh/Fibre
Avg. Measured
specimen thickness
(mm)
Experimental peak
load (kN)
WS
WS
WS
WS
F1
F1
F1
F1
F2
F2
F2
F2
F3
F3
F3
F3
WELD MESH
WELD MESH
WELD MESH
WELD MESH
FIBRE 0.5%
FIBRE 0.5%
FIBRE 0.5%
FIBRE 0.5%
FIBRE 0.75%
FIBRE 0.75%
FIBRE 0.75%
FIBRE 0.75%
FIBRE 1.0%
FIBRE 1.0%
FIBRE 1.0%
FIBRE 1.0%
47.5
49.8
94.4
99.4
49.7
50.8
97.5
100.8
47.5
49.2
91.8
99.4
45.5
49.8
98.3
94.4
18.08
19.35
40.94
58.23
33.33
25.36
79.37
67.97
22.92
21.04
70.90
75.96
18.57
25.00
83.42
63.60
Energy
absorbed up to
25 mm
deflection (N-m)
331
341
410
502
504
511
1021
1270
497
543
1289
1467
398
528
1378
1072
Table 7.3 Details of Various Sifcon Mixes and the Test Results
Mix Proportion
Compressive
Split Tensile
(Cement : Sand:
Strength (28 days),
Strength,
w/c: SP:VMA)
MPa
MPa
1 : 1: 0.40 : 0.5%
29.375
2.398
SNF : 0.125%
1 : 1: 0.35 : 0.3%
38.945
2.557
PC: 0.125%
1 : 1.5 : 0.40: 0.7%
29.012
2.49
SNF : 0.125%
1 : 1.5: 0.35 : 0.4%
33.648
2.456
PC: 0.125%
Smooth steel fibers
l/df = 83
8000
6000
Vf = 3%
4000
Vf = 2%
2000
Vf = 1%
Control
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
Fig. 7.1
133
60.0
50.0
Load (kN)
40.0
30.0
20.0
COM6
TA1
SA2
CA1
10.0
0.0
0
Fig. 7.2
10
20
Deflection (mm)
30
40
45.00
40.00
35.00
Stress [MPa]
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
Strain
C_080 peak
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.02
C_080 mon
90
80
70
Strass (MPa)
134
60
50
40
Straight
Crimped
Hooked
30
20
FRC 1%
10
0
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
Strain (mm/mm)
Fig. 7.4
INTRODUCTION
136
CONSTITUENT OF FRPS
Dierent types of bres, such as, carbon, aramid, glass and polyvinyl
alcohol are being used as an alternative to steel reinforcement in
concrete structures. The bers are usually bonded together with binding agents, such as, resins having widely dierent composition. Steel
reinforcement are likely to have almost identical tensile strength and
other mechanical characteristics, but the mechanical characteristics
of FRPs are much dependent on the type of binding agent and the
manufacturing process.
8.2.1
Fibres
Glass fibres: Glass bres are the most common of all reinforcing
bres for FRPs (Majumdar 1985). Two types of glass bres, namely,
E-glass bre and alkali-resistant glass bre are commercially available.
They are low cost and possess high strength and excellent insulation
properties. The disadvantages are low tensile modulus, sensitivity to
137
Matrices
The primary role of the matrix in FRPs is to provide lateral support to the bres and protect bres from physical and chemical eects
due to the surrounding. Some of the important characteristics to be
considered in selecting a matrix for a structural FRP are: stiness,
strength fracture toughness, thermal and electrical conductivity, ability to impregnate and bond of bres, ame resistant and sensitivity
to ultraviolet radiation. The important factor to be considered in the
selection of a matrix is the relative mismatch in shrinkage or expansion between the bre and matrix that can occur during processing.
Some of the matrices used in FRP are briey discussed below.
138
Polyester resin: Commercial polyester usually consists of an unsaturated ester polymer dissolved in a cross-linking monomer such as
styrene etc. An inhibitor is usually added to the styrene to prevent
cross linking until the addition of a catalyst or promoter. The principal advantages of polyester for FRPs are low viscosity, fast cure
time, dimensional stability chemical resistance and moderate costs.
The disadvantage is high volumetric shrinkage during processing.
Vinylester Resin: They are produced by the reaction of monofunctional unsaturated acids such as methacrylic or acrylic acid with
epoxy resin. They have advantages over polyester in terms of chemical resistance and high temperature resistance and they are easier to
handle during processing. They are well suited for the manufacture
of FRPs due to the low viscosity and short cure time, but they are
at a disadvantage relative to epoxies because of the high volumetric
shrinkage during curing.
Epoxy Resin: Epoxy resins are the most versatile matrices for
FRPs. They have an exceptionally broad range of physical properties,
mechanical capabilities and processing condition. One of the major
advantages of epoxies for the manufacture of FRP laminates is that
the exothermic polymerization process can be slowed by lowering the
temperature of the resin after the bres have been inltrated. Epoxy
resins are known for their excellent strength and creep resistance,
strong adhesion to bres, chemical and solvent resistance, high glass
transition temperature and low shrinkage during cure.
Polyamide Resin: Polyamides are polymers containing cyclic amid
group in the main macromolecular chain. The advantages are their outstanding resistance to heat, thermal degradation organic solvents and
high energy radiation. They are slightly susceptible to attack by dilute
acids and dissolved by strong mineral acids at high temperatures.
Resin Fillers and Additives: Fillers were rst used to reduce the
volume of polymer used in an application and thereby reduce costs
without excessively degrading the properties. A common ller for
reducing cost and shrinkage of polyester and vinyl ester resin is calcium carbonate. Other common llers are Aluminum silicate, Kaolin,
talc, mica and wollastronite. Numerous resin additives are available
for enhancing the resistance of matrices and FRPs to ames, smoke,
moisture, oxidation, chemical shrinkage and ultraviolet radiation.
8.2.3
139
Manufacturing process
140
8.3
In general, the specimen, which has to receive the FRP wrap has to
be prepared. The four corners of the specimen were rst chamfered to
a radius of about 15 mm. The surfaces of these corners were ground
mechanically to remove any laitance. Then a two component primer
system was applied on the concrete surface and allowed to cure for 24
hours. A two component epoxy coating was then applied on the primer
coated surface and the FRP mat was immediately wrapped over the
entire surface of the specimen. A roller was then applied gently over
the wrap so that good adhesion was achieved between the concrete
surface and the FRP wrap. Another coat of the two component epoxy
was applied over the ber mat and allowed to cure for 7 days. In the
case of the specimens wrapped with two layers, the second wrap was
applied following the same procedure as described above, after the
rst wrap was applied. The second wrap was also allowed to cure for
a further period of seven days. The orientation of the bers should be
141
142
The strengthening of existing RC columns using steel or FRP jacketing is based on the well established fact that connement of concrete
can substantially increase its axial compressive strength (Hamid et.al.
1997, Rane & Rane 2001 and Frieder et.al. 1997). The experimental
program at SERC consisted of testing seventeen square RC columns,
having a cross section of 175 mm 175 mm with an overall length
of 1400 mm (Fig. 8.1). The following were the main objectives of the
investigation, (i) to study the eectiveness of CFRP and GFRP wraps
and steel jacketing in increasing the axial compressive strength of RC
columns, (ii) to study the eect of spacing of lateral ties in providing connement to concrete and (iii) to compare the performance of
the steel jacketed columns with those of the FRP wrapped columns
(Bharatkumar et.al.2006).
Based on the experimental results, it was seen that the stress strain
curve in the post peak region clearly brings out the eect of connement, as the RC column with closer lateral tie spacing showed a more
ductile behaviour. The ductility index was also more for the RC column provided with closer lateral tie spacing. There is also an increase
in peak load, maximum strains as well as ductility index in the RC
columns retrotted with single layer of CFRP/GFRP wrap over control RC columns for both the lateral tie spacing. Among the three
retrotting techniques employed in the investigation, steel plate jacketing showed an increase in the peak loads as compared to the FRP
wrapping for both the lateral tie spacings studied. However, the ductility indices were much lower for the steel plated RC columns due to
lack of sucient connement as in the case of the FRP retrotted RC
columns.
The investigation goes to prove that in situations, where retrotting
of structures is encountered, particularly when the lateral ties are not
provided as per design and in situations where the structures have to
be retrotted to meet recent seismic design provisions, it is possible to
143
enhance the performance of the compression members of those structures by providing them with a single layer of CFRP/GFRP wrap and
steel plate jacketing. In situations, where strength and ductility are of
paramount importance, a single layer of CFRP or GFRP can be used
for retrotting the RC columns.
8.4.1
144
In the wet cycle, the rebars were immersed in 3.5% NaCl solution for
3.5days and in the drying cycle, the rebars were dried at atmospheric
temperature for another 3.5 days. The cycle was continued till a specic level of corrosion is achieved (10% and 20% for second and third
series respectively). A reduction in weight loss of 10% and 20% were
noticed after 135 and 260 days exposure, respecively.
Five RC slabs were cast using corroded rebars (10% loss in weight).
Out of ve slabs in the second series, one slab was tested to failure
and all the remaining slabs were tested up to service load level. One
of the slabs (second series) was repaired afterwards using single layer
of CFRP. The repair methods adopted in the remaining slabs are as
follows: CFRP in the form of 100mm wide strips at 300c/c in both
directions, GFRP bars in orthogonal direction at 300c/c, GFRP bars
parallel to diagonal of the slab.
The reinforcement used for the third series were those which had
lost 20% weight due to corrosion. The slab specimens were cured for
28 days before under taking up the strengthening work. The rst slab
(S3-1) was tested without any strengthening (Control Specimen), the
second specimen (S3-2) was strengthened with CFRP sheets along the
diagonals, and third specimen (S3-3) was strengthened with CFRP
sheets in both the directions. All the three slabs were tested by
applying an equivalent uniformly distributed load. The second slab
in the third series which consisted of 20% corroded reinforcement was
strengthened with CFRP sheets of 250 mm width along the diagonals
and tested. The strength and deformation characteristics of repaired
slab using CFRP was found to be better than the control slab (Fig.
8.4). Based on the studies, it is possible to draw a conclusion that the
corroded slab may be restored to its normal strength conditions by
CFRP wrapping techniques.
Based on the experimental investigations on corroded RC slabs, the
following conclusions were made:
145
8.4.2
146
8.4.3
147
the rupture of the CFRP wraps which results in the sudden drop in
the load. Hence, one has to be very caution while strengthening the
exural member using FRP wrapping.
8.5
For more than 100 years, steel bars have been used as reinforcement
in structural concrete members. The performance of the steel reinforcement was not satisfactory in the case of structures exposed to
aggressive environment. In such cases, deterioration of reinforced concrete structures due to corrosion of steel will proceed more rapidly
and become critical. Recently, FRP rebars are used as reinforcement for concrete members in place of traditional steel rebars, or
as additional reinforcement in the rehabilitation or strengthening of
existing reinforced-concrete structures. In both cases, the non corrosive nature of FRPs sensibly improves the durability of concrete
structures. However, FRP rebars exhibit linear behavior up to failure;
this property makes the behaviour of the structures brittle. Besides,
the low elastic modulus of the FRPs result in high deformability, lack
of ductility, and increased crack width; as a consequence, the design
criterion for FRP reinforced-concrete structures shifts to serviceability limit state that check the structural behavioral aspects instead of
the strength to ensure functionality and safety during the expected
life of the structures (Teng et.al. 2002, ACI 440.1R, 2003 and Nanni
et.al. 1995). For wide acceptance and implementation in construction, a full characterization of the mechanical properties of FRP bars
is needed. The performance of reinforced concrete structures mainly
depends on stress strain characteristics of rebars in tension and the
bond strength between the rebar and concrete. Hence, tests were conducted at SERC to study the tension and bond characteristics of the
GFRP rebars before evaluating the exural behaviour of RC beam
with GFRP rebar.
8.5.1
Tension test on GFRP rebars was more complex than steel bar. In
the case of GFRP rebar, gripping mechanism (end anchorages) plays
a major role. Possibility of premature failure (crushing of rebar) at
anchorage zone of the rebar was a distinct happening in the case of
GFRP rebars, unless it was provided with eective anchorage. When
the diameter of rebar increases, the surface bond resistance required
to hold the bar is also increases. This in turn leads to the bar slipping
148
and very less axial deformation takes place (Tighiouart et.al. 1998).
Hence, anchorage and anchor alignment have a signicant importance,
as they may cause undesired failure modes. GFRP rebars also did not
exhibit any yielding when tested under tension. The tensile strength
and stiness of GFRP bar were dependent on several factors, such as,
the ratio of the volume of the ber to the resin matrix. Dierent test
methods for determining the tensile strength of the GFRP bars are
available in the literature but not yet established by any standardsproducing organizations (Kocaoz 2005, Canstro and Carino, 1998).
An anchorage system consisting of a steel pipe lled with an expansive cementitious grout (epoxy resin mortar) was used to provide
connement pressure on the bar. Required length of GFRP specimens
was taken and a length of 300mm at both the ends was encapsulated
using steel pipes for better anchoring. Plastic caps were used to close
the ends of the pipes and to keep the bar in the center of the pipe.
The pipe was lled with expansive grout in this position and it needed
24 hours to harden so that the specimen could be turned and the second anchor prepared (Fig. 8.7). The test was conducted on a servo
controlled universal testing machine; the hydraulic grip pressure was
applied at both ends. The axial deformation was measured with the
help of an extensometer (Fig. 8.8).
From the stress strain plot, it was clearly seen that the tensile
stress-strain characteristics of HYSD rebars were dierent from the
stress-strain behaviour of GFRP rebars. For HYSD rebars, the tensile
stress-strain relationship can be idealized as bi-linear and inelastic
whereas the same for the GFRP rebar is linear and elastic till failure.
