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Feb
11
Thesis Writing: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This is the last chapter of the thesis and the most important part because it is here where the
findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are summarized; generalizations in the form of
conclusions are made; and the recommendations for the solution of problems discovered in the
study are addressed to those concerned.
Summary of Findings
Guidelines in writing the summary of findings. The following should be the characteristics
of the summary of findings:
1. There should be e brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population or
respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the research instrument, and the
sampling design. There should be no explanations made.
Example. (Using the hypothetical study of teaching science in the high schools of Province A).
This study was conducted for the purpose of determining the status of teaching science in the
high schools of Province A. The descriptive method of research was utilized and the normative
survey technique was used for gathering data. The questionnaire served as the instrument for
collecting data. All the teachers handling science and a 20percent representative sample of the
students were the respondents. The inquiry was conducted during the school year 1989-90.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific question
under the statement of the problem must be written first to followed by the findings that would
answer it. The specific questions should follow the order they are given under the statement of
the problem.
Example. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high schools of province A?
Of the 59 teachers, 31 or 53.54 percent were BSE graduates and three or 5.08 percent were MA
degree holders. The rest, 25 or 42.37 percent, were non-BSE baccalaureate degree holders with
at least 18 education units. Less than half of all the teachers, only 27 or 45.76 percent were
science majors and the majority, 32 or 54.24 percent were non-science majors.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data
consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers, or
statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement. No deductions, nor inference, nor
interpretation should be made otherwise it will only be duplicated in the conclusion. See the
example in No. 2 just above.
Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in the summary,
especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.
Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be stated as concisely as
possible.
Conclusions
No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings for your Thesis
Guidelines in writing the conclusions. The following should be the characteristics of the
conclusions.
1. Conclusions are inferences,deductions,abstractions,implications,

interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings. Conclusions
are the logical and valid outgrowths upon the findings.
They should not contain any numeral because numerals generally limit the forceful effect or
impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusions should be made that are not based upon the
findings.
Example: The conclusion that can be drawn from the findings in No. 2 under the summary
of findings is this: All the teachers were qualified to teach in the high school but the majority of
them were not qualified to teach science.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the problem. The study becomes
almost meaningless if the questions raised are not properly answered by the conclusions.
Example. If the question raised at the beginning of the research is:
How adequate are the facilities for the teaching of science? and the findings show that the
facilities are less than the needs of the students, the answer and the conclusion should be: The
facilities for the teaching of science are inadequate.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
However, no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
Example: From the findings that the majority of the teachers were non-science majors and the
facilities were less than the needs of the students, what have been factually learned are that the
majority of the teachers were not qualified to teach science and the science facilities were
inadequate.
It cannot be concluded that science teaching in the high schools of Province A was weak because
there are no data telling that the science instruction was weak. The weakness of science teaching
is an indirect or implied effect of the non-qualification of the teachers and the inadequacy of the
facilities. This is better placed under the summary of implications.
If there is a specific question which runs this way How strong science instruction in the high
schools of Province A as is perceived by the teachers and students?, then a conclusion to answer
this question should be drawn. However, the respondents should have been asked how they
perceived the degree of strength of the science instruction
whether it is very strong, strong, fairly strong, weak or very weak. The conclusion should be
based upon the responses to the question.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, ye they convey all the
necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific questions.
Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated categorically. They
should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and correct. They should not give any hint that
the researcher has some doubts about their validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers such as
probably, perhaps, may be, and the like should be avoided as much as possible.
Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study. Take for instance,
the hypothetical teaching of science in the high schools of Province A, all conclusions about the
faculty, facilities, methods, problems, etc. refer only to the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A.
Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis. They may be
recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they should convey the
same information as the statements recapitulated.
Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on Quantitative Data
There are some pitfalls to avoid in the use of quantitative data. (Bacani, et al., pp. 48-52)
researchers should not accept nor utilize quantitative data without questions or analysis even if
they are presented in authoritative-looking forms. This is so because in some instances
quantitative data are either inaccurate or misleading either unwittingly or by design. The data
should be analyzed very critically to avoid misleading interpretations and
conclusions. Among the factors that a researcher should guard against are the following:
1. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or organizations usually present or manipulate figures

to their favor. For instance, an advertisement may quote statistics to show that a given product is
superior to any other leading brand. We should be wary of the use of statistics in this case
because of the obvious
profit motive behind. An individual may also do the same. A respondent to a questionnaire or in
an interview may commit the same bias o protect his own interests. Like the case of the science
teachers in the high schools of Province A, they may respond that the science facilities in their
respective schools are adequate although they are not just to protect the good names of their own
schools. A respondent, if asked how many science books he has read, may say that he has read
many although he has read only a few to protect his name. Hence, if there is a way of checking
the veracity of presented data by investigation, observation, or otherwise, this should be done to
insure the accuracy of the conclusion based upon the data under consideration.
2. Incorrect generalization. An incorrect generalization is made when there is a limited body of

information or when the sample is not representative of the population. Take this case. The
Alumni Association of a big university would like to conduct a survey to determine the average
income of the alumni during their first ten years after graduation. Though the total number of
returns may meet the sample size requirement, the population may not be
properly represented by the actual composition of the sample. This is likely to happen because
chances are that a great majority of the alumni in the high income bracket will respond readily
but the great majority of those who are not doing well may ignore the survey by reason of pride.
In such a case, the high income group is over represented and low income group is under
represented in the sample resulting in the overestimate of the average
income of the entire alumni group. This is the result of a built-in sampling
bias.
3. Incorrect deduction. This happens when a general rule is applied to a specific case. Suppose
there is a finding that the science facilities in the high schools of Province A are inadequate. We
cannot conclude at once that any particular tool or equipment is definitely inadequate. Suppose
there is an over-supply of test tubes. Hence, to make the conclusions that all science equipment
and tools in the high schools of Province A are inadequate is an incorrect deduction in this case.
Incorrect comparison. A basic error in statistical work is to compare two things that are not really
comparable. Again, let us go to high schools of Province A. Suppose in the survey, School C has
been found to have 20 microscopes and School D has only eight. We may conclude that School C
is better equipped with microscopes than School D. However, upon further inquiry, School C has
1,500 students while School D has only 500 students.
Hence, the ratio in School C is 75 students is to one microscope while in School D the ratio is 63
students is to one microscope. Hence, School D is better equipped with microscopes than School
C. to conclude that School C is better equipped with microscopes than School D based on the
number of microscopes owned by each school is incorrect comparison.
Abuse of correlation data. A correlation study may show a high degree of association between
two variables. They may move in the same rate but it is not right to conclude at once that one is
the cause of the other unless confirmed so by other studies. In no case does correlation show
causal relationship. When the government increases the price of gasoline, the prices of
commodities also starts to rise. We cannot conclude immediately that the increase in price of
gasoline is the sole cause of the increase in the prices of commodities. There are other causes to
consider such as shortage or undersupply of the commodities, increased cost of production, panic
buying, etc. To be able to make a conclusive statement as to what is or what are the
real causes of the increases in prices of commodities, an intensive
investigation is needed.
Limited information furnished by any one ratio. A ratio shows only a partial picture in most
analytical work. Suppose the only information that we have about a certain establishment is that
the ratio does not show the kinds of employees leaving and why they are leaving. We do not
know whether the losses of employees are caused by death, retirement, resignations, or
dismissals. We can only surmise but we cannot conclude with definiteness that the causes of the
20% employee turnover are death, retirement, poor working conditions, poor salary, etc. Avoid as
much as possible making conclusions not sufficiently and adequately supported by facts.
Misleading impression concerning magnitude of base variable. Ratios can give erroneous
impressions when they are used to express relationships between two variables of small
magnitudes. Take the following examples. A college announced that 75% of its graduates passed
he CPA examination at a certain time. Another college also advertised that 100% of its graduates
who took
that same examination passed. From these announcements we may form the impression that the
standard of instruction in the two colleges is high.
Actually only four graduates from the first college took the CPA licensing examination and three
happened to pass.
For recommending similar researches to be conducted, the recommendation should be: It is

