Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 275 (2014) 3450

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

jo u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w.e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / j v o l g e o r e s

Contribution of multi-method geophysics to the understanding of

a high-temperature geothermal province: The Bouillante
area (Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles)
Lydie-Sarah Gailler a,b,, Vincent Bouchot a, Guillaume Martelet a, Isabelle Thinon a, Nicolas Coppo a,
Jean-Michel Baltassat a, Bernard Bourgeois a
a
b

BRGM, 3 Avenue Claude Guillemin, 45060 Orlans Cedex 02, France

Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, 5 rue Kessler, 63038 Clermont-Ferrand, France

a r t i c l e

in f o

Article history:
Received 17 June 2013
Accepted 4 February 2014
Available online 15 February
2014
Keywords:
Guadeloupe
Geothermal eld
Gravity
Magnetic and resistivity data
Modeling
Internal structure
Volcano-tectonic control

a b s t r a c t
The Bouillante high-temperature geothermal eld (Guadeloupe, French Lesser Antilles) is located on the
west coast of Basse-Terre Island, about 15 km from the currently active Soufrire volcano. We have studied
the shallow structure of the geothermal zone using a compilation of all available gravity, magnetic and
resistivity data, both subaerial and marine, acquired during the last 30 years. Geophysical models have
been developed based on geological constraints and previous geophysical interpretations. The resistivity
distribution from electromagnetic surveys is interpreted in terms of water saturation of rocks,
hydrothermal alteration and presence of hydrated minerals. Gravity is used to distinguish and
characterize the denser formations from the low density areas. Finally, we are able to differentiate
structures which preand post-date various recent magnetic inversions using the polarity of the magnetic
anomalies. By integrating these results the previous conceptual model for the geothermal province has
been improved, with the layering of the geological formations as dened by geophysical parameters now
being taken into account, in agreement with the classical scheme of geothermal reservoirs. The shallow
resistive layer is explained in terms of recent massive formations. The conductive intermediate layer marks
the low density, demagnetized clay cover of the altered geothermal system. The deep resistive layer is
associated with dense formations increasing in age with depth, and corresponds to the deep geothermal
reservoir. Based on our geophysical data, the geothermal activity could be more developed towards the
east and north compared to the previously proposed area. A volcano-structural control seems to affect the
internal structure of the province, and consequently the development of geothermal activity. This current
work could be used as a basis for future surveys of the Bouillante province in order to improve
constraints, and to increase our knowledge of the island's overall evolution.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
This study focuses on the high-temperature geothermal eld of
the Bouillante Geothermal Province (BGP; Fig. 1) located on the
west coast of Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe Island, Lesser Antilles). This
province, extending from Pointe Mahaut in the north, to Marigot in
the south, has already been dened as a regional key geodynamic
area at the junction of the major tectonic and volcanic structures of
the inner arc of the Lesser Antilles (Bouysse et al., 1988; Feuillet,
2000; Feuillet et al., 2001, 2002; Thinon et al., 2010). The
geothermal eld, which was rst

* Corresponding author at: Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, 5 rue Kessler, 63038

Clermont-Ferrand, France.
E-mail address: lydiegailler@hotmail.fr (L.-S. Gailler).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.02.002

explored in the 1970s, was developed in the 1980s, going into

production in 1986, and was subsequently expanded in 2005 to a
current production of up to 15 MWe, which provides 7% of the
island's electricity (Sanjuan and Traineau, 2008). As a result, a large
variety of data has been acquired for this particular area, which is an
outstanding natural research laboratory for improving our knowledge of high temperature
(250260 C) geothermal systems in island-arc environments.
However, the geology of the island is difcult to map because of the
rugged topography and the abundant tropical vegetation. Geophysical methods
are very useful, if not essential, in deciphering the geological
structures. Numerous geophysical investigations, both onshore and
offshore, have been carried out over the last 40 years in order to
interpret the structure of the Bouillante geothermal eld. In this
work, we use previously acquired gravity, magnetic (mainly on land,
but also offshore when appropriate), and resistivity data, providing
various types of information over

0377-0273/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

L.-S. Gailler et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 275 (2014) 34
50