It was found that the plain bars exhibited slippage at anchorage and
did not fracture. In the case of 10mm ribbed bar, fracture was observed
when the applied stress was more than 650 MPa. The youngs modulus
of plain GFRP rebar and ribbed GFRP rebar were 55GPa and 38GPa
respectively (Fig. 8.9). The 10mm and 12mm diameter GFRP bars
behaved similarly under direct tension.
8.5.2
149
The test was conducted in a 1000kN UTM. The test beam resting
on the two end supports was loaded by two point loads of equal magnitude disposed symmetrically with regard to the mid span as per the
requirement. Two dial gauges of 0.001mm sensitivity were properly
clamped at either end of the rebar in such a way that both the rebar
and dial gauge stem were in the same horizontal level. The load was
applied gradually and the dial gauge readings were noted at regular
intervals. The tests were continued until complete bond failure of the
bars or until the bar fractured. The load slip curves relating to the two
half beams were plotted. The average bond strengths at two levels of
slippage, namely, 0.01, 0.1mm and the maximum bond strength were
evaluated as follows The stress in the rebar was calculated using the
relationship
1.25F
for specimens having
As
diameter of bars in the 10 16 mm range
s As
=
ld
Bond stress(d
From a static point of view, the position of steel rebars within the cross
section does not furnish a good contribution in terms of strength, while
its contribution is eective in terms of ductility and rigidity. Besides,
150
the use of steel reinforcements allows one to design the beam as under reinforced, with a limited amount of FRP reinforcement. The behavior
of a hybrid GFRP-steel reinforced beam was recently analyzed by New
hook, 2000; the yielding of steel ensures the ductility, and the strength
of the GFRP increases the ultimate capacity after steel yielding. Aielo
et al. (2002) showed that steel reinforcement in combination with FRP
reinforcement is advantageous from a deformability point of view. An
adequate amount of steel reinforcement within the cross section, in
fact, allows for the reduction of the deformability of FRP reinforcedconcrete beams under service conditions. (Nehdi et al.2005), made
an eort to investigate the performance of GFRP and hybrid steelGFRP reinforced beam column joints. (Krishnamoorthy et al.2006)
studied the performance of RC slabs reinforced with a combination
of both GFRP and steel rebars and found that the load deection
characteristics are similar to the HYSD rebars.
The experimental studies were carried out to evaluate the exural
behavior of RC beams reinforced with GFRP rebars in the concrete cover region along with steel reinforcement as the main tension
reinforcement (Bharatkumar et.al. 2007). In all, four beams of size
150 300 3000mm were cast and tested under four point bending,
which included one control beam reinforced with HYSD rebar and
having a 75mm cover. Ribbed type GFRP rebars of 10 mm and 12
mm diameters were used in the investigation. The covers provided
for the steel rebars and the GFRP rebars were 75 mm and 20 mm
respectively. The experimental investigation was carried out on four
reinforced concrete beams, one reinforced with only HYSD rebars, one
reinforced with only GFRP rebars, and two reinforced with a combination of GFRP and HYSD rebars. The Load deection plots of beams
reinforced with only GFRP (G1) rebar and the control beam (Control)
are shown in Fig. 8.11. The Load deection plots of beams reinforced
with a combination of HYSD and GFRP rebars and the control beam
(Control) are shown in Fig. 8.12. It was concluded that the use of steel
reinforcement in combination with FRP reinforcement was advantageous from deformability point of view. An adequate amount of steel
reinforcement within the cross section, in fact, allows for the reduction
of the deformability of GFRP reinforced-concrete beams under service
conditions. The increase of stiness was more evident for beams reinforced with GFRP rebars placed near the outer surface of the tensile
zone and HYSD rebars placed at the inner level of the tensile zone
compared to the RC beams reinforced with only GFRP rebars. The
results of the investigation goes to prove that in situations where larger
151
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLDEGEMENT
REFERENCES
152
153
19. Teng J.G., Chen J. F., Smith S. T., Lam L., FRP Strengthened
RC Structures, 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
20. ACI 440.1R-03, Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete Reinforced with FRP Rebars, ACI, Farmington, Michigan,
2001.
21. Nanni A, Bakis, C. E and Boothby T. E, Test Methods for FRPConcrete Systems Subjected to Mechanical Loads: State of the
Art Review, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Vol.
14, 1995, pp 424557.
22. Tighiouart B., Benmokrane B., and Gao, D., Investigation of
bond in concrete member with bre reinforced polymer (FRP)
bars, Construction and Building Materials 1998;12;453-462.
23. Ramesh G., Sundar Kumar S., Bharatkumar B. H., Krishnamoorthy, T. S., Experimental Studies on Flexural Behaviour of RC
Beams, Proc. of International Conference on Advances in Materials Mechanics and Management 2010 at College of Engineering
Trivandrum, during January 2010, pp 134141.
24. Sundar Kumar, S., Ramesh, G., Bharatkumar, B. H., and Krishnamoorthy, T. S., Performance of FRP Strengthened Reinforced
Concrete Columns at Various Levels of Reinforcement Corrosion
- an Experimental Study International Journal of 3R; Repair
Restoration and Renewal of Built Environment, Vol. 1, No. 3,
July-September 2010, pp 95101.
25. Kocaoz S., Samaranayake V. A., and Nanni, A., Tensile characterization of glass FRP bars, Composites: Part B 2005;36;
127134
26. Castro F., and Carino, J., Tensile and Non Destructive Testing
of FRP bars, Journal of Composites for Construction 1998;17-27
27. RILEM CEB FIP. Test of the bond strength of reinforcement of
concrete: test by bending. Recommendation RC.5, 1978:5.
28. Newhook, J. P, Design of under-reinforced concrete T-sections
with GFRP reinforcement, Proc., 3rd Int. Conf. on Advanced
Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures, 2000, pp 153
160.
29. Aielo M. A, Ombres L., Structural Performances of Concrete
Beams with Hybrid (Fiber-Reinforced Polymer-Steel) Reinforcements, Journal of Composites for Construction, 2002, 6(2), pp
133140.
30. Nehdi M, Said A., Performance of RC Frames with Hybrid
reinforcement under Reversed Cyclic Loading, Materials and
Structures, July 2005, 38, pp 627637.
154
Fig. 8.1
Fig. 8.2
Fig. 8.3
155
140
S3-1
S3-2
S3-3
Load (kN)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Fig. 8.4
Fig. 8.5
10
15
20
Defln. (mm)
25
30
156
Fig. 8.6
Fig. 8.7
Fig. 8.8
Test set-up
Fig. 8.9
Fig. 8.10
Fig. 8.11
157
158
Fig. 8.12
J. Annie Peter
Deputy Director
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
annie@sercm.csir.res.in
9.1
INTRODUCTION
Self Compacting Concretes (SCC)s are being used more and more to
build new structures as they have a very high degree of compactability. They facilitate the casting of densely reinforced sections that are
dicult to consolidate. Such concretes accelerate the placement rate
and result in superior surface quality and durability. Self compacting
concrete can also be used for repair of damaged/deteriorated elements
presenting diculties for placement and consolidation and is feasible
to produce high quality concrete with limited degree of surface defects,
in stability and cracking. This can be accomplished by removing the
deteriorated concrete and pouring SCC into the watertight formworks
assembled in-situ so that the geometry of the damaged elements can
be fully restored upon removal. This method is economical when large
volumes of repair are carried out. However, the repair can prove to
be successful only if the repair material i.e., SCC interacts well with
the parent concrete and forms a durable barrier to guard against reinitiation of problems further arising, since a dimensionally unstable
repair material is placed against a dimensionally stable substrate concrete, as no signicant drying shrinkage and creep is likely to exist
in the substrate concrete due to its long term exposure to the environment and the service loading. Hence, properties such as shrinkage,
creep and elastic modulus are considered important for specication
of repair materials. These properties are largely related to the constituents of the mix. Hence, it is essential to optimize a SCC mix by
considering both the fresh and hardened concrete properties and strike
a balance between the two.
160
Information on mix proportioning methodology, material characteristics, self-compactability measuring devices are described in
detail.
9.1.1
The mix proportioning of SCC involves a complex optimisation of various ingredients to achieve self compactability in the fresh state and
desired properties in the hardened stage. Guidelines for mix proportioning according to JSCE (Table 9.1) EFNARC and ERAMCO are
presented in the following sections.
(i) European Federation of National Trade Association (EFNARC)
Mix Proportioning Method
The guide lines recommended by EFNARC are also based on
Okamuras method. The dierence is that instead of xing coarse
aggregates limit at 0.5, a higher amount is permitted in the case on
rounded aggregate (up to 0.6). The proportion of sand in the mortar is varied between 40% and 50%, and water to powder ratio and
superplasticizer dosage is determined through mortar slump ow and
V-Funnel test. In this method the relative proportions of the key ingredients of the mix is to be computed by volume rather than by mass.
For quick reference, typical ranges of proportions and quantities of
the ingredients to obtain self compactability are also furnished. Further modications can be made to achieve the required strength and
other durability performances. The sequence of mix proportioning is
given in Table 9.2.
Coarse aggregates are computed as a percentage of its bulk density. General ranges are between 50 and 60%. Higher proportions
of coarse aggregate are permitted for smaller sized aggregates as
well as for aggregates rounded in shape. All types of aggregates
are suitable. The normal maximum size is generally 16-20mm;
however particle sizes up to 40mm or more have been used.
Typically water contents should not exceed 200 litres/m3
Very ne synthetic bres may prevent ow and generally the
content should not exceed 1 kg/m3
161
Selection of Ingredients
Selection of ingredients/materials plays a very signicant role in mixture proportioning of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). Besides the
materials used in conventional concretes, SCC mixtures have combinations of certain ingredients that enhance owability signicantly while
retaining their stability. This consists of combinations of admixtures
and specic particle size distribution. The quality of the materials
needs to be consistent as well. Thus a good understanding of the
inuence of the various ingredients on self compacting properties
is essential prior to designing a SCC mixture. For SCC to be self
compactable it should exhibit three principal characteristics such as
owability, passing ability and resistance against segregation. This presentation discusses the materials that are used to make SCC and the
most widely used test methods for evaluating its self compactability.
9.1.3
Materials
Mineral Admixtures
162
demand for higher powder content. They are useful in enhancing the
deformability and stability of the fresh SCC. Their large surface area
gives a corresponding increase in internal forces resulting in an increase
in the cohesiveness of the concrete. Further being spherical they act as
ball bearings to lubricate the mix giving it a greater mobility. Due to
improved packing contributed by the very small size of the particles,
aggregate cement interface is stronger when mineral admixtures are
present. The concretes will be homogeneous and dense and hence is
less susceptible to segregation. This results in improved strength and
impermeability. Concretes incorporating these admixtures develop less
heat due to hydration. The main chemical eects of mineral admixture
addition to concrete are a reduction of calcium, potassium and sodium
hydroxides due to pozzolanic reactivity. They act as nucleation sites
for C-S-H. The main physical eect on the microstructure of hardened
concrete is the renement of the pore structure. Another important
factor is the improvement in quality of the transition zone between
the aggregate particles and cement pastes.
Due to high surface area and high content of reactive silicon dioxide
in silica fume, metakaoline and rice husk ash, they are more reactive
than y ash and GGBS. They are usually incorporated into concrete
at 5-15% by weight of total binder. Fly ash and GGBS have less of
SiO2 content, are coarser and hence less reactive. These admixtures
are used in higher dosages of 30 to 50 % of the binder content.
For these admixtures to be eective, uniform distribution in concrete is essential. Further due to their high neness an increased water
demand is likely. Hence these admixtures should always be used in
conjunction with a superplasticiser.
Conformity of these admixtures with the respective codes should be
ensured. As dierent sources of these mineral admixtures may interact
with dierent eciency, trials to establish the optimum dosages of
these materials may often be required.
Inert llers like limestone powder are frequently used to make
SCCs.
Chemical Admixtures
Superplasticisers
The role of superplasticisers or High range water reducers (HRWRs) is
much more signicant in Self Compacting Concretes. To produce SCC
at very low levels of water-cement ratios without needing unacceptably
high cement contents the use of superplasticisers is required. These are
high molecular weight water soluble polymers. These admixtures work
163
164
Aggregates
IS 383- lists the standard specications for use of aggregates in concrete. Knowledge of aggregate characteristics such as specic gravity,
bulk density, particle size distribution and moisture content is essential prior to proportioning of SCC mixtures. Since aggregate grading,
shape and surface texture have a major role in aecting the rheological
properties of SCC, these characteristic may also be considered while
165
166
This section covers test methods and apparatus used for assessment
of self compactability of fresh SCC so that they can be placed satisfactorily without compaction. Most of these methods enable a rapid and
cost eective assessment of SCC and have been accepted universally.
However, a combination of tests is to be carried out systematically to
establish the Flowing Ability, Filling Ability, Passing Ability and Segregation Resistance for the development of SCC mixtures as shown in
Table 9.2. No single test has been proved capable of measuring all the
characteristics. Typical maximum and minimum ranges of test values
for acceptance of SCC are shown in Table 9.3.
9.1.6
167
Orimet Test
The Orimet test is a practical test method for rapid assessment of lling ability and uniformity of fresh SCC mixes. The orimet is a simple,
rugged, durable, easily maintained and portable apparatus with good
simulation of movement of fresh SCC during placing in site.
The apparatus consists of a vertical casting pipe of 120 mm internal
diameter tted with an interchangeable orice at its lower end. A
quick- release tap door is used to close the orice. For concretes with
aggregate of 20 mm maximum size the orice diameter is normally
70 mm to 80 mm. An integral tripod supports the casting pipe (Fig.
9.2). A sample of approximately 7.5 litres of fresh concrete is required.