recommended that similar researches should be conducted in other places. Other provinces
should also make inquiries into the status of the teaching of science in their own high schools so
that if similar problems and deficiencies are found, concerted efforts may be
exerted to improve science teaching in all high schools in the country.
Evaluation of a Thesis or Dissertation
Generally, a thesis or dissertation has to be defended before a panel of examiners and then
submitted to the proper authorities for acceptance as a piece of scholarly work.
Hence, there should be some guidelines in evaluating a thesis or dissertation. The following are
offered to be the general criteria in judging the worthiness of a thesis or dissertation:
I. The subject and the Problems
1.Is the subject significant, timely and of current issue?

2.Is it clearly delimited but big enough for making valid generalizations?
3.Is the title appropriate for the subject?
4.Are the sub problems specific, clear, and unequivocal?
II. The Design of the Study
1.Is the research methodology appropriate?

2.Is the design clear and in accordance with the scientific method of research?
3.Is the report prepared carefully following acceptable format and mechanics?
4.Are the documentation adequate and properly done?
III. The Data (Findings)
1.Are the data adequate, valid and reliable?

2.Are they analyzed carefully and correctly treated statistically?
3.Are they interpreted correctly and adequately?
IV. Conclusions (Generalizations)
1.Are the conclusions based upon the findings?

2.Do they answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation?
3.Are they logical and valid outcomes of the study?
4.Are they stated concisely and clearly and limited only to the subject of the study?
V. Recommendations
1.Are the recommendations based upon the findings and conclusions?

2.Are they feasible, practical, and attainable?
3.Are they action-oriented? (They recommend action to remedy unfavorable
condition discovered)
4.Are they limited only to the subject of the study but recommend further research on the same
subject?
Written By:
Prof. Erwin M. Globio, MSIT

Thesis/Dissertation Consultant
Mobile: 0939-374-1359 | 09323956678
Like us on Facebook
Council of Thesis and Dissertation Advisers
2010 Sulit.com.ph
Posted 11th February 2013 by Prof. Erwin Globio

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Feb
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Thesis Writing: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
2010 Sulit.com.ph

help.
Contact us: (02) 428-7127 | 09393741359 | 09323956678

Like us: https://www.facebook.com/thesisconsultants
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This is the last chapter of the thesis and the most important part because it is here where
the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are summarized; generalizations in the form of
conclusions are made; and the recommendations for the solution of problems discovered in the
study are addressed to those concerned.
Summary of Findings
Guidelines in writing the summary of findings. The following should be the

characteristics of the summary of findings:
1. There should be e brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population or
respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the research instrument, and the
sampling design. There should be no explanations made.
Example. (Using the hypothetical study of teaching science in the high schools of Province A).
This study was conducted for the purpose of determining the status of teaching science in the
high schools of Province A. The descriptive method of research was utilized and the normative
survey technique was used for gathering data. The questionnaire served as the instrument for
collecting data. All the teachers handling science and a 20percent representative sample of the
students were the respondents. The inquiry was conducted during the school year 1989-90.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific question
under the statement of the problem must be written first to followed by the findings that would
answer it. The specific questions should follow the order they are given under the statement of
the problem.
Example. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high schools of province A?
Of the 59 teachers, 31 or 53.54 percent were BSE graduates and three or 5.08 percent were
MA degree holders. The rest, 25 or 42.37 percent, were non-BSE baccalaureate degree holders
with at least 18 education units. Less than half of all the teachers, only 27 or 45.76 percent were
science majors and the majority, 32 or 54.24 percent were non-science majors.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important data
consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words, numbers, or
statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement. No deductions, nor inference, nor
interpretation should be made otherwise it will only be duplicated in the conclusion. See the
example in No. 2 just above.
Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in the summary,
especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.
Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be stated as concisely
as possible.
Conclusions
No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings for your Thesis
Guidelines in writing the conclusions. The following should be the characteristics of the
conclusions.
1. Conclusions are inferences,deductions,abstractions,implications,

interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings.
Conclusions are the logical and valid outgrowths upon the findings.
They should not contain any numeral because numerals generally limit the forceful effect or
impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusions should be made that are not based upon the
findings.
Example: The conclusion that can be drawn from the findings in No. 2 under the summary
of findings is this: All the teachers were qualified to teach in the high school but the majority of
them were not qualified to teach science.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of
the investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the problem. The study
becomes almost meaningless if the questions raised are not properly answered by the
conclusions.
Example. If the question raised at the beginning of the research is:
How adequate are the facilities for the teaching of science? and the findings show that the
facilities are less than the needs of the students, the answer and the conclusion should be: The
facilities for the teaching of science are inadequate.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
However, no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
Example: From the findings that the majority of the teachers were non-science majors and the
facilities were less than the needs of the students, what have been factually learned are that the
majority of the teachers were not qualified to teach science and the science facilities were
inadequate.
It cannot be concluded that science teaching in the high schools of Province A was weak
because there are no data telling that the science instruction was weak. The weakness of science
teaching is an indirect or implied effect of the non-qualification of the teachers and the
inadequacy of the facilities. This is better placed under the summary of implications.
If there is a specific question which runs this way How strong science instruction in the high
schools of Province A as is perceived by the teachers and students?, then a conclusion to answer
this question should be drawn. However, the respondents should have been asked how they
perceived the degree of strength of the science instruction
whether it is very strong, strong, fairly strong, weak or very weak. The conclusion should be
based upon the responses to the question.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, ye they convey all the
necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific questions.
Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated categorically. They
should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and correct. They should not give any hint that
the researcher has some doubts about their validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers such as
probably, perhaps, may be, and the like should be avoided as much as possible.
Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study. Take for
instance, the hypothetical teaching of science in the high schools of Province A, all conclusions
about the faculty, facilities, methods, problems, etc. refer only to the teaching of science in the
high schools of Province A.
Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis. They may be
recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they should convey the
same information as the statements recapitulated.
Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on Quantitative Data
There are some pitfalls to avoid in the use of quantitative data. (Bacani, et al., pp. 48-52)
researchers should not accept nor utilize quantitative data without questions or analysis even if
they are presented in authoritative-looking forms. This is so because in some instances
quantitative data are either inaccurate or misleading either unwittingly or by design. The data
should be analyzed very critically to avoid misleading interpretations and
conclusions. Among the factors that a researcher should guard against are the following:
1. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or organizations usually present or manipulate

figures to their favor. For instance, an advertisement may quote statistics to show that a given
product is superior to any other leading brand. We should be wary of the use of statistics in this
case because of the obvious
profit motive behind. An individual may also do the same. A respondent to a questionnaire or
in an interview may commit the same bias o protect his own interests. Like the case of the
science teachers in the high schools of Province A, they may respond that the science facilities in
their respective schools are adequate although they are not just to protect the good names of their
own
schools. A respondent, if asked how many science books he has read, may say that he has read
many although he has read only a few to protect his name. Hence, if there is a way of checking
the veracity of presented data by investigation, observation, or otherwise, this should be done to
insure the accuracy of the conclusion based upon the data under consideration.
2. Incorrect generalization. An incorrect generalization is made when there is a limited body of