35

Fig. 1. a) Location of Guadeloupe Archipelago in the Lesser Antilles Arc, and position of the main regional faults (MB: MontserratBouillante fault, MG: Marie Galante graben); b)
Shaded relief map of Bouillante Geothermal Province (BGP; outlined in red in a). The study area is outlined in black, showing the general geology, the structural system (inferred
or known; MB: MontserratBouillante fault, BC: BouillanteCapesterre fault; Calcagno et al., 2012; Thinon et al., 2010) and the main places discussed in text. Coordinates in
meters (WGS84, UTM 20N).

a large area of the BGP (Fig. 1b). Gravity surveying is often a

powerful tool for identifying the structural settings of volcanic systems
and related geothermal elds because faults commonly juxtapose rock
types of different densities. In terms of magnetic data, volcanic
rocks generally exhibit a strong magnetization, with the dominant
component usually being
the thermoremanent one. Since Guadeloupe volcanism, specically
the BGP formations, spans the BrunhesMatuyama geomagnetic
reversal (0.78 Ma), analysis of the magnetic anomalies allows the
areas predominantly composed of formations which are younger or older than this
reversal to be identied. We have also compiled the available
resistivity data for the BGP. The resistivity of the volcanic rocks
varies by several orders of magnitude, depending mainly on their
uid-saturation, the presence of hydrothermal minerals and the
temperature (e.g., see Kauahikaua, 1993 or Lnat, 1995). The
analysis of electric and magnetotelluric data would therefore help to
delineate conductive hydrothermally altered zones beneath the
Bouillante area, and also to identify the existence of associated
reservoirs. Diverse types of modeling approaches were used to
constrain the geometry of the underlying formations in Bouillante
area and their structural pattern. The individual results obtained
from the different geophysical models were then integrated and
are discussed below to derive a general scheme of the internal
structure of this particular zone within the broader Guadeloupe
environment.
This paper is organized into four main sections. Firstly we
summarize the geological and structural setting of the study area.
The second section deals with the compilation and processing of

the various

36

L.-S. Gailler et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 275 (2014) 34

geophysical datasets, followed by 50

a third section on rst order
qualitative interpretation. The last section focuses on the
geophysical modeling approach used to provide a quantitative
interpretation of the geophysical structure of the BGP.
2. Geological and structural setting
2.1. Regional setting
The Lesser Antilles arc is an 850-km long archipelago resulting
from the southwesterly subduction of the Atlantic Ocean plate
1
beneath the Caribbean plate, at a rate of around 2 cmyr
(Bouysse, 1979; Deng and Sykes, 1995; Dixon et al., 1998;
DeMets et al., 2000). The Antilles arc, convex towards the east,
extends from latitude 12N to 18N. It is composed of 20 islands,
including the French Lesser Antilles. North of Martinique, the
Lesser Antilles diverge into two distinct arcs; the outer and the
inner northern arcs (Fig. 1a). The Guadeloupe archipelago is
situated in both arcs. It is composed of the Grande-Terre, La
Dsirade, Petite-Terre and Marie-Galante islands to the east,
which belong to the Limestone Caribbees from the early preMiocene outer arc, while to the west it consists of Basse-Terre and
Les Saintes islands, which belong to the recent western volcanic
arc. Basse-Terre consists of ve eruptive complexes that were
emplaced from north to south
along a N160E direction, at different periods over the past 46 Ma
(Westercamp and Tazieff, 1980; Boudon, 1987; Samper et al.,
2007), culminating in the recent activity at Soufrire volcano. The
distribution

of the edices of this area is governed by a major regional tectonic

lineament, the MontserratBouillante fault, which trends NNW
SSE (Fig. 1a; Feuillet et al., 2001).
2.2. Local setting

Patrier et al., 2013). This timing also excludes the La Soufrire

volcanism (younger than 200 ka) as an origin for the heat related to
the geothermal activity.
3. Geophysical data: compilation and processing