A bucket having a volume of at least 10 litres to collect the concrete
discharged from the Orimet and a stop watch with accuracy of 0.2 s
to measure the ow time (FT) is required for the test.
The Orimet is set on rm ground and ensured that the trap door
is closed. Concrete is poured into the casting pipe. A bucket is places
under the trap door. Open the trap door within 1 minute of lling the
pipe and simultaneously start the stopwatch. Stop the stopwatch as
soon as all concrete has emptied when viewed from top of the pipe.
High values of ow time indicate mixes of high viscosity. A mix of
low segregation resistance can cause coarse aggregate to settle in the
orice area, increase greatly the FT or cause a blockage and a partial
/ intermittent ow.
V Funnel Test
The V funnel is used to determine the lling ability (owability) of
SCC. It is not applicable if the maximum size of aggregate exceeds 25
mm.
The equipment consists of a V-shaped funnel as illustrated in Fig.
9.3. The funnel is of rectangular cross section of 490 mm 75mm at
top tapering to a bottom opening of 65 mm 75 mm. The discharge
orice of the funnel is equipped with a trap door. The funnel is made of
steel or acrylic and placed vertically on a supporting stand. A sample
of fresh concrete of approximately 12 litres is required. A bucket with
a capacity of 15 litres to receive the concrete under the funnel and a
stop watch with an accuracy of 0.1 s is also required.
The trap door of the funnel is closed and concrete lled in the
funnel. Start the stop watch on opening the tap door. The time taken
for the concrete to ow out of the funnel is recorded. A high ow time
168
169
The test is used to measure the lling ability of self compacting concrete with a maximum aggregate size of 20 mm. The apparatus consists
of a transparent container with a at and smooth surface. In the container are 35 obstacles made of PVC with a diameter of 20 mm and
a centre to centre distance of 50 mm (Fig. 9.7). At the top side there
is a lling pipe (diameter 100 mm and height 500 mm) with a funnel
(height 100 mm).About 45 litres of concrete is needed to perform the
test.
The container is lled with concrete through the lling pipe by
adding 1.5 to 2 litres of fresh concrete into the funnel until the concrete
170
has just covered the rst top obstacle. After the concrete has come to
rest measure the height at the side at which the container is lled
on two places and calculate the average height (h1). Repeat this on
the opposite side (h2). The dierence in height between two sides of
the container is a measure of the lling ability. Calculate the average
lling percentage. Average lling %F = [(h1 = h2)/2 h1]*100
9.1.9
171
A typical SCC mix which can be used for repair which comprises of
ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade, 10 mm maximum size gravel,
a medium graded sand, superplasticizers and polypropylene bres to
control shrinkage cracks is given in Table 9.4.
9.2
REFERENCES
Powder content
Air content (for frost
resistance)
Powder type
0.28 to 0.35 m3 /m3
155 to 175 kg/m3
28-37% by mass of
cement or 0.85 to
1.15 by volume of
cement
0.16-0.19 m3 /m3
4.5%
VMA type
0.28 to 0.36 m3 /m3
-
Combination type
0.28 to 0.35 m3 /m3
-
172
Ranges
28-35 % by volume of the mix
0.8-1.1 (by volume)
400-600 kg/m3 (160-240 litres/m3 )
350-450 kg/m3
20%
RANGE BY MASS
(kg/m3 )
750-1000
150-210
380-600
-
RANGE BY VOLUME
(litres/m3 )
270-360
150-210
300-380
0.90-1.10
Inorganic
materials
Fly ash
Guar gum
Silica fume
Welan gum
Diutan gum
Hydrated lime
GGBS
Kaoline
Bentonites
Rock dust
Diatomaceous earth
Milled asbestos
Aqueous clay
dispersions
Plant Protein
Decomposed starch
Synthetic / Semi-synthetic
Polymers
Cellulose ether
derivatives
Hydroxy-propylmethyl
cellulose
Hydroxyl cellulose
Carboxy methyl
cellulose
Alginate
Polyethylene oxide
Polyacrylamide
Polyacrylate
Polyvinylalcohol
Styrene Co-Polymers
with carboxyl groups
Synthetic
Polyelectrolytes
173
Quantity(kg/m3 )
340
160
Coarse aggregate
Fine aggregate
Water
Viscosity modifying
Agent
Fibres
940
730
185
0.07
Type/source
OPC (53 grade)
Class F (North Chennai
Thermal Power Plant)
10 mm rounded gravel
River Sand
Potable
910g/m3
Polypropylene
10
00
mm
Slump cone
500 mm
1000 mm
980
60
1090
600
Fig. 9.1
Fig. 9.2
Orimet Test
490 (515) mm
75 mm
425 (450) mm
174
212.5 (225) mm
65 mm
Fig. 9.3
Funnel Test
100
Unit: mm
200
600
Rebars 3 12mm
Gap 35 mm
200
H1
0-200
0-100
800
Fig. 9.4
L-Box Test
H2
150
Fig. 9.5
J-Ring Test
Middle Wall
2400Pa
45 cm
Sliding Door
Concrete
59 cm
Reinforcing Bars
(D13 mm)
R1
R2
14 cm
14 cm
Filling
Height
14 cm
28 cm
Fig. 9.6
4@5cm = 20cm
U-Box Test
175
Placement
Guide hopper
16mm
6@50 = 300 mm
176
h1
h2
150
7@350 = 350
300
500
Fig. 9.7
Fig. 9.8
Fill-Box Test
10
J. PRABAKAR
Scientist
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus, Tharamani, Chennai-600 113, India.
Email: Prabakar@sercm.org
10.1
INTRODUCTION
During the past several decades, concrete structures had suered from
safety and serviceability problems due to deterioration of concrete.
Generally concrete is a very durable material, the environmental factors such as weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion and other
deterioration process may change the properties of concrete with time
when rebar is embedded into the concrete. The deterioration of Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Structures is due to the corrosion of
steel used in concrete. Corrosion of reinforcing steel results in the
build-up of voluminous corrosion products generates internal stresses
which lead to cracking and spalling of the cover concrete. The parameters which inuences the corrosion process in RCC structures are the
cover thickness, the quality of concrete,, environmental conditions, pH
and chloride levels and presence of cracks etc. The main causes of rebar
corrosion are due to ingress of chloride ions or diusion of CO2 gas,
from atmosphere. A lowering of the pH by penetration of free chloride
ions through the concrete cover to the steel, or by the carbonation of
the concrete cover due to penetration of atmospheric carbon dioxide,
can cause breakdown of the passive layer.
In general, good quality concrete provides an excellent protection
for steel reinforcement. The steel used in concrete are remains in
passive state due to high alkalinity of concrete. The time to initiate corrosion is determined largely by the amount and the quality of concrete,
cover thickness as well as permeability of concrete. Once de-passivation
occurs, corrosion propagation is governed by anodic, cathodic and/or
electrolytic properties of corrosion cell. The rate of chloride diusion
178
is inuence in concrete with water to binder ratio and the properties of paste such as type of cement, mix ratio and percentage of
supplementary cementing material, temperature and humidity.
The corrosion of steel in concrete leads to repair and rehabilitation
which causes incredible cost. There is an increasing amount of research
being performed to investigate methods of corrosion prevention, or to
minimize corrosion damage where it has already begun. There is an
obvious need to improve the product, but inevitably there will also be
a perpetual need for repair and rehabilitation.
10.1.1 Corrosion Process And Mechanism
Reinforcement corrosion is one of the most common causes for reinforced concrete structures deterioration. Corrosion damage to the
reinforcing steel results in the build-up of voluminous corrosion products generating internal stresses and subsequent cracking and spalling
of the concrete. The main causes of rebar corrosion are due to ingress
of chloride ions and CO2 which destroys the natural passivity of
reinforcement located in alkaline concrete condition. In general good
quality concrete provides excellent protection for steel reinforcement.
Due to high alkalinity of concrete pore uid, steel in concrete initially
and in most cases, for sustained long periods of time, remains in a
passive state. Initiation of corrosion occurs either due to reduction in
alkalinity arising from the breakdown of the passive layer by the attack
of chloride ions. The time to initiate corrosion is determined largely
by the amount and the quality of concrete, cover thickness as well as
permeability of concrete. Once de-passivation occurs, corrosion propagation is governed by anodic, cathodic and/or electrolytic properties
of corrosion cell (Pal et al 2002).
Chloride salts are highly soluble in water. The chloride ions diffuse through concrete pores. The chloride ions present in the pores of
concrete are dissolved in water and penetrate. Then the chloride ions
attack the passive layer due to higher concentration of chloride ions
than hydroxyl ions. The chemical reaction takes place is given below.
The passive layer is destroyed with very less drop of pH value.
Chlorides act as a catalyst to corrosion when there is sucient concentration at the rebar surface to break down the passive layer. They
are not consumed in the process but help to break down the passive
layer of oxide on the steel and allow the corrosion process to proceed
quickly. Then the concrete reinforcement tends to corrosion and leads
to concrete deterioration as shown in Fig.10.1 (Mohammad, 2007).
179
The process of concrete structure deterioration due to chloride corrosion can be divided in to two phases. They are initiation period
(Ti ) and propagation period (Tp ) as shown in Fig. 10.2 (Tutti, 1982).
During the initiation period the chloride ions penetrate in to cover
concrete and accumulate around concrete reinforcement. The initiation period is determined mainly by the diusion rate of chloride ions
in concrete. Propagation period is a process in which reinforcement
begins to corrode due to chloride ions. The corrosion products accumulate around concrete reinforcement and cause cracking along the
reinforcement due to expansion pressure of corrosion product. The
propagation depends on oxygen in dissolved state and the moisture
content in the concrete.
The negative chloride ions promote corrosion of steel in concrete
and accelerate corrosion and the chemical reaction takes place as
shown below.
F e F e2+ + 2e
F e2+ + 2Cl F eCl2
F ecl2 + 2OH F e(OH)2 + 2Cl
2F e(OH)2 + 1/2O2 F e2 O3 + 2H2 O
Chloride ions can enter into the concrete from de-icing salts that
are applied to the concrete surface or from seawater in marine environments. Other sources include admixtures containing chlorides,
contaminated aggregates, mixing water, air born salts, salts in ground
water, and salts in chemicals that are applied to the concrete surface.
If chlorides are present in sucient quantity, they disrupt the passive
lm and subject the reinforcing steel to corrosion (Steven F Daily).
Carbonation Attack : Moisture content in concrete plays an important role for chemical process of carbonation. The relative humidity
of concrete around 60 to 75% is favour for the progress of carbonation
(Verbeck, 1958). The chemical reaction takes place as shown below.
CO2 + H2O H2 CO3
H2 CO3 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + 2H2 O
H2 CO3 + CaCO3 Ca(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3 )2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2 O
180
181
pH value
Chloride content
Moisture within the concrete inuenced by the humidity of
environment or direct contact with water
Oxygen supply which controls the rate of corrosion.
182
Visual observations
Documentations
Measurement of geometrical parameters
Experiments for evaluating material properties and member behavior Non destructive testing
Concrete Integrity and strength Evaluation
Electro Chemical parameters Evaluation Partially destructives
testing Load tests
Interpretation and analysis of test results
Formulation of repair measures
Post repair evaluation
10.1.5
183
Documentation
Both by drawing and photographs
Types and pattern of cracking,
spalling, abnormal distress,
discoloration, deformation
History of construction
Original quality
Analysis and design methods with
Assumption made
Types of materials used
Measurement
Column, beam,
slab dimensions
Vertical
alignment
Deections and
deformations if
any
The following Non Destructive Tests are the important tests can be
used for assessing the concrete integrity, strength and corrosion level
etc. The data obtained form the NDT can be considered for qualitative
measurement and can have the condent level of about 80%.
Rebound Hammer test
Ultrasonic test
Corrosion Level Measurement
Half cell potential test
GCOR6
Galva Plus
Half Cell Potential Meter
Concrete Resistivity meter
Permeability test
Cover meter test
10.1.7
The rebound Hammer and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests can give
indirect evidence of concrete quality and where as a more realistic
assessment on concrete can be made by core sampling and testing.
The PDT can give a quantitative measurement and can give the actual
concrete strength exists in the structure. The PDT method can also
help in assessing the following parameters.
184
10.2
The corrosion prone areas and locations can be identied in the structure by interpreting the test data obtained with following methods.
10.2.1 Carbonation and pH Value
The common method for testing the carbonation depth of hardened
concrete is by measuring the change in the concrete pH value (Parrott,
1987). From the Fig. 10.3 it clearly shows that how quickly the pH
drops between carbonated and un-carbonated regions. The carbonation depth for some of the mixes are predicted using parabolic equation
based on the measured carbonation depth result. The parabolic
equation is represented as
X = Ktn
Where,
X = Depth of Carbonation in mm
10.2.3
185
Corrosion being an electrochemical phenomenon, the electrode potential of steel rebar with reference to a standard electrode undergoes
changes depending on corrosion activity. The common standard electrodes used are (i) Copper-Copper Sulphate Electrode (CSE) (ii)
Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode (SSE) (iii) Standard Calomel Electrode (SCE). The measurement consists of giving an electrical connection to the rebar and observing the voltage dierence between
the rebar and a reference electrode in contact with concrete surface.
The test set-up for the the half cell potential is shown in Fig. 10.4.
Generally, the potential values become more and more negative as
the corrosion becomes more and more active. However, less negative
potential values may also indicate the presence of corrosion activity,
if the pH values of concrete are less. The general guidelines for identifying the probability of corrosion based on half cell potential values
as suggested in ASTM C 876 are given in the following Table.2.
It is important to realize that the potential of any metal in cement
concrete environment is a function of a large number of variables such
as concrete composition, pore liquid, concrete resistivity, cover thickness, degree of polarization, etc. Hence, no quantitative conclusion can
be drawn from it.