information or when the sample is not representative of the population. Take this case. The
Alumni Association of a big university would like to conduct a survey to determine the average
income of the alumni during their first ten years after graduation. Though the total number of
returns may meet the sample size requirement, the population may not be
properly represented by the actual composition of the sample. This is likely to happen because
chances are that a great majority of the alumni in the high income bracket will respond readily
but the great majority of those who are not doing well may ignore the survey by reason of pride.
In such a case, the high income group is over represented and low income group is under
represented in the sample resulting in the overestimate of the average
income of the entire alumni group. This is the result of a built-in sampling
bias.
3. Incorrect deduction. This happens when a general rule is applied to a specific case. Suppose
there is a finding that the science facilities in the high schools of Province A are inadequate. We
cannot conclude at once that any particular tool or equipment is definitely inadequate. Suppose
there is an over-supply of test tubes. Hence, to make the conclusions that all science equipment
and tools in the high schools of Province A are inadequate is an incorrect deduction in this case.
Incorrect comparison. A basic error in statistical work is to compare two things that are not
really comparable. Again, let us go to high schools of Province A. Suppose in the survey, School
C has been found to have 20 microscopes and School D has only eight. We may conclude that
School C is better equipped with microscopes than School D. However, upon further inquiry,
School C has 1,500 students while School D has only 500 students.
Hence, the ratio in School C is 75 students is to one microscope while in School D the ratio is
63 students is to one microscope. Hence, School D is better equipped with microscopes than
School C. to conclude that School C is better equipped with microscopes than School D based on
the number of microscopes owned by each school is incorrect comparison.
Abuse of correlation data. A correlation study may show a high degree of association between
two variables. They may move in the same rate but it is not right to conclude at once that one is
the cause of the other unless confirmed so by other studies. In no case does correlation show
causal relationship. When the government increases the price of gasoline, the prices of
commodities also starts to rise. We cannot conclude immediately that the increase in price of
gasoline is the sole cause of the increase in the prices of commodities. There are other causes to
consider such as shortage or undersupply of the commodities, increased cost of production, panic
buying, etc. To be able to make a conclusive statement as to what is or what are the
real causes of the increases in prices of commodities, an intensive

investigation is needed.
Limited information furnished by any one ratio. A ratio shows only a partial picture in most
analytical work. Suppose the only information that we have about a certain establishment is that
the ratio does not show the kinds of employees leaving and why they are leaving. We do not
know whether the losses of employees are caused by death, retirement, resignations, or
dismissals. We can only surmise but we cannot conclude with definiteness that the causes of
the 20% employee turnover are death, retirement, poor working conditions, poor salary, etc.
Avoid as much as possible making conclusions not sufficiently and adequately supported by
facts.
Misleading impression concerning magnitude of base variable. Ratios can give erroneous
impressions when they are used to express relationships between two variables of small
magnitudes. Take the following examples. A college announced that 75% of its graduates passed
he CPA examination at a certain time. Another college also advertised that 100% of its graduates
who took
that same examination passed. From these announcements we may form the impression that
the standard of instruction in the two colleges is high.
Actually only four graduates from the first college took the CPA licensing examination and
three happened to pass.
For recommending similar researches to be conducted, the recommendation should be: It

is recommended that similar researches should be conducted in other places. Other provinces
should also make inquiries into the status of the teaching of science in their own high schools so
that if similar problems and deficiencies are found, concerted efforts may be
exerted to improve science teaching in all high schools in the country.
Evaluation of a Thesis or Dissertation
Generally, a thesis or dissertation has to be defended before a panel of examiners and

then submitted to the proper authorities for acceptance as a piece of scholarly work.
Hence, there should be some guidelines in evaluating a thesis or dissertation. The following
are offered to be the general criteria in judging the worthiness of a thesis or dissertation:
I. The subject and the Problems
1.Is the subject significant, timely and of current issue?

2.Is it clearly delimited but big enough for making valid generalizations?
3.Is the title appropriate for the subject?
4.Are the sub problems specific, clear, and unequivocal?
II. The Design of the Study
1.Is the research methodology appropriate?

2.Is the design clear and in accordance with the scientific method of research?
3.Is the report prepared carefully following acceptable format and mechanics?
4.Are the documentation adequate and properly done?
III. The Data (Findings)
1.Are the data adequate, valid and reliable?
2.Are they analyzed carefully and correctly treated statistically?

3.Are they interpreted correctly and adequately?
IV. Conclusions (Generalizations)
1.Are the conclusions based upon the findings?

2.Do they answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation?
3.Are they logical and valid outcomes of the study?
4.Are they stated concisely and clearly and limited only to the subject of the study?
V. Recommendations
1.Are the recommendations based upon the findings and conclusions?

2.Are they feasible, practical, and attainable?
3.Are they action-oriented? (They recommend action to remedy unfavorable
condition discovered)
4.Are they limited only to the subject of the study but recommend further research on the same
subject?
Written By:

Thesis/Dissertation Consultant
Mobile: 0939-374-1359 | 09323956678
Like us on Facebook
Council of Thesis and Dissertation Advisers
2010 Sulit.com.ph
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Feb
11
Thesis Writing: Analyses, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data
2010 Sulit.com.ph
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ANALYSES, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
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Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of
categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to
bring out into focus the essential features of the study. Analysis usually precedes
presentation.
Example: In the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A,
the whole study may be divided into its constituent parts as follows according to the specific
questions:
1.Educational qualifications of the science teachers

2.Methods and strategies used in the teaching of science
3.Facilities available for the teaching of science
4.Forms of supervisory assistance
5.Differences between the perception of the teachers and those of the
students concerning the teaching of science
6.Problems encountered in the teaching of science
7.Proposed solutions to the problems
8.Implications of the findings
Each constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories. Example: The
educational qualifications of the teachers may further be subdivided into the following:
1.Degrees earned in pre-service education

2.Majors or specializations
3.Units earned in science
4.Teachers examinations and other examinations passed
5.Seminars, conferences, and other special trainings attended for the
teaching of science
6.Books, journals, and other materials in science being read
7.Advanced studies
Number of years in science teaching
Then under degrees earned are
Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Science in Education
Master of Arts
The other constituent parts may also be similarly divided and subdivided. The data
are then grouped under the categories or parts to which they belong.
Classification of data. Classification is grouping together data with similar

characteristics. Classification is a part of analysis. The bases of classification are the
following:
a.Qualitative (kind). Those having the same quality or are of the same
kind are grouped together. The grouping element in the examples
given under analysis is qualitative. See examples under analysis.
b.Quantitative. Data are grouped according to their quantity. In age, for

instance, people may be grouped into ages of 10-14, 15-19, 20-24,
25-29, etc.
c.Geographical. Data may be classified according to their location for

instance; the schools in the secondary level in Province A may be
grouped by district, as District 1, District 2, District 3, etc.
d.Chronological. In this, data are classified according to the order of

their occurrence. Example: The enrolments of the high schools of
Province A may be classified according to school years, as for,
instance, enrolments during the school years 1985-86, 1986-87,
1987-88.
Cross-classification. This is further classifying a group of data into subclasses. This is

breaking up or dividing a big class into smaller classes. For instance, a group of students
may be classified as high school students as distinguished from elementary and college
students. Then they are further subdivided into curricular years as first, second, third, and
fourth years. Each curricular year may still be subdivided into male and female.
Arrangement of data or classes of data. The bases of arrangement of data or groups