10.2.4
Resistivity Test
Constituents of concrete
Chemical contents of concrete such as moisture, chloride level, and
other ions regardless of whether or not these were introduced by
formulation, atmospheric or sea water penetration.
Type of pore structure of concrete.
Table-3 below gives the general guidelines for resistivity values indicating probable corrosion risk in normal concrete structures based on
the work carried out by various researchers.
186
187
From this slope, the corrosion rate can nbe determined using SternGeary equation
Icorr = B/Rp
Where B is a constant which is a function of the Tafel Slopes and
a, c are determined from the formula given below.
B=
ac
2.3(a + c)
The steel corrosion in concrete can be protected with suitable methods that reduce the corrosion of metals embedded in concrete, which
reduces the deterioration of concrete. The selection of methods shall
be considered and compatible to environment factors, bond, durability
performance and safety requirements. The following methods can be
followed to protect the steel from corrosion.
10.4
Concrete Quality
Cover Concrete
Corrosion Resistance Steel
Chemical Admixtures
Mineral Admixtures
Coating on Steel and Concrete Surface
Corrosion Inhibitors
Cathodic Protection
Electrochemical Chloride Removal
REPAIR OF CORROSION AFFECTED STRUCTURES
Selection of materials and application methods for the repair, protection, and strengthening of concrete structures is very important. It
188
Conventional Concrete
Conventional mortar
Dry Pack Mortar
Proprietary Repair Mortar
Ferrocement
Fibre-reinforced Concrete
Grouts
Chemical Grouts
Low Slump Dense Concrete
Shotcrete
Apart from the cementitious materials, the improvement of properties of hardened concrete by the addition of polymers is well known
and are as follows.
The general repair materials being used in the construction industries are as follows.
Repair operation
Material
Sealing of ne cracks
Epoxy resins
Sealing of large cracks
Portland cement mortar
and joints
Polymer mortar Putties
and caulks
General sealing of surfaces
Synthetic polymers and
asphalt coatings
Localized patching of surfaces Concretes or mortars using
portland cement Rapid-setting
cements Polymer resins
Overlays and shotcreting
Portland cement concrete Fibre
reinforced concretes
Latex modied concrete
Polymer concretes
Asphaltic concrete
10.5
189
REPAIR METHODOLOGY
10.6
Concrete Removal
Surface Preparation
Repair Techniques and Material Installation
Protective System
Quality Control
Performance Objectives
Quality Control Procedures During the Repair
Testing or Inspection Agency Qualications
Maintenance After Completion of Repairs
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING REPAIR
190
PVC injection ports shall be placed along the surface of the cracks
and are secured in place with an epoxy sealant.
The centre to centre spacing of these ports may be approximately
equal to the thickness of the member.
After the sealant has cured, a low viscosity epoxy resin shall be
injected into one port at a time, beginning at the lowest part of
the crack in case it is vertical or at one end of the crack in case
it is horizontal.
The resin shall be injected till it is seen owing from the opposite
sides of the member at the corresponding port or from the next
higher port on the same side of the member.
The injection port should be closed at this stage and injection
equipment moved to the next port and so on.
The smaller the crack, higher is the pressure or more closely spaced
should be the ports so as to obtain complete penetration of the epoxy
material throughout the depth and width of member. Larger cracks
will permit larger port spacing, depending upon width of the member.
This technique is appropriate for all types of structural elements such
as beams and columns. In the case of loss of bond between reinforcing
bar and concrete, if the concrete adjacent to the bar has been pulverizd
to a very ne powder, this powder will dam the epoxy from saturating
the region. So it should be cleaned properly by air or water pressure
prior to injection of epoxy.
10.7.2 Wider Cracks
For cracks wider than 5 mm or for regions in which the concrete has
crushed, a treatment other than injection is indicated. The following
procedure may be adopted.
191
192
10.7.5
193
Mix details
Cement - 350 kg/m3
Sand - 950 kg/m3
Fly Ash (Class F/C) - 150 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate
(10 mm graded) - 720 kg/m3
Water - 190 kg/m3
Super plasticizer
(S.P.) - 0.45 % of (Cement +
Fly Ash) Viscosity Enhancing
Agent (VEA) - 0.05 % of water
10.7.7
Chemical Admixtures
Master Builder
Technologies (MBT)
Glenium - 51 (SP)
Glenium - Stream (VEA)
194
10.8
NOTE
10.9
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
1. Advanced Course on High Performance Materials and Methodologies for Construction and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures , Organized by Structural Engineering Research Centre
(SERC), during January 19-21, 2000.
2. ACI manual of Concrete Practice, 2009, Part-6, ACI 506R-05 to
ACIITG-5.1-07.
3. Allan P. Crane, Editor Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete
construction, Ellishorwood Ltd., Chichester, 1983.
4. Hewlett, Arnold, Leas chemistry of cement and concrete, pp
1053 - 1087, 1998.
5. Mohammad A. El-Reedy, Steel reinforcement concrete structures, Assessment and Repair of Corrosion, available on internet,
http://hotle.com/dl/57030679/6450a06/1420054309.zip.htmlpp,
2007.
6. Steven F. Daily Understanding Corrosion and Cathodic Protection of Reinforced Concrete Structures (http://www.estig.ipbeja.pt/
pdnl/ Sub-paginas/Conservacao%20de%20edicios les/Documentos/
Material%20de%20apoio/Betao/corrosao.pdf).
195
Test Results
High pH values greater than 11.5 and
very low chloride content
High pH values and high chloride content greater
than threshold values (0.4 - 0.6 5 by weight of cement)
Low pH values and high chloride content
(0.4 - 0.6 5 by weight of cement)
Low pH values and high chloride content
Interpretation
No Corrosion
Corrosion prone
Corrosion prone
Corrosion prone
Potential
More negative than - 350 mV
-200 mV to -350 mV
More positive than -200 mV
Corrosion probability
Negligible
Low
High
Very high
196
4
5
Interpretations
No active corrosion - relatively
cathodic
Initiation of corrosion activity
- relatively anodic
Presence of corrosion activity
- anodic
High intensity of corrosion fully anodic
High rate of corrosion
O2 H2O
OH
OH
Fe2+
Cement Matrix
O2 + H2O
Cl Cl
O2 + H2O
Passive Film
Cathode
Fig. 10.1
2e
Anode
Cathode
Reinforcement
Test results
High resistivity greater than 10,000 ohm cm and
low potentials - more positive than -200 mV (CSE)
Low resistivity below 10,000 ohm cm and
potentials between -200 mV to -250 mV (CSE)
Low resistivity about 5,000 ohm cm and potentials 200 mV to
-350 mV (CSE)
Low resistivity below 5,000 ohm cm and potential
more negative than -350 mV (CSE)
Higher potential gradient and high conductivity
t p depends on:
availability of O2
availability of H2 O
OH - concentration
t i depends on:
cover depth
w/c ratio
curing regime
cement type
environment temperature
Rate of
Corrosion
Propagation
Period (t p)
Design Life = t i + t p
Fig. 10.2
12
Normal
Concrete
Neutralised
Concrete
11
10
pH
pH indicated
by phenolpthalein
Depth at which
passivationis lost
7
0
Fig. 10.3
10
20
30
Depth from Surface, mm
40
50
Reference
Electrode
Cu/CuSO4
Sponge
Steel Rod
Concrete
Fig. 10.4
Current
flow
Fig. 10.5
P = 2a V/I
Equipotential
line
197
11
INTRODUCTION
200
201
methodology. The investigations have clearly demonstrated that galvanic anodes have proved to be an eective corrosion control technique
for reinforced concrete structures.
11.2.2
Many new systems and materials have been developed to delay the
onset of corrosion and to increase the durability of reinforced concrete
structures situated in marine environment. However, most of the systems and materials that have been developed only delay the initiation
time of corrosion. Once the corrosion is initiated, the damage to the
reinforced concrete structures is very extensive. Hence, the need of
the hour is the development of corrosion control systems that will not
only be economical, but perform well over a period of time in adverse
environmental conditions.
Galvanic corrosion protection methods were originally developed in
the 1820s. Over the years, self regulating galvanic corrosion protection
systems have been widely used to protect underground steel structures,
such as, pipelines and tanks. Self regulating galvanic protection systems were rst used on reinforced concrete structures around 1960.
Recent technological advancements in the development of self regulating galvanic anodes have led to a signicant increase in their use for
protecting reinforcing steel in concrete structures.
Galvanic anodes used for galvanic protection are typically constructed using aluminum, magnesium or zinc. For reinforced concrete
applications, zinc has become the most common sacricial anode used
presently. There are several reasons for the usage of zinc namely.
(a) Zinc has high corrosion eciency i.e. higher percentage of electrons are discharged from the zinc as it corrodes. These electrons
are available to protect the steel.
(b) As zinc corrodes, it has a relatively low rate of expansion
compared to other metals, including steel. This makes zinc
anodes particularly suitable for application where the anodes are
embedded into the concrete structure.
(c) Zinc anodes are suitable for use in prestressed and/or posttensioned concrete because their native potential is generally not
sucient to generate atoms or cause hydrogen embitterment in
a concrete environment.
Galvanic anodes are covered with a precast mortar matrix saturated
with lithium hydroxide (LiOH). These anodes are designed to be tied
202
203
Repair Methodology
204
205
The Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity values and Rebound Hammer readings indicate that, in general, the integrity of concrete in the RC
columns may be considered as satisfactory.
The results of the tests for chloride content, sulphate content and
pH levels indicate that, in general, these salts are within their
respective permissible limits and do not indicate the presence
of any corrosive environment within the concrete at the time of
investigation.
The results of the UPV tests clearly indicate that the eight concrete pedestals supporting the stator support pads at the LGB
oor level in units II and III have undergone severe damage.
Fig. 11.7 shows the typical view of RC pedestals of upper brackets in unit III. Considering the long term safety and to ensure
the trouble free performance of the machinery, and to keep the
vibrations within the permissible limit, it is necessary that the
above eight concrete pedestals in Units II and III may be dismantled and recast, as per the design requirements of the machinery
installed.
The exact extent of damage in the concrete slab diaphragm supporting the rotor radial thrust pads (4 numbers) in units II and
III can be assessed only after the removal of the machinery and
with closer inspection. A retrotting methodology can be formulated after a closer and thorough inspection after the removal of
the entire machinery.
206
SUMMARY
207
Fig. 11.1
Fig. 11.2
208
Fig. 11.3
Fig. 11.4
Fig. 11.5
Fig. 11.6
209
Fig. 11.7
210
Fig. 11.8
12
P. Srinivasan,
Assistant Director
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus, Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
E-mail: sriniv@sercm.orgs
12.1
INTRODUCTION
212
213
214
12.3
Visual Inspection The visual inspection of the re aected structure and the status of some of the components of the structure such as
aluminum, glass panes, etc. after the re do suggest the approximate
temperature to which the structure was subjected. The temperature
can be further conrmed by conducting ultrasonic scanning on concrete, tension test on structural steel and reinforcing steel and tests
on concrete core samples.
Ultrasonic Scanning Results
Taking the UPV values for the un-aected members as the basis the
velocity values of the members aected by re can be compared and
probable temperatures to which the portions of members were subjected to can also be estimated. The depth of concrete aected by re
can be calculated using the relationship between the velocity proles
with temperature (Mani, 1986)
Core Sampling and Testing
Tests on core samples give direct evidence on residual compressive
strength and temperature to which the concrete member is subjected
during re. The pulse velocity values of these core samples can be
compared to conrm the estimated temperature and the correctness
of estimation of the depth of damaged concrete Study of core samples,
their density and compressive strength bear a relation which helps to
conrm the estimated temperature.
Residual Strength of Steel
To assess the residual properties of the reinforcement, samples from
dierent locations are to be collected and tested for yield and ultimate
strength, percentage elongation and modulus of elasticity. The reduction in the strength and modulus of elasticity will give an idea of the
temperature to which the member has been subjected to re.
Based on the above test results, parameters such as probable temperature, depth of concrete removal, average ultrasonic pulse velocity
in the core concrete, the residual strength of concrete etc., can be
evaluated. Once the classication of damage has been worked out, the
repair measures can be formulated.
12.4
215
216
12.5
CASE STUDIES
217
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
218
Depth of
correction
mm
UPV
at location
km/sec
Estimated
velocity
km/sec
300
500
50
90
3.57
3.10
3.99
3.40
UPV
of dressed
core
km/sec
3.94
3.85
Cube
compressive
Strength
N/mm2
19.15
18.50
Ultimate
stress
N/mm2
Yield
stress
N/mm2
%
elongat
ion
Undamaged
Slightly
Severe
561.5
510.0
400.0
465.00
430.00
265.0
8
9.0
30.0
Fig. 12.1a
Youngs
modulus
N/mm2 x
105
12.13
1.97
1.86
%
decrease in
ultimate
stress
7.53
28.8
Estimat
temp.
300
500
219
220
Fig. 12.1b
3.23
2.15
3.15
2.90
2.67
2.15
2.82
3.36
2.62
1.97
2.24
2.14
1.99
2.19
2.29
2.75
2.13
1.59
1.87
1.37
1.49
1.49
1.57
1.48
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Note: 1.Size of beam - 400 400 4500 mm 2. Estimated
Depth of correction - 40 to 50 mm
Fig. 12.2
3.23
3.00
2.95
2.20
1.32
1.08
9
10
Temperature -
2.95
1.85
1.39
11
300 to
3.53
A
2.67
B
1.45
C
12
Grid
400 C 3.
Fig. 12.3
Fig. 12.4
Fig. 12.5
221
13
K. Muthumani
Head-Advanced Seismic Testing and Research Laboratory,
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus, Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
Email: Kmm@sercm.org
13.1
INTRODUCTION
The interest in the ability to monitor a structure and detect damage at the earliest possible stage is pervasive throughout the civil,
mechanical, and aerospace engineering communities. For the purposes
of this discussion, damage is dened as changes introduced into a system which adversely aects the current or future performance of that
system. These systems can be either natural or man-made. However,
depending on the levels of exposure, these systems may not show the
adverse eects of this damaging event for many years or even future
generations. Implicit in this denition of damage is that the concept of
damage is not meaningful without a comparison between two dierent
states of the system, one of which is assumed to represent the initial,
and often undamaged, state. The need for quantitative global damage
detection methods that can be applied to complex structures has led
to the development and continued research of methods that examine
changes in the vibration characteristics of the structure. The current
state of aging infrastructure and the economics associated with its
repair have also been motivating factors for the development of methods that can be used to detect the onset of damage or deterioration at
the earliest possible stage. Finally, technological advancements including increases in cost-eective computing memory and speed, advances
in sensors including non-contact and remotely monitored sensors and
adaptation and advancements of the nite element method represent
technical developments that have contributed to recent improvements
in vibration-based damage detection. Additional factors that have contributed to these improvements are the adaptation and advancements
224
MODAL TESTING
Experimental modal analysis is basically a procedure of experimental dynamic testing, modeling and inverse computation. The primary
purpose is to develop a dynamic model for a structural system using
experimental data. Experimental modal analysis (EMA) produces a
modal model that consists of
1. Natural Frequencies
2. Modal damping Ratios
3. Mode shape vectors.
Once a modal model is known, standard results of modal analysis
can be used to extract an inertia matrix (Mass), a damping matrix
and a stiness matrix, which constitute a complete dynamic model for
the experimental system.
In particular EMA is useful in design, diagnosis and control of
structural systems primarily with regard to vibration. In component
modication, one can modify inertia, stiness and damping parameters in a structural system and determine the resulting eect on
the modal response (Natural frequencies, damping ratios and mode
shapes) of the system. In modal response specication, one can establish the best changes, from the design point of view, in system
parameters (inertia, stiness and damping values and their degrees
of freedom), in order to give a specied change in the modal response.
In sub-structuring, two or more sub-system models are combined using
dynamic interfacing components, and the over-all model is determined.
Diagnosis of problems like mechanical faults, performance degradation, component deterioration, impending failure etc. of a structural
system requires condition monitoring of the system, and analysis, evaluation of the monitored information from time to time. Diagnosis
may involve the establishment of changes, both gradual and sudden,
patterns and trends in these system parameters.
The standard steps of experimental modal analysis are
13.3
225
226
1
the relation = 2n
loge
amplitude after n cycles.
13.5
x0
xn
x is the initial amplitude and x is the
A Comprehensive range of transducers and the associated signal processing equipment are available for the measurement of dynamic
parameters like acceleration, velocity, displacement, strain, load and
pressure.
13.6.1 Acceleration Transducers
Acceleration is the natural choice for the measurement of seismic
ground movement, condition monitoring of machinery vibration and
high frequency application like blast and impact. The advantage of
acceleration transducers is that they do not require any non-vibrating
static reference. The simplest accelerometer can be thought of as a
single degree of freedom system and the acceleration to be measured
is applied to the base of the SDOF system. The relative displacement
suered by the spring is proportional to the absolute acceleration at
the base and some how this relative displacement is to be converted to
an electrical voltage for measurement and recording. A peizo-electrical
material is typically used as the spring in the SDOF system and it is
mounted either in a shear set up or in the compression set up (Fig.
13.1). The peizo-electric crystal is characterized by its ability to produce electric charge proportional to the applied stress. The applied
227
stress is proportional to the relative displacement of the spring material, which in turn is proportional to the base acceleration. The natural
peizo-electric materials are quartz and Rochelle salt but the modern
transducers use the man made ceramics like barium titonate, lead
Zirconate-titonate and lead metaniobate. The natural frequencies of
such a system are very high, typically in the order of 20-50 kHz and the
useful frequency range of such accelerometers is in the range of zero
to 0.2 of their natural frequency. The peizo-electric accelerometers are
very rugged and can sustain very high shock loads in the order of thousands of g. The distinct draw back of such accelerometers is in signal
conditioning and in transmitting the signal. Being self generating pickups they have very little energy available and the charge generated (q)
is typically in the order of pico Coulombs in a capacitance-(c) of a few
thousand pico Farads. Hence the voltage generated is v = q/c is in
the order of few milli-volts.The output impedance of the device is
z = 1/(2fc ) is very large at low frequencies. Hence connection to an
amplier give rise to low frequency attenuation and possible instability at low frequencies. Towards eliminating some of the problems a
charge amplier is used as the conditioner and the typical minimum
frequency of the peizo-electric accelerometer is around 1.0 Hz
Care is required in the choice of connecting cables between the
pickup and the amplier, which is normally a co-axial cable. Standard
co-axial cables suer from tribo-electric eects, whereby spurious electric charge is generated due to friction between the di-electric and the
outer braid covering. The manufacturers to counteract these eects
supply special low-noise cable and care should be taken to ensure that
connectors do not become contaminated with dirt and swarf, otherwise poor low frequency performance and noise will result. Instead of
a separate charge amplier, peizo-electric accelerometers are available
with built-in micro-electronic amplier with an advantage of low output impedance such that conventional lengthy coaxial cables can be
used to conduct the output voltage.
The attempt towards extending the range of accelerometers for low
frequencies (fraction of a Hertz) as experienced in the case of wind
and ocean wave responses saw the emergence of un-bonded strain
gauge accelerometers where a pre-tensioned strain gauge wire is used
in the place of the piezo-electric crystal. The voltage generated is
proportional to the strain change of the wire, which in turn is proportional to its base acceleration. However the maximum sustainable
shock acceleration is in the order of 100s of g and the natural frequency of the system is also low. The more common type of strain
228
gauge accelerometers are based on the peizo resistive eect and make
use of semi-conductive strain gauges where change in resistance is
proportional to the applied stress. Unlike a metallic strain gauge, the
peizo resistor has a resistance change, which is large compared to
its change in length due to applied stress. Unfortunately it tends to
be highly temperature sensitive and an elaborate temperature compensation eect is required. The frequency response of peizo-resistive
accelerometers extends to zero frequency and they can be calibrated
by rotation in the earths gravitational eld.
Servo accelerometer (Force Balanced Accelerometer) is the most
precise and costly transducer. It employs an inertial mass which is
free to move in one axis by means of a pivot or hinge. The displacement of the mass is sensed by some form of inductive or capacitive
non-contacting displacement transducer and the resulting signal is
amplied and applied to a torque or force generator in such a sense
as to tend to restore the mass to its original position. Phase shift
is normally introduced in the feed-back loop and this electrically
controls the damping, The loop gain controls the spring constant electrically. The moving element and the hinge are made of quartz and
have stable mechanical properties. Such accelerometers are capable of
resolving micro-g and nd application as sensing elements in complex
aeronautical and marine inertial navigational systems.
13.6.2 Velocity Transducers
The velocity transducers employ the principle of emf generation by a
moving ux system in a coil. They are constructed such that the magnet is supported within the coil by means of springs (Fig. 13.1). The
arrangement is similar to an accelerometer, but unlike an accelerometer, which is used below its natural frequency, the velocity transducer
is used above its natural frequency. Their useful frequency range is
10-1000 Hz The main application of these transducers is for machine
monitoring. Their inherent ruggedness, reliability and self-generating
characteristics make them ideally suitable as in-built pickups on the
bearing of high frequency machines. They do not require elaborate
ampliers and the simple voltage ampliers are sucient and the
cost of the pickup and the ampliers is very small compared to the
acceleration measuring systems.
13.6.3 Displacement Transducers
The linearly variable dierential transformer (LVDT) type consists of
a three winding transformer with a moveable core attached to the
229
230
exciters are normally expensive especially with large dynamic capabilities. They are used to test small sized models of prototype structures
in order to identify structural resonance which is associated with very
high frequencies.
Electro hydraulic shakers are, however, the most ideal ones for low
frequency structural testing. The main element in this shaker system
is the double acting jack with an electronically controlled servo-valve
tted on it. The system is externally controlled by an electrical signal
amplied by a servo amplier which feeds the required current to the
servo valve which, in turn, checks the ow of hydraulic uid into and
out of the actuator. These shakers provide very high force levels (of
the order of even 1000t) and large displacement (upto 200 mm). The
frequency range of the shaker is usually zero upto 100 Hz.
Both electro-dynamic and electro-hydraulic actuators can be used
to generate random signals consisting of digital data in the form of
displacement or acceleration time history. Normally, they are used for
wave form like sine, sweep sine, and periodic pulses.
13.8
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
x(t)ei2f t .dt
231
x(t) =
1.0
2.0fmax
1.0
N.t
232
233
234
is lying close to the operating speed, and this has to be moved away.
Stiening of the girder is infeasible. Adding dampers also poses considerable problem. Added to this, the installation is frequently visited
by VIPS, and the repair measure envisaged shall not be an eye sore.
Adding mass at a distance from the centre of rotation and below the
beam level is not possible due to the piping systems and other auxiliary
equipment in place. An out of the box thinking led to the suggestion
that the hood covering the equipment in the segment around the bearing location can be used. It was suggested that about a tonne of mass
can be shaped in the form of hood and rigidly bolted to the beam.
The centre of mass of the hood is at a large distance from the centre
of rotation, and can signicantly contribute to the mass moment of
inertia. The above thought was implemented in the FEM model and
found to be feasible. The suggestion has since been implemented, and
has avoided the problem of excessive axial amplitude at the bearing
location.
13.9.3 Integrity Evaluation of Bridge Structures
Bridges in coastal areas are corrosion prone and the alternating cycles
of stress imposed on the bridges by the moving loads accentuate the
corrosion process. The bridges are subjected to vibration by the moving loads, which are chaotic in space and time. The vibration signals
of the bridge at signicant points are composed of the mixed mode
response of the bridge. The frequency synthesis of the response signal is
likely to show the frequency components at the rst few exural modes
of the bridge and also at its torsional mode. The continuous monitoring of the averaged response signal over a period is likely to show the
decrease in natural frequencies of the bridge due to degradation in the
sectional properties of the bridge.
13.9.4 Integrity Evaluation of Pile Foundations through Stress
Wave Propagation Method
The wave propagation is the mechanism by which a transiently excited
pulse travels through an elastic medium. A steady state vibration can
also be characterized as standing wave pattern with the superposition
of the incoming and outgoing waves. The stress waves can be classied as uniform and dispersive waves. The wave velocity of a uniform
wave is a material property and independent of the frequency of excitation whereas a dispersive wave has wave velocity dependent on the
frequency of excitation. For example the axial stress wave travelling
through a prismatic rod is of uniform type whereas the exural or
235
shear wave travelling through the same rod is of dispersive type. For
example a square shaped exural pulse generated through a lateral
impact on a rod will have its time base elongated as the wave travels
as the high frequency component travels fast. However if the impact
is an axial one, the shape of the square pulse is retained and there will
be amplitude decay.
If a small impact is given to a rod and the response is sampled
at a high rate (in terms of micro seconds) the observed response will
be as in g. with the reected wave arriving at the impacted point
for every 2l/c time interval. (c
is the wave velocity of the axially
propagating wave and is equal to E/. In the case of a deformity in
the pile due to necking or enlargement at a depth of a from the pile
head, the propagating wave has a momentum and energy imbalance
at the suddenly changing cross section and to preserve the original
energy and momentum a reection takes place. The total wave energy
is forked and is transformed as reected and and refracted forms. This
principle is made use of in the geotechnical application, towards nondestructive testing of pile foundations. The magnitude of the reected
wave from the pile deformity is proportional to the reduction in the
area and its length. (Fig. 13.4)
13.10
REFERENCES
236
Piezo-electric
effect
Magnet as mass
Electric coil
Seismic Mass
Outer casing
Outer casing
Output
Excitation
Secondary
Primary
Core
Fig. 13.1
Construction of Transducers
0.7
0.6
Excitation :# 1 -Response: # 4
Excitation :# 4 -Response: # 1
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
10
Fig. 13.2
20
30
Frequency (Hz)
40
50
237
238
g
25cm
f
35cm
e
40cm
d
60cm
c
45cm
45cm
a
26.5cm 30cm
55cm
65cm
65cm
55cm
30cm
26.5cm
Side Elevation
+
7
Control
Room
6
+
+ 10
5 +
+ 8
Bearing
4 +
IV
+ 9
3 +
+
2
1
+
Generator End
239
Displacement
t = 2 l/c
t = 2 l/c
Reflected pulses
from tip
time
a) Transient response of a pile without defects
Displacement
a
t = 2 l/c
t = 2 l/c
Reflected pulses
from tip
t = 2 a/c
Reflected pulses
from constriction
time
b) Transient response of a pile with defect
Fig. 13.4
14
K.Ravisankar
Scientist - G,
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus, Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
Email: kravi@sercm.org
14.1
INTRODUCTION
Structural monitoring is used as a diagnostic tool for detecting or inferring the presence of defects/damages and for scheduling maintenance
operations. The information obtained from monitoring is generally
used to plan and design maintenance activities, increase the safety,
verify hypotheses, reduce uncertainty, and to widen the knowledge
concerning the structure being monitored. Structural monitoring has
found applications in two types of structures in particular: innovative
new structures and problematic ageing structures. In the case of newly
built constructions, it has become common practice to instrument
those that present innovative aspects in terms of the types of materials used, structural design or geometry. Old structures with problems
have beneted from structural monitoring to extend their useful life
span safely, making full use of the available structural reserves. Monitoring is linked with safety. Unusual structural behaviours are detected
in monitored structures at an early stage; therefore, the risk of sudden collapse is minimized and human lives, nature and goods are
preserved. Early detection of structural malfunction allows for an
in-time refurbishment intervention that involves limited maintenance
costs. Well-maintained structures are more durable and an increase in
durability decreases the direct economic losses (repair, maintenance,
reconstruction) and also helps to avoid losses for users that may suffer due to a structural malfunction. New materials, new construction
technologies and new structural systems are increasingly being used
242
and it is necessary to increase knowledge about their on-site performance, to control the design, to verify performance, and to create and
calibrate numerical models.