of data are the same as those of classification.
a.Qualitative. Data may be arranged alphabetically, or from the biggest

class to the smallest class as from the phylum to specie in classifying
animals or vice versa, or listing the biggest country to the smallest one
or vice versa, or from the most important to the least important, or
vice versa, etc. Ranking of students according to brightness is
qualitative arrangement.
b.Quantitative. This is arranging data according to their numerical

magnitudes, from the greatest to the smallest number or vice versa.
Schools may be arranged according to their population, from the most
populated to the least populated, and so with countries, provinces,
cities, towns, etc.
c.Geographical. Data may be arranged according to their geographical

location or according to direction. Data from the Ilocos region may be
listed from north to south by province as Ilocos Norte, Abra, Ilocos Sur
and La Union.
d.Chronological. This is listing down data that occurred first and last
those that occurred last or vice versa according to the purpose of
presentation. This is especially true in historical research. For instance,
data during the Spanish period should be treated first before the data
during the American Period.
Classification, cross-classification and arrangement of data are done for purposes of

organizing the thesis report and in presenting them in tabular form. In tables, data are
properly and logically classified, cross-classified, and arranged so that their relationships are
readily seen.
Group-derived Generalizations
One of the main purposes of analyzing research data is to form inferences,

interpretations, conclusions, and/or generalizations from the collected data. In so doing the
researcher should be guided by the following discussions about group-derived
generalizations.
The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a method of collecting
data for research implies the study of groups. From the findings are formulated conclusions
in the form of generalizations that pertain to the particular group studied. These conclusions
are called group-derived generalizations designed to represent characteristics of groups and
are to be applied to groups rather than to individual cases one at a time. These are
applicable to all kinds of research, be they social, science or natural science research. There
are several types of these but are discussed under four categories by Good and Scates.
(Good and Scates, pp. 290-298) The key sentences are of this author.
1.Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One type of

generalization is that which is expressed in terms of proportion of the cases in a group,
often in the form of probability. When this type is used, we do not have enough information
about individual cases to make predictions for them, but we can nevertheless predict for a
group of future observations. As to individual event, however, we can say nothing;
probability is distinctly a group concept and applies only to groups.
Quality control in manufacturing is an example. Based on the recognition that

products cannot be turned out as precisely as intended, but that so long as a given
proportion of the cases fall within assigned limits of variation, that is all that is expected. In
the biological field, certain proportions of offspring, inherit certain degrees of characteristics
of parents, but individual predictions cannot be made. In the social field, in insurance
especially, based on demographic and actuarial data, life tables indicate life expectancies of
groups but nothing whatsoever is known about the life expectancy of any particular
individual.
Here is another example. Suppose in a certain school offering civil engineering, it is a

known fact that all through the years, bout 70% of its graduates with an average of 2.0 or
its equivalent or higher pass the licensing examination for civil engineers. On this basis, we
can predict that about 70% of the graduates of the school with an average of 2.0 or higher
will pass the next licensing examination for civil engineers but we cannot predict with
certainty the passing of a particular graduate even if his average grade is 1.25.
2.The average can be made to represent the whole group. A second type of
group-derived generalization results from using the average as a representation of the
group of cases and offering it as a typical result. This is ignoring the individuals comprising
the group or the variation existing in the group but the average represents the whole group.
Generally, the mean and the median are used to denote the averages of scale position but
other statistical measures such as the common measures of variation, correlation,
regression lines, etc. are also structurally considered as averages. These are group
functions conveying no sure knowledge about any individual case in the group.
3.Full frequency distribution reveals characteristics of a group. As a third type
of knowledge growing out of the study of the groups, we have the full-frequency distribution
the most characteristics device, perhaps of all statistical work. Perhaps, too the most
inferential characteristics of frequency distribution are shape and spread. Frequency
distributions carry the implication of probability. One implication is as follows. Suppose the
heights of a Grade I pupils are taken and then grouped into a class frequency distribution,
using height as the trait or basis of distributions in groups. Then the suppliers of chairs and
tables for the pupils will be able to know the number of chairs and tables to suit the heights
of the pupils.
Here is another example which enables us to know certain characteristics of a group.

Suppose a test is given to a group of students. Then their scores are grouped into a class
frequency distribution. If the standard deviation, a measure of variability, is computed and
it is unusually large, then we know that the group is heterogeneous. If the standard
deviation is small, the group is more or less homogeneous. If the distribution is graphed and
the curve is bell-shaped, the distribution is normal, that is, there is an equal number of
bright and dull students with the average in the middle. If the curve is skewed to the right,
there are more dull students than bright ones, and if the distribution is skewed to th left
there are more bright students than dull ones.
4.A group itself generates new qualities, characteristics, properties, or aspects

not present in individual cases. For instance, there are many chairs in a room. The chairs
can be arranged in a variety of ways. However, if there is only one chair, there can be no
arrangement in any order. Hence, order and arrangement are group properties and they
represent relationships within a group, properties which can arise only if there are two or
more cases.
Other group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, opposition,
organization, specialization, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of emotions,
etc. which vanish in individual cases.
Two or more categories of generalization may be added at this point.
1. A generalization can also be made about an individual case. For instance, a

high school graduating student is declared valedictorian of his class. We can generalize that,
that student is the brightest in his class. This is a group-derived generalization because it
cannot be made if there is only one student. Here is another example. A teacher declares
that Juan is the best behaved pupil in her class. This is a group-derived generalization
because this statement cannot be made if there is only one pupil. There are many instances
of this kind.
2.In certain cases, predictions on individual cases can be made. It has been
mentioned earlier that, generally, only proportional predictions can be made. However, in
correlation and regression studies, one variable can be predicted from another. Take the
case of the civil engineering graduate taking the licensing examination by the use of
regression equations. The accuracy of prediction is high if (1) there is linearity in the
relationship of the two variables if graphed, (2) the distributions in the two variables are
normal or not badly skewed, and (3) the spread or scatter of the two variables is the same
for each column or row in the correlation table. The process involves a complicated
statistical book especially that of Garrett, pp. 122-146 for linear correlation and pp. 151-165
for regression and prediction.
Graphical Presentation of Data
A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of a variable

itself, or quantitative changes of variable in comparison with those of another variable or
variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form.
The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative,
geographical, or chronological attributes. For instance, if the number of teachers teaching
science in the high schools of Province A is graphed according to their degrees, the graphing
is qualitative; if their number is graphed according to their assignments in the towns where
the high schools are located, the graphing is geographical; and if their number is graphed
according to school year, the graphing is chronological.
Purpose of graphing. The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes,

and relationships of data in a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.
Advantages of the graphic method. (Bacani, et al., pp. 54-55) According to Bacani,
et al. the following are the advantages of the graphical method:
1.It attracts attention more effectively than do tables, and, therefore, is

less likely to be overlooked. Readers may skip tables but pause to look
at charts.
2.The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list of figures in

business reports more meaningful. (Also in thesis reports)
3.It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a

line exerts a more powerful effect in the readers mind than tabulated
data. It shows what is happening and what is likely to take place.
4.Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the

essential facts quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not seen
from the figures themselves is easily discovered from the graph.
Illustrations, including attractive charts and graphs, are now
considered by most businessmen as indispensable accompaniment to
good business reports.
5.Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the

presentation of numerical data.
Limitations of graphs. (Bacani, et al., pp. 55) If there are advantages there are also
disadvantages of the graph. Some of these are:
1. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables.

2. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables.
3.Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare
than tables.
Construction of individual graphs. Stated herein are the principles to be followed in

the construction of individual graphs.
1.The bar graph. The bar graph is often used for the graphic
presentation of data. It is generally used to make comparison of
simple magnitudes very much more clearly and more distinctly
perceptible to the eye. Each bar is drawn to a height or length equal to
the magnitude it represents as indicated in the scale (Y-axis). The bars
are separated from each other by a space equal to one-half the width
of a bar. However, there are no fixed rules that govern the
construction of graphs and the maker may only be guided by

aesthetic, proportional, and symmetrical considerations and for
convenience.
Comparison in bar graphs is linear. It is the length of each bar that determines the
size of a magnitude it represents and the relative position of that magnitude in a series of
like and related magnitudes.
a.The single vertical graph. In the single vertical graph, the bars are
constructed vertically and they portray the magnitudes of the
categories into which data have been classified. See figure 3 as an
example of bar graph. Vertical bars are usually used to depict time
series data.
b.Single horizontal bar graph. In this graph, the bars are constructed
horizontally and are used to compare magnitudes of the different
categories into which the data are classified. The horizontal bar graph
is usually used to compare magnitudes of categories.
Construction of graphs. In constructing graphs, two straight lines are drawn

perpendicular to each other, intersecting at a point called the point of origin and marked 0
(zero).
The horizontal line is called baseline, coordinate, or X-axis. It represents the

variables involved or the classes categories of the variable involved.
The vertical line is called ordinate or Y-axis. It represents the quantities of the
variables involved or the classes or categories of a variable involved. The Y-axis is divided
into unit distances with each unit distance represents 4,2 unit distances represent 8,3 unit
distances represents 12, etc. This is called the scale.
The distance measured to any point parallel to the X-axis from the Y-axis is called
the abscissa of the point and the distance of that point parallel to the Y-axis from the X-axis
is the ordinate of the point. The abscissa and the ordinate of a point are called the
coordinates of the point.
Plotting the graph means locating the meeting point of the abscissa and the ordinate.
Essentials of a graph. The essential parts of a graph are the following:
1.Number. Charts or graphs are also numbered for reference purposes.
The general is to write the number as Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, etc.
at the bottom of the graph.
2.Title. The same price principles hold in graphs as in tables. The title is
usually written above the graph.
3.Scale. The scale indicates the length or height unit that represents a
certain amount of the variable which is the subject of the graph. The
scale enables the reader to interpret the significance of a number of
length or height units. Thus, if a length or height unit is equal to 2,
two lengths or height units equal 4, 3 length or height units equal to
6, etc. The Y-axis represents the scale.
4.Classification and arrangement. The principles of classification and

arrangement are the same in graphs as in tables.
Implications of the Findings
It is the general practice of thesis writers to discuss the summary of the implications
of their findings at the end of Chapter 4 or elsewhere in the thesis. From observations, it
appears that as far as research reporting is concerned, an implication consists of at least
five elements, namely:
1. The existence of a condition. This condition is a finding discovered in the

research. The condition may be favorable or unfavorable. If it is favorable, it
is strength of the subject studied. If it is unfavorable, it is a weakness of the
subject. For instance, in the study of the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A, it is discovered that the majority of the science
teachers are not qualified to teach science. This finding is an unfavorable one
it is a weakness in the teaching of science.
2. The probable cause of the condition. If there is a condition there must be a

cause and there must be a logical relationship between the condition and the
cause, otherwise the cause may not be a valid one. In the example above,
the logical cause of the lack of enough qualified teachers to handle science
subjects is that either the people responsible for recruiting teachers were not
careful enough in the selection of teachers or there are not enough qualified
applicants for the positions of science teachers, or both.
3. The probable effect of the condition. Most likely, there is also a probable
effect of the condition and there must be a logical relationship between the
condition and its probable effect. The logical effect of the lack of enough
qualified teachers to teach science is that, taking all other things equal, the
science teachers in the high schools of Province A are not as effective as when
all the science teachers are fully qualified. It is understandable that a fully
qualified science teacher has more science knowledge and skills to impart to
his students than a non-qualified science teacher. Hence, the students would
suffer adversely.
4. The measure to remedy the unsatisfactory condition or to continue to

strengthen the favorable one. It is a natural reaction to institute a measure to
remedy an unfavorable situation. However, if a condition is found to be
favorable one it is also a natural reaction to continue it in operation and to
even further strengthen it. The logical step to take to remedy the unfavorable
situation is, if it is impractical to ease out the unqualified science teachers, to
enjoin or require them to improve their qualification by taking evening or
summer studies in science, by attending more science seminars, or by
increasing their readings in science especially those being published in science
journals, magazines, and other publications.
5. The entity or area involved or affected. In the example cited above, it is the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A that is affected. Hence,
the topic for discussion must be entitled Implications of the Findings to the
Teaching of Science. Some researchers use the title Implications to
Education which is too broad and vague. The area directly affected by the
unfavorable or favorable conditions discovered in the study should be cited
more specifically.
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Thesis Writing: Research Methodology
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Generally, the research design is explained in this chapter. Among those topics included in the
research design which need to be given some kind of explanations are the following:
Methods of Research
Population, Sample Size, and Sampling Technique
Description of Respondents
Research instrument
Data-Gathering Procedure
Statistical Treatment of Data
Methods of Research
The method of research used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should be

explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study, and some
of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.
Example: Suppose the descriptive method of research was used in the study of the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A. Briefly the discussion follows:
The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Descriptive method of research is a
fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation of the findings. It describes what is.
It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions, practices, situations, or
any phenomena. Since the present study or investigation was concerned with the present status of
the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A, the descriptive method of research was
the most appropriate method to use. (This can be elaborated further)
Population, Sample size and Sampling Technique
The researcher describes how he selected places, products, situations, and respondents. If
regions were used, the different regions of the country are included in his first list. The next
question is: how did the researcher select the sample regions included in the study? Are the
selected regions representative of all the regions that make up the Philippines? If barrios in a
particular province were the focus of the study, how did the researcher select the few barrios
representative of all the barrios? On the other hand, if ethnic groups were used, how did he arrive
at the majority and minority ethnic groups of the particular national survey? The researcher
should describe how he went about selecting the sampled places and sampled products and
respondents in this part of the methodology.
The Sampling Design
Before the collection of data starts in any research project, the proportion of the population to
be used must have been determined already and the computation of the sample must have been
finished. So, what the researcher has to do here is to write about the complete procedure he used
in determining his sample.
Among the things that he should explain are:
a. The size of the population;