The service phase is the most important period in the life of a
structure. During this phase, construction materials are subjected to
degradation by ageing. Concrete cracks and creeps, and steel oxidizes
and may crack due to fatigue loading. The degradation of materials is
caused by mechanical (loads higher than theoretically assumed) and
physico-chemical factors (corrosion of steel, penetration of slats and
chlorides in concrete, freezing of concrete, etc.). As a consequence of
material degradation, the capacity, durability and safety of a structure
decreases. Monitoring during service provides information on structural behaviour under predicted loads, and also registers the eects
of unpredicted overloading. Data obtained by monitoring is useful
for damage detection, evaluation of safety and determination of the
residual capacity of structures.
Structures have dierent life periods: construction, testing, service,
repair and refurbishment, and so on. During each of these periods,
monitoring can be performed with an appropriate schedule of measurements. The schedule of measurements depends on the expected
rate of change of the monitoring parameters, but it also depends on
safety issues. Structures that may collapse shortly after a malfunction
occurs must be monitored continuously, with maximum frequency of
measurements. However, the common structures are designed in such
a manner that collapse occurs only after a signicant malfunction that
develops over a long period. Therefore, in order to decrease the cost
of monitoring, the measurements can be performed less frequently,
depending on the expected structural behaviour.
It is desirable to determine the safety of the critical structures by
the Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) for evaluation of their strength
and integrity. Fiber optic sensors are attractive sensing devices as an
NDT tool, given their small size, light weight, and dielectric glass construction that renders them immune to electrical noise and electro
magnetic interference. Optical bers oer the possibility to be embedded within cement or concrete without aecting their performance
and used as sensitive, but rugged, transducers of mechanical perturbations. Fiber optic sensors have the capability to be embedded prior
to curing, into the concrete structural elements for non-destructive
evaluation of structural integrity and the measurement of the internal
state of stress. Sensors can also be surface mounted on concrete or steel
members. There are challenging problems and issues while applying
243
Fiber optic sensors are fabricated using high strength silica, which
possesses an inherent immunity to corrosion and Electro-Magnetic
Interference (Eric Udd 1995). The properties of optical bers allow
innovative approaches for the design of optical sensors. Due to this reason, a number of ber optic sensor types have been developed. Fiber
optic sensors can be classied under dierent categories. Localized,
distributed and multiplexed sensors are based on sensing methods.
Intensity, interferometric, polarimetric and spectrometric sensors are
based on transduction mechanism. Extrinsic Fabry-Perot Interferometric (EFPI) sensors and Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors both
are being used for long-term/performance monitoring of concrete
structures.
14.1.2
244
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
There are challenging problems and issues while applying ber optic
sensing technology for performance monitoring of concrete structures.
Systematic studies on the new sensors have been carried out in the
laboratory to solve the following issues/problems:
(i) Safe embedment of ber optic sensors in concrete structures
(ii) Elimination of errors due to temperature induced apparent strain
(iii) Assessment of performance of the sensors under static and cyclic
loading
(iv) Assessment of the long term stability of the ber optic sensors
(v) Instrumentation for measurement of interfacial strains in FRP
strengthened concrete elements
14.3
245
246
247
ber optic sensor and electrical resistance strain gages were found to
be good.
Bridges and other critical civil engineering structures operate in
a dynamic environment subjected to repeated cyclic loading. The
integrity of structures under such load conditions can not be predicted from their responses under static loads. Predicting fatigue life
of structures subjected to repeated load cycles during their service is
an important issue. The life of structural components is signicantly
inuenced by fatigue. Reliable performance of packaged ber optic sensors under cyclic/fatigue load is to be ascertained while using them
for health monitoring (Parivallal, S., 2004).
Experiments were carried out to study the performance of packaged ber optic sensors (both EFPI and FBG) under fatigue load.
For this study, concrete cylinders of size 150mm dia and 300mm long
were embedded with packaged ber optic sensors (both EFPI and
FBG) were prepared. The cylinders were instrumented with surface
mounting electrical resistance strain gages on the surface after curing. A sinusoidal loading, ranging from a minimum of 8.49MPa to
a maximum of 14.1MPa, at a frequency of 10Hz was applied to the
instrumented concrete cylinders using servo-controlled UTM. The performance of the embedded ber optic sensors was evaluated up to 2
million cycles of loading. The ber optic sensor measurements were
consistent with the load amplitudes during fatigue test. The responses
from the embedded packaged FBG sensors and surface mounted
electrical resistance strain gages were found to be matching well.
Fig. 14.8 shows the responses from strain gages and packaged FBG sensor around 2 million cycles. Experiments were also carried out to assess
the performance of packaged ber optic sensor under high-stress, lowcycle loading. For this study, the instrumented concrete cylinders were
subjected to high-stress, low-cycle loading using an UTM. Eight cycles
of loading-unloading were applied to the instrumented cylinders. In
each cycle, the minimum stress was kept constant at 2.83MPa and
the maximum stress was varied from 14.15MPa to 53.79MPa. Stress
versus strain for each of the cylinder was plotted. During the test, a
maximum of around 1500 was measured from the embedded sensor
and the sensor was found to be working well even after attaining the
high strain range.
14.3.4
Temperature Studies
248
249
For this experiment, a dual FBG Sensor, each with grating length of
15 mm and one FBG sensor was bonded with the adhesive on the
surface of a mild steel specimen and the second FBG sensor was kept
free ended on the surface of specimen for sensing temperature alone.
Conventional resistance based temperature sensor was also xed to
measure temperature. To study the behaviour of FBG ber optic sensor under temperature, the instrumented specimen was placed inside a
oven and temperature initialization was done at ambient temperature
of 26.4 C and recorded the initial values of FBG sensors and strain
gage based temperature sensor. Then the temperature was increased
up to 65 C at 5 C interval, corresponding wavelength shifts in both
FBG sensors & strain values from temperature sensor (resistance
based) were recorded.
The Bragg wavelength shifts in both the FBGs are same due to
change in temperature, while additional eect of strain results in larger
wavelength shifts for the FBG which is bonded. Wavelength shift due
to temperature is subtracted from total shift of the rst FBG to get
the thermal strain alone due to temperature.
14.5
250
of 400days was corrected for temperature eect and strain vs. time
was plotted (Fig. 14.11). The strain output is almost constant during
this period, indicating that ber optic strain sensors are stable and
suitable for long-term monitoring of structures.
14.6
251
CFRP sheets strips 20050 mm wide externally bonded to the opposite sides of the concrete surface by a wet lay-up process. Steel bars
of 20 mm diameter were inserted in the cast exiting 15 cm from one
end of each prism in the way to apply the pull from hydraulic machine
during testing. At rst the concrete surface was cleaned with an iron
brush and then the surface was coated with a layer of primer and
air cured for 24 hours. Once the surface was ready, the FBG sensors
were bonded on to the concrete surface. Polymide coated FBG sensors were used for the instrumentation since polymide is compatible
for both concrete and the FRP. Two dierent types of FBG sensors;
single and dual gages were bonded at the interface. The advantage of
using dual gage is: the initiation and propagation of debonding of the
wrap is identied whereas with single gage the strain at a particular
point only can be measured with out any idea of mode of debonding.
On the left side of face 1, a dual gage with two gratings of size 3mm
spaced by 20mm was bonded. On the right side of the face 1, a single
gage of 25mm long was bonded. Similarly on the left side of face 2,
a 25mm long grating was bonded and on the right side of face 2 a
dual gage was bonded. The instrumentation scheme is as shown in
Fig. 14.12. The FBG sensors were placed very near to the face of the
concrete prisms. The FRP sheets were bonded to the concrete prisms
using epoxy adhesive. There is no contact between the two concrete
prisms except through the FRP sheets. In the middle of the specimens, where the two concrete prisms are in contact, a paper surface is
inserted to create a no bond area. Specimens were prepared in laboratory condition of ambient humidity and temperature. After bonding
the sensors properly, a coat of saturant was applied to the concrete
surface over the wrapping area. Over the saturant, the CFRP ber
mat was placed and subjected to pressure by gentle rolling. The second coat of saturant is then applied over the ber mat gently. Then
it was allowed to cure for 24 hrs. Four conventional strain gages were
bonded to the outer surface of the CFRP at locations exactly above
the FBG sensors bonded at the interface of concrete and FRP sheets
to compare with the strains measured by the embedded FBG sensors.
The specimen was tested in the Universal Testing Machine (UTM), a
load controlled machine under tension. All the FBGs were connected
to the FBG interrogator and the strain gages were connected to the
strain gage data logger and all the gages were initialized at zero load.
Axial tensile load was applied to the specimen by pulling the two bars
xed in the machine. The strain response from all the sensors was
252
SUMMARY
Fiber optic sensors are a practical and real sensing technology alternative to conventional NDT techniques. Among the primary benets for
using ber optic sensors are their immunity to electro magnetic noise
coupled with their small size that allows for direct embedment into the
concrete and composite materials. Technology on sensors, interrogation instruments, installation methods etc are improving, but need to
continue to improve for widespread applications. Concrete construction would benet greatly from in-situ structural monitoring using
ber optic sensors that could detect a decrease in performance or
imminent failure. In this lecture, the potential of ber optic sensors
for integrated sensing and monitoring of concrete structures has been
253
REFERENCES
1. Eric Udd (1995), Fiber Optic Smart Structures, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.
2. Raymond, M. Measures. (2001). Structural Monitoring with
Fiber Optic Technology, Academic Press, California.
3. Ravisanakar, K., et.al (2002), Experimental Studies on Fiber
Optic Sensors for Smart Structure Applications, SERC Research
Report, SERC, EML-RR-2001-3, 2002.
4. Parivallal, S., Ravisankar, K., Kesavan, K., Sreeshylam, P. and
Sridhar, S, (2004), Performance evaluation of ber optic sensors
under fatigue loading, SERC Research Report , SERC, EMLRR-2004 - 3, May 2004
5. Kesavan.K, Ravisankar.K, Parivallal.P and Narayanan.T (2004).
A Technique for Embedding EFPI Fibre Optic Strain Sensors in
Concrete. Experimental Techniques, pp31-33.
6. Kathy K. (2006). Optoelectronic Applications: Fiberoptic Sensing - Fiber sensors lay groundwork for structural health monitoring. Laser Focus World, 42 (2), 63-67.
7. Kesavan.K, Ravisankar.K, Parivallal.S, Sreeshylam.P and Sridhar.S (2010), Experimental studies on ber optic sensors embedded in concrete, Measurement, vol. 43, pp 157-163.
8. Biswas.P, Bandyopadhyay.S, Kesavan.K, Parivallal.S, Arun Sundaram.B, Ravisankar.K, Dasgupta.K (2010) Investigation on
packages of bre Bragg grating for use as embeddable strain sensor in concrete structure. Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical,
Vol.157, Issue 1, Jan.2010, pp77-83.
254
Fig. 14.1
Fig. 14.2
Fig. 14.3
Fig. 14.4
255
Load in kN
200
150
100
Fiber optic sensor encapsulated
with epoxy sheets
Average of four electrical resistance
strain gages
50
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Microstrain (compression)
Fig. 14.5
Comparison of Strain response-epoxy
encapsulated EFPI fiber optic sensor vs electrical resistance
strain gage
300
Load in kN
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
-50 -100 -150 -200 -250 -300 -350 -400 -450 -500
Micro strain
Fig. 14.6
256
Epoxy encapsulated
fiber optic sensor
Fig. 14.7
10
Micro strain
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
Time in Seconds
Fig. 14.8
Typical response from embedded packaged FBG
fiber optic sensor and Strain gage during fatigue test
257
450
Fiber optic sensor temperature
compensated for steel
Fiber optic sensor without any
temperature compensation
400
Microstrain
350
300
Slope = 8.1 /C
250
200
150
100
50
Slope = 0.8 /C
0
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
o
Temperature in C
Fig. 14.9
Instrumented
Prestressed wire
Fig. 14.10
258
3000
Microstrain
2500
2000
1500
1000
Specimen 1 (Stress=418 MPa)
Specimen 2 (Stress=360 MPa)
500
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
No. of Days
Fig. 14.11
Plot of strain vs. time(days) for long-term
performance assessment fiber optic sensor
Face 1
FBG Interrogator
LS
Face 2
LS
RS
FBG Interrogator
Fig. 14.12
15
INTRODUCTION
260
15.2
261
262
15.5
CASE STUDIES
15.5.3
263
264
is 48.77m. The piers are hammerhead type with articulations supporting the suspended spans. Each of the piers was constructed integral
with prestressed cantilever girders on either side of the pier head,
extending for 9.14m length from centre of pier to serve as hammer
heads. The gaps between the cantilever arms having a span of 30.48m
were bridged with suspended girders resting on the cantilever ends.
Based on the request made by the sponsor, an experimental investigation to assess the loss of prestress was carried out on the hammer
head supported by pier P7 , which is highly deteriorated. The hammer
head is a cast - in - situ multi - cell box section, consisting of ve girders with top and bottom anges to form an integral box section (Fig.
15.10). Due to inacceability, only the outer surfaces of the extreme
girders of the hammer head were available for instrumentation. Four
locations on each of these extreme girders of the hammer head were
selected for instrumentation. Out of these four locations, two were on
the cantilever portion on pier P7 projecting towards Hyderabad side
and the other two on Srisailam side. In all, eight locations were instrumented at the centroidal axis of the hammer head (Fig. 15.10). The
residual prestress forces were obtained from the investigation.