b. The study population;
c. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used;
d. The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, cluster sampling or
a combination of two or more techniques;
e. The actual computation of the sample; and
f. The sample
The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He must be able to show
that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used the appropriate
technique of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his sample is not
representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid and reliable.
To be able to discuss and explain very well his sampling procedures, the researcher must
review sampling procedures in Chapter 12. Everything about sampling has been discussed in that
part of the book.
Description of Respondents
The respondents are described as a small group or as a big group. Characteristics may include
sex, age level, socio-economic status, marital status, level of intelligence, education, type of
community (urban or rural, barrio or town), ethnic group, and other characteristics sought by the
researcher to describe his respondents. These characteristics of respondents could be presented in
table form.
Research Instrument
Instrument used for gathering data are described under Research Methodology. The various
aspects of the instruments are mentioned. Items in each instrument are described too. If
validation of the test was made, this is also mentioned. In some studies, several instruments are
used. These could be related following the order of administration. It is desirables that writers
mention how these instruments were used in the study. Could it be that Instrument 1 is intended
to shed light on Hypothesis 1; Instrument 2 on Hypothesis 2; and so forth?
If the instrument is lengthy, this is generally placed in the appendix. Such placement has to be
mentioned in the text and labeled as Appendix A,B, or C, as the case maybe.
This part describes the tools used to measure the variables. In most cases, this means detailing
the survey used. If a researcher developed a survey on his own or modified one which is in the
literature, he needs to include this plus the cover letter in the appendix. If he is using a wellresearched questionnaire, reference it clearly. (Salvador et al.)
Data-Gathering Procedure
The method of collecting data and the development of the instrument for gathering data must
also be explained.
Example: the method of collecting data used was the normative survey. This is concerned with
looking into the commonality of some elements. Since the present research is a status study, the
normative survey was the most appropriate method to use in gathering data.
The instrument used to collect data was the questionnaire. This was used because it gathers
data faster than any other method. Besides, the respondents were teachers and students and so
they are very literate. They could read and answer the questionnaire with ease.
Development of the instrument. After reading and studying samples of questionnaire from
related studies, the researcher prepared his own questionnaire. He also consulted some
knowledgeable people about how to prepare one. The researcher saw to it that there were enough
items to collect data to cover all aspects of the problem and to answer all the specific questions
under the statement of the problem. Then he submitted the questionnaire to his adviser for
correction after which it was finalized.
For validation purposes, the questionnaire was given to ten high school science teachers for
them to fill up. These teachers did not participate in the study. After they have filled up the
copies they were interviewed by the researcher to find out their assessment of the questionnaire.
They were asked if all the items were clear and unequivocal to them; if the number of items were
adequate enough to collect data about all aspects of teaching of science; if the questions were
interesting and not boring; if all the items were objective and not biased except for a few
unavoidable essay questions; if all the items were relevant to the research problem; and if the
questionnaire were not too long. All of them said the items were clear and unequivocal except a
few, relevant, interesting and objective questions, and the length was alright. The few questioned
items were revised for more clarity and definiteness.
The copies of the questionnaire were then distributed personally by the researcher to the
respondents. After a few days, all the copies distributed were retrieved also personally by the
researcher. (The discussion may be extended).
WAYS OF COLLECTING DATA
1. Mechanical devices include almost all tools (such as microscopes, telescopes,

thermometers, rulers and monitors) used in physical sciences.
2. Clerical tools are used when the researcher studies people and gather data on the feeling,
emotions, attitudes and judgment of the subject.
2.1 Questionnaire method

2.2 Interview method
2.3 Empirical observation method
2.4 Registration method
2.5 Testing method
2.6 Experiment method
2.7 Library method
Questionnaire Method. This is a list of planned, written questions, related to a particular topic
with space provided for indicating response to each question intended for submission to a
number of people for a reply. It is commonly used in normative studies and in the measurements
of attitudes and opinions.
Guidelines in the Formulation of Questions in a Questionnaire
1. Make all directions clear and unequivocal.

2. Use correct grammar.
3. Make all questions unequivocal.
4. Avoid asking biased questions.
5. Objectify the responses.
6. Relate all questions to the topic under study.
7. Create categories or classes for approximate answers.
8. Group the questions in local sequence.
9. Create sufficient number of response categories.
10. Word carefully or avoid questions that deal with confidential and embarrassing
information.
11. Explain and illustrate different questions.
12. State all questions affirmatively.
13. Place all space for replies at the left side.
Interview Method. This is a purposeful face-to-face relationship between person, one called
the interviewer who asks questions to gather information and to the other called the interviewee
or the respondent who supplies the information asked for.
This is feasible when a person interact is available. The research interview is a research
method that involves situations or conditions the respondent is in, although it entails difficulty in
tallying as the answers are varied. In other words, the answer is entirely left at the discretion on
the respondent.
In general, respondents do not like to answer open-ended questionnaires for aside from giving
multiple responses, they feel that they are taking an examination. Aside from this, an open-ended
questionnaire gives multiple responses, which makes statistical analysis difficult. (Salvador et
al.)
Statistical Treatment of Data
The last part of this chapter usually describes the statistical treatment of data. The kind of
statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especially the specific problems and
the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypotheses particularly determine the kind of
statistics to be used.
The role of statistics in research. With the advent of the computer age, statistics is now playing
a vital role in research. This is true especially in science and technological research. What
functions do statistics perform in research? Some are the following:
1. Statistical methods help the researcher in making his research design, particularly in
experimental research. Statistical methods are always involved in planning a research project
because in some way statistics directs the researcher how to gather his data.
2. Statistical techniques help the researcher in determining the validity and reliability of his
research instruments. Data gathered with instruments that are not valid and reliable are almost
useless and so the researcher must have to be sure that his instruments are valid and reliable.
Statistics helps him in doing this.
3. Statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically to make the latter appropriate for
study. Unorganized data cannot be studied. No inferences or deductions can be made from
unorganized data. Statistics organized systematically by ordered arrangement, ranking, score
distribution, class frequency distribution or cumulative frequencies. These make the data
appropriate for study.
4. Statistics are used to test the hypotheses. Statistics help the researcher to determine whether
these hypotheses are to be accepted or to be rejected.
5. Statistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data. For Instance, if the standard
deviation of the class frequency of a group is small, we know that the group is more or less
homogeneous but if it is large, the group is more or less heterogeneous.
6. Statistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of significance of vital