15.5.6 Determination of Existing Level of Prestress in PSC
Girders of the Approach Jetty to Intake Well(SERC,
2005)
An experimental investigation was carried out to assess the condition
and formulating recommendations for remedial measures of approach
jetty and intake structure. This approach jetty and intake well were
constructed around 30 years back. The approach jetty consists of prestressed concrete girders with cast-in-situ deck slab. It has 26 spans
of 15.24m consisting of precast prestressed concrete girders supported
1.22m diameter piles with capping beams. The rst eleven spans are
supported on single pier and the remaining on two piers. The width
of the jetty is 3.66m. Fig. 15.11 shows the typical cross section of
jetty structure and instrumented locations. Concrete core trepanning
technique was used for the measurement of existing stresses. The existing stress measurement was carried out on outer girders of the three
spans (worst aected, moderately aected and unaected) only. From
the measurements, the prestressing force available was calculated, and
based on this, the safe load carrying capacity of the jetty structure was
evaluated.
15.5.7
265
SUMMARY
266
REFERENCES
267
50mm
Concrete core
30mm
Strain gage
50mm
Concrete core
50mm
Concrete core
50 mm
50 mm
50mm
Plan
Section 1-1
Fig. 15.1
Core locations
Pedestal
Jac
Test floor
Load cell1 2 3 4 5
Pedestal
100
6 7 8 9 10
500
500
1000
Elevation
1 2 3 4 5
150
Plan
All dimensions in mm
Fig. 15.2
Experimental setup for existing strain
measurement in axially loaded RCC beam
268
20
40
60
MICROSTRAIN
80
100
120
140
160
180
DEPTH (mm)
10
20
30
Location 1
Location 2
Location 3
Location 4
Location 5
40
50
Fig. 15. 3
Instrumented Section
300
11
730
170
150
360
950
Section
Section
Section
6 Section
5
800
3
Section
2
Section
740
5200
402
Elevation
162
37 112
All dimensions in mm
162
Web
Right
50 Left
Flange
Neutral Axis
254
View 1-1
Fig. 15.4
269
Micro strain
0
50
100
150
200
10
20
30
40
Location 2 Top
Location 2 Bottom left
Location 2 Bottom right
50
Fig. 15.5
1
L
1
L2
L1
L3
N O T E:
A LL D IM E N SIO N S A R E IN m m
L1 L3 IN DIC A T ES INS T R U M E N T E D LO C AT IO N S
Section 1-1
Plan
1499 mm
2743 mm
7772 mm
Fig. 15.6
270
Elevation
A
Plan
Fig. 15.7
1500
3000
18500
170
430
G.L
30000
Ridge
400
Side
170
Cross section at A
(showing instrumented locations)
Elevation
30000
6000
6000
2,64,000
Top view
Fig. 15.8
3800
271
22000
Rail
Galvanised ladder
B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B3B
Fig. 15.9
Srisailam side
P7SU1
P7SU2
Upstream
P7HU2
Hyderabad side
Pier
P7
A
4953
5893
6858
Downstream
P7HD2
P7SD1 P7SD2
P7HD1
Plan
165
1981
P7SU 1
922
P7SU 3
Fig. 15.10
P7S D1
170
1372
292
Section A-A
272
Fig. 15.11a
Instrumented
location
Instrumented
location
b) Typical cross section of approach jetty at mid span
Fig. 15.11b
Determination of Existing Level of Prestress
in PSC Girders of the Approach Jetty to Intake Well
273
Fig. 15.12
Experimental investigations on super structure
of the Mahatma Gandhi Bridge at Patna
VILLUPURAM END
MAYAVARAM END
QVMWTC
QVMWBC
MVWTC
MWTC
MVWBC
250
MWBC
17700
Web
VMWTC
19700
VMETC
600
500
VMEBC
CL
Slab Thk.
500
VMWBC
350
CL
5700
C o re C u ttin g L o ca tio n
(Q u a rte r S p a n - V M E n d )
Fig. 15.13
16
INTRODUCTION
276
277
278
279
member at the end of n years. The corrosion damage state probabilities at any time can be determined from the n-step TPM for that
time period, using the methodology given by Balaji Rao and Appa
Rao (2004). By comparing the capacity ratio at any time with a target value, the service life of the structure with respect to safety can
be determined.
16.3
EXAMPLE
280
281
282
The design of structure should take into account the possible degradation that may occur during its service life, thus facilitating the
scheduling of maintenance activities (which can be optimised) and
avoiding costly repairs/replacements. A methodology for maintenance
scheduling, based on estimation of the reliability of corrosion aected
reinforced concrete structural members taking into consideration the
time and degree of repairs, is proposed (Balaji Rao et al., 2002). The
methodology uses the concepts of virtual aging, failure rate and timevariant reliability analysis. Due to the repair, a part of the degraded
resistance of the member is restored. The amount of restoration of
resistance depends upon the degree of repair, z, dened as the ratio of
restored resistance to the degraded resistance. The concept of virtual
resistance ratio is used to take into account the eect of repair on the
resistance of the member (see Fig. 16.8). The virtual resistance ratio
at any time is considered as a random variable to take into account
the stochasticity in the material properties, cross sectional dimensions
and level of degradation. Since the virtual resistance ratio is bounded
between zero and one, a truncated distribution is used for representing
the variations in this quantity. The reliabilities of a 6m span simply
supported beam subjected to chloride-induced corrosion of reinforcement was determined using the proposed methodology. The beam has
been designed according to IS 456-2000 for moderate exposure conditions. However, in practice the beam was found to be exposed to
severe exposure conditions. The reliabilities of the beam against different damage levels (see Balaji Rao et al. (2002) for denitions of
damage levels) at dierent time intervals are computed. The reliabilities of the beam against damage state 3 (corresponding to 25% loss
in area) are shown in Fig. 16.9. The methodology is general and can
be used to estimate the reliability against any specied damage level.
Knowing the required reliability levels against specied damage, it is
possible to select the optimal time and degree of repair.
16.7
283
284
285
286
SUMMARY
REFERENCES
287
2. Aktan, A.E., Farhey, D.N., Brown, D.L., Dalal, V., Helmicki, A.J.,
Hunt, V. and Shelley, S.J. (1996). Condition assessment for bridge
management. Journal of Infrastructure Systems, ASCE, 2(3), 108117
3. Balaji Rao, K. and Appa Rao, T.V.S.R. (2004), Stochastic modelling of crackwidth in reinforced concrete beams subjected to
fatigue loading, Engineering Structures, 26(5), 665-673.
4. Balaji Rao, K., Anoop, M.B., Lakshmanan, N., Gopalakrishnan, S.
and Appa Rao, T.V.S.R. (2004), Risk-based remaining life assessment of corrosion aected reinforced concrete structural members,
Journal of Structural Engineering, 31(1), 51-64.
5. Balaji Rao, K., Anoop, M. B. and Appa Rao, T. V. S. R. (2002),
Reliability analysis of stochastic degrading and maintained systems, Proceedings of 6th International Conference on Probabilistic
Safety Assessment and Management (PSAM6), San Juan, Puerto
Rico, USA, June 23-28, 2002.
6. Balaji Rao, K., Satish, B., Anoop, M. B., Gopalakrishnan, S. and
Appa Rao, T. V. S. R. (2003), Application of Bayesian technique
for corrosion state assessment of reinforced concrete bridge girders,
in Safety and Reliability, Ed. T. Bedford, P.H.A.J.M. van Gelder,
Proceedings of ESREL 2003, 15-18 June, 2003, Maastricht, The
Netherlands, A. A. Balkema Publishers, pp 7380.
7. Balaji Rao, K., Anoop, M. B., Lakshmanan, N., Gopika Vinod,
Saraf, R. K. and Kushwaha, H. S., A methodology for risk
informed in-service inspection for safety related systems - Final
report, Report No. SS-GAP01241-RR-04-3, March 2004.
8. Balaji Rao, K. (2007), Markov-Chain modelling for reliability
estimation of engineering systems at dierent scales - some considerations, Proceedings of International Conference on Civil Engineering in the New Millennium: Opportunities and Challenges, Bengal
engineering and science university, Kolkata, 11-14 January 2007,
(in CD-ROM). (also available at http://arxiv.org/abs/0708.1566)
9. Brehmer, B. and Hagafors, R. (1986), Use of experts in complex
judgment decision making: A paradigm for the study of sta work,
Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 38, pp
181195.
10. Brunswik, E. (1952), The conceptual framework of psychology,
University of Chicago.
11. Enright, M.P. and Frangopol, D.M. (1998), Probabilistic analysis
of resistance degradation of reinforced concrete bridge beams under
corrosion, Engineering Structures, 20(11), pp 960971.
288
Mean
COV*
Diusion coecient, D
Surface chloride concentration, cs
Critical chloride concentration, cc r
Cover thickness, d
Rate of corrosion, rcorr
Compressive strength of concrete, fck
Yield strength of steel, fy
5 108 cm2 /s
0.30 % by wt. of concrete
0.125 % by wt. of concrete
40 mm
0.58 mm/year
30 MPa
415 Mpa
0.10
0.10
0.05
0.05
0.30
0.18
0.12
From Field
Measurements
289
Expert 1
0
0
0.25
0.75
0
Expert 2
0
0
0.357
0.643
0
Combined
0
0
0.407
0.593
0
curves
0.1 1.6
0.2 1.6
0.05 1.6
-Conceptual design
-Analysis
- Experimental studies
- Design
Assessment
problem
problem
- Construction
- Maintenance
Assessment
Assessment
problem
- Disposal
Fig. 16.1
Classical
Mechanics
deterministic
Classical
Statistical
Mechanics
Fig. 16.2
Assessment Problem
290
Probabilistic
Models
Corrosion Initiation
Reliability Analysis
Development
of Learning
Models
Corrosion Propagation
Time -varying Reliability Analysis
Effect of Repairs (concept
of virtual aging)
Condition Assessment
Markov Chain approach
Judgemental Models
Fig. 16.3
X1
rE,1
rs,1
rE,2 X rs,2
2
YE
rE,3
rs,3
X
Ecological
rE,4 3 r
s,4
Validity, r E,i
X4
YS
Cue Utilization, rs,i
Cues Xj
Fig. 16.4
1.E-02
2.6 m
2.6m
1.E-06
19cm
8 Nos 35.8mm
0.6 m
0.6m
6.9cm
1.E-10
0.4m
Before
Beforeinspection
inspection
After inspection
Inspection
After
1.E-14
1.E-18
1.E-22
0
10
age (years)
15
20
Fig. 16.5
Probability of the structural member being in a
state requiring immediate repair action according to CEB
291
1.0
Very good
Marginal
PoD (d1)
Oustanding
0.0
0 0
1.0
d1/d
. . .
S 1 S2
Sk
State of System
Fig. 16.6
Point estimate
estimate
Point
Prediction atatdesign
stage
Prediction
design
stage
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Probability of corrosion initiation
1.0
V 0[x(t)] = x(t)
1.0
V 2[x(t 2)]
x(t)
V 1[x(t 1)]
0.0
tt11* tt2*
tt11
tt22
tt
Fig. 16.8
292
z = 0.95
z = 0.90
reliability
0.8
0.6
300 mm
Simply supported
beam
0.4
0.2
Fig. 16.9
Width of supporting
walls = 200 mm
fck = 25 N/mm
3, 25 mm
fy = 415 N/mm
Clear cover = 30 mm
Effective depth =
449.50 mm
Truncated
Truncatednormal
normal
Truncated
Truncatedlog
log-normal
-normal
150 mm c/c
10
20
30
age (years)
40
50
60
Fig. 16.10
17
K. Ramanjaneyulu
Deputy Director
CSIR-SERC, CSIR Campus, Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India.
Email: rams@serc.org
17.1
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is one of the most versatile and widely used of all construction materials in India. If properly prepared and placed in position, it
has adequate durability under normal conditions of exposure. In the
early years of concrete construction, it was thought that the concrete
structures would last forever, without any maintenance. However, a
number of structures built during the last 50 years, have suered durability problems resulting with dierent degrees of deterioration, with
even a few cases of total collapse. This has triggered o the necessity
for developments for distress assessment and evolving necessary repair
methodology of these structures. The deterioration has been particularly noticed in structures located in the regions of severe exposure
conditions such as coastal areas.
Many prestressed concrete (PSC) bridges constructed in India during the last 3 decades and located in the coastal areas have shown
signs of distress in the form of development of cracks in the girders, potholes in the deck, malfunctioning of bearings, and corrosion
of HTS wires/stands. In prestressed concrete bridges, the corrosion of
prestressing cables can lead to substantial loss in prestress and ultimately sudden collapse of spans as seen in Mandovi bridge in Goa in
1986. Considerable distress was also noticed in Thane - Creek bridge
in Maharashtra, Sharavati bridge in karnataka constructed in 1970,
Zuari Bridge in Goa constructed in 1983, Narmada bridge in Gujarat
constructed in 1977, to name a few.
One must keep in mind that any compound produced from a naturally available stable material will try to revert back to the original
294
Deterioration of PSC structures may arise from a number of independent causes. The source of these causes may be grouped into
three general categories, viz., design and construction deciencies,
environmental eects and changes in use.
Designs that do not follow specifications and good construction practices can lead to structural deterioration. Insucient
295
concrete cover for reinforcements, inadequate spacing between tendons, grouping of tendons, incomplete grouting of tendons, improper
compaction of concrete, bad drainage system, improper joints and bad
detailing are some of the common design and construction deciencies.
Environmental eects include material quality, environmental
aggression (chloride), freeze-thaw deterioration, alkali-silica reaction,
support movement, carbonation, shrinkage and thermal strains. There
is also a possibility of some or many of these eects may be acting
simultaneously aggravating the condition of state of deterioration or
distress These actions are acting continuously to the structures and
their eects are cumulative with time.
Changes in use are a signicant factor aecting the deterioration. It
may include increase in trac volume, increase in maximum permitted
vehicle size or increase in the number and frequency of large sized
vehicles on the bridge. Wear and fatigue are two other mechanisms
that directly lead to deterioration of the PSC bridges.
17.3
ENVIRONMENT
296
in both micro and the macro level. Among the various geological formations relevant to aggregates in India, perhaps quartzite, basalt are
most vulnerable minerals in this context. Destructive alkali-aggregate
reaction can take place only in the presence of moisture. Thus structures exposed to high humidity and contact with water/moisture are
more vulnerable.
The degree of expansion due to alkali-aggregate reaction is also
dependent on temperature. As such, structures in hot countries like
India are more vulnerable. The following preventive methods are
appropriate:
Choosing non-reactive aggregates
Limiting alkali content in cement to 0.6% expressed as Na2 O
equivalent
Neutralising any higher value of alkali by using blended cement
Preventing contact between concrete and any source of moisture.
17.3.2 Sulphate Attack
Sulphate attack is characterised by the chemical reaction of sulphate ions with the aluminate component and sulphate, calcium and
hydroxyl ions of hardened cement. The reaction between these substances, if enough water is present, causes expansion of the concrete,
leading to cracking with an irregular pattern. Concrete may to some
extent be protected against sulphate attack either by choosing the
type of cement that is impervious to sulphate attack or by ensuring a
sucient degree of impermeability using suitable admixtures.
17.3.3 Corrosion
In prestressed concrete structures, the untensioned reinforcement and
prestressing steel are normally protected against corrosion by passivation due to the alkalinity of the surrounding concrete (pH values of
concrete is generally greater than 12.5). Corrosion would not occur as
long as there are no breaks in the passive layer over the steel. The
layers may be broken by two mechanisms. One involves carbonation,
the other chloride ions.
(a) Carbonation
The ambient air contains 0.03% carbondioxide. Rapid industrialisation and pollution due to automobiles increases the CO2 level
in atmosphere. The combustion of 1 Kg of petrol or diesel produces about 3.1 Kg of CO2 increasing the CO2 level in ambient
air. CO2 combines with the soluble calcium to form an insoluble
297
298
CORROSION PROTECTION
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
299
Use post-tensioning
Use air-entraining agent
Use pozzolonas
Provide adequate cover
Maintain low water-cement ratio
Consolidate the concrete thoroughly
Provide adequate curing
Include Provisions for repairing cracks.
FHWA in USA, research demonstrated the benets of epoxy coating of reinforcement, along with a silane sealer for the concrete and use
of silica fume pozzolonic admixture for the concrete. The ner pozzolona improves the imperviousness of resulting concrete. Comparative
neness of cementitious materials is given in Table 17.1
17.5
300
SCALING
301
evaluate future spalling potential. Impervious and high strength surface coating of less than 6mm thick have been used, when scaling is
in its early stages1 .
17.8
CRACKING
EVALUATION OF DAMAGE
Before designing repair scheme in damaged prestressed concrete structure, assessment of the extent of damage is needed. In particular, in the
cases where concrete is damaged extensively and/or some prestressing
wires / strands are severed, the stress levels remaining in non-severed
tendons are dicult to determine. If the extent of damage or strand
stress levels can be determined inexpensively and reliably, repairs to
a girder can then be designed to restore its original strength. Timely
inspection and rectication will improve the service life of the structure
considerably.
Strength evaluation of existing structure is necessary due to the
following reasons:
302
When a calculation has shown that the structure is not capable of meeting the present standards, due to change in loading
regulations, loading models in the codes or strength models
When inspection has revealed loss of section/capacity such that
the strength may have fallen below the level needed for meeting
the load Criteria.
When there is reason to believe that the boundary conditions,
load distribution or section resistance are dierent from that
assumed in the analysis model.
To measure directly the stress spectra and to evaluate possible
fracture or estimate remaining service life.
Residual strength assessment is essential for deciding and designing dierent rectication techniques. With dierent Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT) methods, localized behavior of the deteriorated structure can be predicted. Dierent analytical/experimental approaches
are developed and reported in recent past for global strength assessment of existing structures. Adaptation of any particular method or
methods mainly depends on the extent of damage that the structure had undergone, cost of assessment, rectication and life period
extension.
17.9.1 Nondestructive Methods for Condition Assessment of
Existing Bridge
Diagnostic process is the rst stage of strength evaluation of any structure, which include techniques to identify the critical parts or elements
of the structure, identify the causes of distress, monitor the structural
performance, warn against failure, and provide statistical data for the
development of design and evaluation criteria. Before conducting an
assessment on existing bridge, dierent data are required which shall
suitably be incorporated to analytical or experimental data for overall
strength evaluation procedure. The data required are collected from
nondestructive tests. The data are,
303
Extreme load events like earth quake and disasters due to cyclone
etc.,
Recent advances in nondestructive testing methods are quite satisfactory for evaluation of material strength of damaged structures.
Dierent diagnostic procedures and available non-destructive tests are
summarised by Nowak2 . In any method, defects are detected by observation of changing response of the interrogating medium. Interrogating
medium in non-destructive test include electromagnetic waves, stress
wave, electrical resistance/potential, magnetism and charged particles,
etc.
17.9.2
Visual Inspection
Tests on Concrete
304
305
slot was cut in 10mm increments to a depth of 80mm. After each increment, a special jack was inserted into the segmental slot and pressure
required for restoring the former strain distribution was noted.
Giord and partners described precision coring a strain gauged area
of concrete to estimate the principal stresses present. Elastic constants
are obtained by in-situ jacking test in the core-hole.
17.9.4
Tests on Steel
Corrosion of steel in concrete is the main reason for strength loss with
age of reinforced/prestressed concrete bridge girders. Corrosion is an
electrochemical process. The probability of corrosion is proportional to
the corrosion current which is controlled by the resistivity of the concrete. Dierent methods for corrosion detection of reinforced concrete
bridge girders are reported and summarised by Mallett10 .
Measurement of total resistance of a wire can be a preliminary
method of estimation of corrosion of cables as the cross sectional area
of wire reduces with corrosion, thus increasing the electrical resistance
of the wire.
Radiography is used to give picture showing the position and size
of bars. This is based on the principle that loss of energy of gamma
rays passing through a heterogeneous medium is greater in zones of
higher density material. The main disadvantage of this method is that
it will not show the extent of corrosion.
Ultrasonic methods are used to detect distress or fracture in prestressing tendon if length of the tendons are small.
17.10
306
current developments in Fibre Optic sensors hold promise for reliable measurements at reasonable cost in future. This has also been
extended to some selected bridge applications. Such instrumented
structures can be classied as Intelligent structures. If the prestressed
concrete girders are instrumented during construction, they are called
priori instrumented girders. Most of the old bridges are not instrumented during construction, the girders of such bridges are known as
priori uninstrumented girders.
The following methods are available for determining the residual
prestress in priori uninstrumented prestressed concrete girders.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
307
may get closed. Load is slowly reapplied, and the reopening of the
crack on the bottom face is carefully monitored. at the instant of crack
opening, the stress at the bottom ber is zero. Since the beam section
properties, weight and the applied loads are known, the residual prestress existing in the member can be calculated by the well-known
exural formula.
17.10.4
Special Methods
Linear precision foil strain gages, 90mm long with 120 ohm resistance, with preattached lead wires (1m long), were used for strain
308
309
(for 500 kN) has been worked out to be 160 kg/cm2 . The elongation
for the above prestressing force has been worked out to be 126mm. To
account for anchorage slip of about 8mm, each 8T13 cable was stressed
upto 165-170 kg/cm2 . The stressing operation was carried out using
two stressing jacks. The stressing sequence is shown schematically in
Fig. 17.3.
External prestressing was applied as per the sequence specied
above. The interior girder G2 was stressed rst. Out of the two
cables used for prestressing for each PSC girder, one cable was stressed
from one side and the second cable was stressed from the other side.
Tensioning of each cable was done in seven stages. The tensioning
pressures (in kg/cm2 ) at dierent stages were: 50, 75, 100, 120, 140,
160 and 165-170 kg/cm2 respectively. Strain gage measurements were
recorded at each stage of stressing. Deection measurements were also
taken at seven theodolite target locations of span using high precision
theodolite/total station at dierent stages of prestressing, as in the
case of strain measurements. The deections which occurred during
the dierent stages of external prestressing compared reasonably well
with the theoretical deections computed. Then the stressing of second interior girder G3 was taken up followed by outer girder G4.
Stressing of outer girder G1 was done after the stressing of G4 on
the same day. The method adopted for stressing, stages of stressing
and method of measurement of strains and deections for girders G3,
G4 and G1 were the same as those adopted for girder G2. The details
of progressive (cumulative) deection of girders G1, G2, G3 and G4
after completion of external prestressing of each girder are arrived.
Deection of bridge, at mid span, at girder locations, during external prestressing is shown in Fig. 17.4. It has been observed that the
deections of PSC girders and strain values measured during external
prestressing operations compared reasonably well with the theoretical
values computed. The external prestressing operation was completed
successfully.
17.11.5
310
IRC: 6 [2000]. The test load was applied in stages of 0.5W (12.5t),
0.75W(18.75t), 0.9W(22.5t), and 1.0W(25.0t), where W is the Gross
Laden Weight of the test vehicle. For each stage of load application,
test vehicle was placed on the bridge deck so as to induce maximum
moment. The additional weights were loaded/added on to the test
vehicle by placing pre-weighed sand bags, each weighing 40 Kg, on
the test vehicle. Fig. 17.5 shows the test vehicle at centre of span
during particular stage of loading. During all stages of load application, deections were measured at selected theodolite target locations
and strains were measured using electrical resistance strain gages. For
each stage of load application, the loaded test vehicle was brought to
the intended/marked position (at centre of span) and deections and
strains were recorded instantaneously and after a period of ve minutes. The test vehicle was then taken o the bridge and instantaneous
recovery of deections and strains were recorded. Further, recovery of
deections and strains 5 minutes after the removal of the load were
also recorded. Maximum deection due to Gross Laden Weight (W
= 25.0t) was found to be 3.1mm which is less than maximum permitted deection of 28.65mm (1/1500 of span = 28.65mm). It was
also noticed that the recovery of deections after the removal of loads
was within the stipulated values given in IRC: 6. The strain values
recorded during the various stages of loading were also found to be
well within limits and on lower side compared to the strains induced
during external prestressing.
17.12
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the past and during the present, the nal acceptance of poured
concrete is by strength measured through a test sample (cube) that
may or may not represent the quality of the in- place concrete. This
situation has to change with emphasis on design for durability. Decisions on durability require detailed testing to assess durability based
characteristics of concrete, technical knowledge and judgement. Regular inspection, proper maintenance and timely repair / restoration
will go a long way in reducing damage to concrete structures. With
the present advances in sensor technology and automation, continuous
monitoring of structures leading to intelligent structures will, in the
near future, ensure timely warning for changes in state of structure.
17.13
311
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 546, Guide for repair of concrete bridge superstructure, ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, Part2 , 1995.
2. Nowak A., Diagnostic Procedures for Bridges, Proceedings of
the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Bridge Evaluation,
Repair and Rehabilitation, Maryland, USA, 1990 pp 7384.
3. IRC SP- 40,Guidelines on techniques for strengthening and
rehabilitation of Bridges, New Delhi 1993.
4. Carino N. J., and Sansalone M., Flaw detection in concrete
using the impact-echo method, proc. of NATO advanced workshop on Bridge evaluation, repair and rehabilitation, Baltimore,
Maryland, USA, 1990 pp. 101118.
5. Bungley J. H., Testing concrete in structures: A guide to equipment for testing concrete in structures, CIRIA Technical Note
143, 87., 1992
6. BS:1881, Testing concrete: Part207-Near to surface strength
tests; Part 208:Initial Surface Absorption, 1992
7. Clemina G. G., and Mckeel W. T.jr., Detection of delamination in bridge decks with infrared thermography, Transportation
research record, No. 664, Vol.1, pp. 180182
8. Flohrer, and Brenhardt, B., Detection of prestressed steel tendons behind reinforcing bars, detection of voids in concrete
structures - a suitable application for radar systems, Proc. 2nd
Int. Conf. On bridge management, pp. 1821 Apr, 1993.
9. Abdunur C., Duchene J. L., Structural assessment of bridge with
transversal cracks. First International Conference on Bridge
Management held at University of Surrey Guildford, 1990,
pp.489500.
10. Mallett G. P., State of the Art Review on Repair of Concrete
Bridges, Published by Thomas Telford Services Ltd., London,
1994.
11. Manjure P. Y., Rao P. S., and Rohra M. R., Strengthening of
PSC deck of yover bridge at Vizag
12. Thomas B., Ramakrishna Rao M.N., Khare P. S., Condition
Assessment of a Prestressed Concrete Bridge Deck under Distress, Proc. of the Int. Seminar on Failures, Rehabilitation and
Retrotting of Bridges and Aqueducts, Nov. 1994, Bombay, Vol.
1, pp 255259.
13. Mohindra O. D., Deepak N., Anant Ram ., Gupta, V. D.,
Rehabilitation plan of Nizamuddin bridge, Proc. of the Int.
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Material
Silica fume
Fly ash
Blast furnace slag
Ordinary portland cement
Fig. 17.1
Fig. 17.2
Fineness
20000 m2 /kg(0.20 to 0.1 micron)
400 to 700 m2 /kg (5 to 3 micron)
350 to 600 m2 /kg (6 to 3.5 micron)
300 to 400 m2 /kg (7 to 3 micron)
Fig. 17.3
Fig. 17.4
313
314
Fig. 17.5