statistical measures. These statistical measures are the bases for making inferences,
interpretations, conclusions or generalizations.
Some guidelines in the selection and application of statistical procedures. The researcher must
have at least a rudimentary knowledge of statistics so that he will be able to select and apply the
appropriate statistical methods for his data. Some suggestions for the selection and application of
statistical techniques follows:
1. First of all, the data should be organized using any or all of the following depending upon
what is desired to be known or what is to be computed: talligram (tabulation table), ordered
arrangement of scores, score distribution, class (grouped) frequency distribution, or scattergram.
2. When certain proportions of the population based on certain variables such as age, height,
income, etc. are desired to be known, frequency counts with their frequency percents may be
used. For further analysis, cumulative frequencies (up and down) with their respective
cumulative frequency percents (up and down) may also be utilized.
For example, a specific question is How the high school science teachers of province A may
be described in terms of sex? The males were counted and the females were also counted and
their respective percent equivalents were computed.
3. When the typical, normal, or average is desired to be known, the measures of central
tendency such as the median, the mean or the mode may be computed and used.
4. When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that they cannot be
counted individually such as adequacy, efficiency, excellence, extent, seriousness (of problems),
and the like, the weighted mean may be computed and used if the average is desired to known.
The variable is divided into categories of descending degree of quality and then each degree of
quality is given a weight. For instance, the question is How adequate are the facilities of the
school? Adequacy may be divided into five degrees of quality such as very adequate with a
weight of 5, adequate with a weight of 4, Fairly adequate with a weight of 3, inadequate
with a weight of 2, and very inadequate with a weight of 1. Then the weighted mean is
computed.
5. When the variability of the population is desired to be known, the measures of variability
such as the range, quartile deviation, average deviation or the standard deviation may be
computed and used. When the measure of the variability or dispersion is small, the group is more
or less homogenous but when the measure of variability is large, the group is more or less
heterogeneous.
6. When the relative placements of scores or positions are desired to be known, ranking,
quartile or percentile rank may be computed and used. These measures indicate the relative
positions o scores in an ordered arrangement of the scores.
7. When the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as a group toward a
certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be known but in which there is a neutral
position, the chi-square of equal probability, single group, is computed and interpreted.
8. When the significance of the difference between the reactions, or opinions of two distinct
groups in which there is a neutral position is desired to be known, the chi-square of equal
probability, two-group, is computed and used.
For instance, a group of 50 persons, 25 males and 25 females, were asked to give their
reactions may be Strongly agree, Agree, Undecided or No opinion, Disagree, or
Strongly disagree. If the persons are considered as a group, the chi-square of equal probability,
single group is computed as in No. 7. However, if the significance of the difference between the
reactions of the males and those of the females is to be studied, the chi-square of equal
probability, two- group, is applied as in No. 8.
9. To determine how one variable varies with one another, the coefficient of correlation is
computed, as for instance, how the scores of a group of students in English test. This is also used
to determine the validity of a test by correlating it with a test of known validity. When the
coefficient of correlation between two tests is known and a prediction is to be made as to what
score a student gets in a second test after knowing his score in the first, the so-called regression
equation is to be utilized.
10. If the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two- groups about a certain
situation is to be studied, the computation of the difference between means is to be made.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of
the students about the facilities of the school? To answer this question, the significance of the
difference of two means is to used. The statistical measure computed is called t.
The t is also used to determine the usefulness of a variable to which one group called the
experimental group is exposed and a second group called control group is not exposed. For
instance, the question is: Does guidance improve instructions? Create two matched groups and
expose one group to guidance while the control group is not exposed to guidance. At the end of
the experimental period, give the same test to the two groups. Then compute the t which will
show if guidance is an effective aid to instruction.
11. To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing things to which
different randomized groups are respectively exposed to and only a post test is given to the
different groups, analysis of variance is appropriate to use. For instance, a teacher wants to find
out the relative effectiveness of the following methods of communication: pure lecture, lecturedemonstration, recitation- discussion, and seminar type of instruction in science. Four groups of
students are formed randomly and each assigned to one method. The four groups study the same
lessons and after a certain period given the same test. By analysis of variance, the relative
effectiveness of the four methods will be revealed.
If the four groups are given pre-test and a post-test, the analysis of co-variance is utilized.
12. To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to which they are related,
partial and multiple correlations are suggested to be used. For example, the question is: Which is
most related to the passing of a licensing engineering examination: college achievement grades,
or percentile ranks in aptitude tests, general mental ability test, vocational and professional
interest inventory, or National College
Entrance Examination? The process of partial and multiple correlations will reveal the pure
and sole effect of each of the independent variables upon the dependent variable, the passing of
the licensing examination.
13. To determine the association between two independent variables, the chi-square of
independence or chi-square of multiplication may be used. The question answered by this
statistical process is: Is there an association between education and leadership? Or, the level of
education and the ability to acquire wealth?
Or, between sociability and economic status?
Indeed, there are lots of research situations in which different statistical procedures may or can
be used and if the researcher is not so sure that he is in the right path, he better consult good
statistical books, or acquire the services of a good statistician plus the services of a computer
especially if the statistical procedures are complex ones.
Written by:
Prof. Erwin M. Globio

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Thesis Writing: Review of Related Literature and Studies
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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies
A. Characteristics of the Materials Cited
The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that should be cited:
(Repeated for emphasis)
1. The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid social,
political, scientific, and technological changes. Discoveries in historical and archaeological
research have also changed some historical facts. Researchers in education and psychology are
also making great strides. So, finding fifteen years ago may have little value today unless the
study is a comparative inquiry about the past and the present. Mathematical and statistical
procedures, however, are a little more stable.
2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some materials are extremely one
sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should be avoided.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some military to or bearing
on the problem researched on should be cited.
4. Materials must not too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough to give the
researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The
number may also depend upon the availability of related materials. This is especially a problem
with pioneering studies. Naturally, there are few related materials or even none at all. Ordinarily,
from fifteen to twenty-five may do for a masters thesis and from twenty and above for a doctoral
dissertation, depending upon their availability and depth and length of discussions. The numbers,
however, are only suggestive but not imperative. These are only the usual numbers observed in
theses and dissertations surveyed. For an undergraduate thesis about ten may do.
B. Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies
The following are the ways of citing related literature and studies:
1. By author or writer. In this method the ideas, facts, or principles, although they have the
same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote with their
respective authors or writers.
Examples: According to Enriquez, praise helps much in learning, etc., (Enriquez, 1981)
Maglaque found out that praise is an important factor in learning, etc., (Maglaque, 1984)
2. By topic. In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the same
topic, the topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors or writers. This is a
summary of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long discussions of the same topic.
Example: It has been found out that praise is an important aid in learning of children.
(Enriquez, 1981)
3. Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is, according to the
year they were written. Materials which were written earlier should be cited first before those
which were written later. This can be done especially when citation is by author or writer. If
citation is by topic, chronological citation can be done in the footnote.
C. What to Cite
It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation should be discussed
in this chapter. Generally, such findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or conclusions are
summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.
D. Quoting a Material
A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is controversial and it
is not too long. It is written single spaced with wider margins at the left and right sides of the
paper but without any quotation marks.
Example: Suppose the following is a quotation: Said Enriquez,

Praise is an important factor in childrens learning. It encourages them to study their lessons
harder. Praise, however, should be given appropriately.
Justification of the Study
It should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present inquiry may
only be a replication of another study. It should be stressed also that in spite of similar studies,
the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of studies in other places are also
true in the locale of the present study. There may also be a need to continue with the present
investigation to affirm or negate the findings of other inquiries about the same research problem
or topic so that generalization or principles may be formulated. These generalizations and
principles would be the contributions of the present investigation together with other studies to
the fund of knowledge. This is one of the more important purposes of research: the contribution
that it can give to the fund of knowledge.
Synthesis
It should be emphasized in this area that the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles
or conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation. Generally, such
findings, ideas, generalizations, principles or conclusions are summarized, paraphrased, or
synthesized.
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Thesis Writing: Definition of Terms
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Definition of Terms
Guidelines in defining terms:
1. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study are
defined. For instance, the term non-teaching facilities may be used in the study of the teaching of
science. Non-teaching facilities may be defined as facilities needed by the students and teachers
but are not used to explain the lesson or to make instructions clearer. Examples are toilets or
comfort rooms, electric fans, rest rooms or lounges, and the like. They may also be called noninstructional facilities.
2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is how they are used in the study. For instance, a
study is made about early marriage. What is meant by early marriage? To make the meaning
clear, early marriage may be defined as one in which the contracting parties are both below
eighteen years of age.
3. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term defined.
Thus, a house of light materials may be defined as one with bamboo or small wooden posts, nipa,
buri, or nipa walls; split bamboo floor and cogon or nipa roof. This is also an operational
definition.
4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper articles,
dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his sources. Definitions
taken from published materials are called conceptual or theoretical definitions.
5. Definitions should a\be brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible.
6. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or if it
is used for the first time
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Thesis Writing: Importance or Significance of the Study
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Importance or Significance of the Study
Guidance in explaining the importance of the study. The rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance
of the study to existing conditions must contain explanations or discussions of any or all of the
following:
1. The rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the study. The rationale, timeliness and/or
relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explained or discussed. For instance, a
survey test in science reveals that the performance of the students in the high schools of Province
A is poor. It must be pointed out that it is a strong reason why an investigation of the teaching in
science in the said high schools is necessary. Also, the study is timely and relevant because today,
it is science and technology that are making some nations very highly industrialized and
progressive. So, if science is properly studied and taught and then applied, it can also make the
country highly industrialized and progressive.
2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions. The

poor performance of the students in the high schools of Province A in a survey test in science
should be explained as a problem and an unsatisfactory condition. So if the inquiry is made the
possible causes of the poor performance of the students in the science survey test may be
discovered so that remedial measures may be instituted to solve the problem or the unsatisfactory
situation.
3. Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited. It must be shown who are
the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous position on
account of the study. In the inquiry conducted about the teaching of science, for instance, some
weaknesses of the instructional program may be discovered. This will benefit the administrators
of the high schools in Province A because they can make the findings of the study as a basis of
formulating their supervisory plans for the ensuing year. They may include in their plans some
measures to correct the weaknesses so as to strengthen the instruction. In turn, the students will
also benefit for learning more science. In the long run, the whole country will enjoy the good
results of the study.
4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge. If in the study it is found out that the
inductive method is very effective in the teaching of science, it should be pointed out that this
can be a contribution of the study to the fund of knowledge.
5. Possible implications. It should be discussed here that the implications include the possible
causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and the remedial
measures to solve the problems. Implications also include the good points of a system which
ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.
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Thesis Writing: Scope and Limitation of the Study
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Scope and limitations of the Study
Guidelines in writing the scope and delimitation. The scope and delimitation should include
the following:
1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.
3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data belong.
4. The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be large
enough to make generalizations significant.
5. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the data were
gathered.
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Example: This investigation was conducted to determine the status of the teaching of science
in the high schools of Province A as perceived by the teachers and students in science classes
during the school year 1989-1990. the aspects looked into were the qualifications of teachers,
their methods and strategies, facilities forms of supervisory assistance, problems and proposed
solutions to problems.
General purpose: To determine the status of the teaching of science.
Subject matter: The teaching of science.

Topics (aspects) studied: Qualifications of teachers. Their methods and strategies, facilities,
form of supervisory assistance, problems and proposed solutions to the problems.
Population or universe: teachers and students
Locale of the study: High schools of province A.
Period of the study: School year 1989-1990.
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Thesis Writing: Research Problem and Hypothesis
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Statement of the Problem
There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by the specific questions
or sub problems into which the general problem is broken up. These are already formulated at the
beginning of the study and so they should only be copied in this section. (See the first section of
the Statement of Problem, pp. 28-29, for further guidance in writing the general problem and the
specific questions pp. 29-30.)
Assumptions and Hypotheses
Historical and descriptive investigations do not need explicit hypotheses and assumptions.
Only experimental studies need expressly written assumptions and hypotheses. Since these are
already formulated at the start of the experiment, they are just copied in this section. (See the
sections Assumptions and Hypotheses, pp. 30-3, for further guidance in writing assumptions and
hypotheses).

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Thesis Writing: Conceptual Framework
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Conceptual Framework
From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a theoretical
scheme for his research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical
explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the formulation research
hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framework consists of the investigators own position on a
problem after his exposure to various theories that have bearing on the problem. It is the
researchers new model which has its roots on the previous models which the researcher had
studied. (Sanchez, pp. 14-15)
The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the study.
It serves as a guide in conducting investigation. Briefly stated, the conceptual framework for the
teaching of science can be: The effectiveness of a science instructional program depends upon
the qualifications of the teachers, the effectiveness of their methods and strategies of teaching,
the adequacy of facilities, the adequacy of supervisory assistance, and the elimination of the
problems hampering the progress.
Currently, however, most theses do not have a discussion of their conceptual frameworks. Very
few thesis writers endeavor to include an explanation of their conceptual framework in their
theses.
Paradigm. A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It depicts

in a more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey. Following are examples of
a paradigm for the conceptual framework for the teaching of science as mentioned above. A
paradigm may take different diagrammatic forms.

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Thesis Writing: Tips on how to develop your Theoretical Framework for your Thesis
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Theoretical Framework
This is the foundation of the research study. These are highly related theories and principles
that were established and proven by authorities which are very useful to the present study.
Almost all research studies that were conducted in the past were based on universally accepted
theories and principles.
Theoretical Framework means relating to or having the characteristic of the theory. Theoretical
Framework, therefore, refers to the set of interrelated construct, definitions, and prepositions that
presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables. The
theoretical framework becomes the basic of the research problem. It explains the phenomena
upon which the thesis investigation hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream of knowledge.
Pursuing the linkage between the theory and the problem at hand, the researcher views
theoretical framework as an organized body that explains what has been done and what has been
said on the topic or problem being investigated. Moreover, the body of knowledge establishes
relationships among the variables concerned. The present study is the missing link to the body of
knowledge. Accordingly, if and when the research study is consummated , the gap of missing
link disappears since the study will have closed the gap. The theoretical framework is now more
complete until another researcher discovers another gap, inconsistency, or weakness which will
be the object of another investigation.
WHAT DATA MUST BE OBTAINED FROM A THEORY?
1. The name/s of author/s of the theory must be taken including the place and the time / year
when he or she postulated such a principle or generalization.
2. Next, copy exactly the part or parts of the theory that are relevant to your study. Make sure
you will use a parenthetical reference to recognize the parts copied.
3. Finally, you will have to make a synthesis by relating to your findings what the theory has
to say about the phenomenon being studied. (Salvador et al.)

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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Conclusions are inferences,deductions,abstractions,implications,

Example. If the question raised at the beginning of the research is:

Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on Quantitative Data

1. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or organizations usually present or manipulate figures

2. Incorrect generalization. An incorrect generalization is made when there is a limited body of

For recommending similar researches to be conducted, the recommendation should be: It is

Evaluation of a Thesis or Dissertation

I. The subject and the Problems

1.Is the subject significant, timely and of current issue?

II. The Design of the Study

1.Is the research methodology appropriate?

III. The Data (Findings)

1.Are the data adequate, valid and reliable?

IV. Conclusions (Generalizations)

1.Are the conclusions based upon the findings?

1.Are the recommendations based upon the findings and conclusions?

Prof. Erwin M. Globio, MSIT

Thesis and Dissertation Consultancy

Check the Thesis Tutorial Videos here --> Thesis/Dissertation Videos

Posted 11th February 2013 by Prof. Erwin Globio

Thesis and Dissertation Guidelines

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SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Guidelines in writing the summary of findings. The following should be the

1. Conclusions are inferences,deductions,abstractions,implications,

Example. If the question raised at the beginning of the research is:

Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on Quantitative Data

1. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or organizations usually present or manipulate

2. Incorrect generalization. An incorrect generalization is made when there is a limited body of

real causes of the increases in prices of commodities, an intensive

For recommending similar researches to be conducted, the recommendation should be: It

Evaluation of a Thesis or Dissertation

Generally, a thesis or dissertation has to be defended before a panel of examiners and

I. The subject and the Problems

1.Is the subject significant, timely and of current issue?

II. The Design of the Study

1.Is the research methodology appropriate?

III. The Data (Findings)

1.Are the data adequate, valid and reliable?

2.Are they analyzed carefully and correctly treated statistically?

IV. Conclusions (Generalizations)

1.Are the conclusions based upon the findings?

1.Are the recommendations based upon the findings and conclusions?

Prof. Erwin M. Globio, MSIT

Thesis and Dissertation Consultancy

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Thesis Writing: Analyses, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data

Check the Thesis Tutorial Videos here --> Thesis/Dissertation Videos

ANALYSES, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

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1.Educational qualifications of the science teachers

1.Degrees earned in pre-service education

Number of years in science teaching

Then under degrees earned are

Classification of data. Classification is grouping together data with similar