In this study we focus on the Bouillante Geothermal Province

(BGP), on the west coast of Basse-Terre Island (Fig. 1b), within the
Axial Chain complex (2.50.6 Ma; Samper et al., 2007) and the
Bouillante Volcanic Chain (1.20.2 Ma; Gadalia et al., 1988; Boudon
et al., 1990; Tulinius et al., 2000). The BGP is located at the western
end of a WNWESE
volcano-tectonic depression belonging to the Marie-Galante graben
system, which is strongly affected by the WNWESE to NWSE
BouillanteCapesterre regional fault, visible immediately to the
north of Bouillante (Fig. 1b). This extensive structure is bounded
offshore to the west of Basse-Terre by the major NNWSSE
striking fault linking
the normal-sinistral MontserratBouillante system to the north
with
the Les Saintes system to the south (Calcagno et al., 2012; Thinon
et al., 2010).
The substratum is dominantly andesitic and partly volcanodetrital, covered by the recent volcanic centers of the tholeitic
Bouillante Chain Complex (Gadalia et al., 1988). It forms a NNW
SSE alignment about
20 km by 4 km, following the offshore N160E striking fault of the
MontserratBouillante system (Thinon et al., 2010). The Bouillante
eld is dissected by a network of high-angle normal faults striking
N90E to
N120E (Calcagno et al., 2012), including the main southwarddipping BouillanteCapesterre(Marsolle) fault (Fig. 1b). These
faults were developed in response to a regional NNESSW-trending
extension (Feuillet et al., 2001). NESW oriented faults are also
shown to affect the other groups of faults in the offshore area. The
Bouillante geothermal eld is located in a mini-graben within this larger-scale
complex structural network. This graben is made up of successive
piano key EW antithetic faults, which correspond to horsetail
faults located at the end of the BouillanteCapesterre
(Marsolle) regional fault
(Calcagno et al., 2012). Their subvertical dip favors both tensional
opening, through NNESSW extension, and circulation of
geothermal uids (Bouchot et al., 2010). According to Bouysse et
al. (1988) and Polyak
et al. (1992), the development of the geothermal eld is associated
with volcanic episodes along the Bouillante Chain. Moreover, the
NS
alignment of the geothermal expressions at the surface (especially
hot water sources on land and off-shore, heated ground and
sparse fumaroles) within the Bouillante volcanic chain could
reect uid leakage from a deeper high-temperature geothermal
reservoir (Sanjuan et al., 2001). In addition, the Bouillante Chain
Complex is about 500 ka in age, whereas the earliest known
geothermal manifestation (hydrothermal eruption) is dated at
about 250 50 ka (Verati et al., 2011, 2013;

Since the 1970s, a substantial amount of work has been carried

out on the Guadeloupe islands (Coron et al., 1975; LeBorgne and
LeMoul, 1976; LeMoul et al., 1979; BRGM, 1984; Gunawan,
2005; Calcagno
et al., 2012; Mathieu, 2010; Kopp et al., 2011; Mathieu et al., 2011;
Matthieu et al., 2011; Verati et al., 2011, 2013) with particular focus
on the BGP. In this tropical environment, the acquisition of
geophysical measurements on land is limited by the difculty of
access of many zones, resulting in heterogeneous data coverage of
the island. The submarine domain of the overall Lesser Antilles Arc
has also been intensively investigated (Boynton et al., 1979; Deplus
et al., 2001; Guennoc et al., 2001; Truffert et al., 2004; Thinon et al.,
2010; Kopp et al., 2011; Gailler et al., 2013), and seismic data has
provided important information about the deep regional structure of
the Lesser Antilles Arc. However, in this study we focus solely on
the BGP, and do not discuss these regional geophysical datasets
(see Gailler et al., 2013). We describe below the various datasets
used in this study (electrical resistivity, gravity and magnetism), their
compilation and processing.
3.1. Electrical resistivity studies
Several resistivity surveys have been carried out on Basse-Terre
over the last 30 years (French Geological Survey, BRGM; Institut de
Physique du Globe de Paris, IPGP; Eurafrep) for hydrogeological and
structural purposes, but mainly for geothermal prospecting of the BGP
(Fig. 2a; Table 1). Much of this old data has been used, such as the
controlled source method (MELOS method) acquired in 1973,
electrical soundings (1983), audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) and
magnetotelluric (MT) soundings
(1981 and 1983). More recently, a resistivity survey using a dipole
dipole
electrode array was carried out in 2004 in the Bouillante area by the
BRGM (Sanjuan et al., 2005) along a NS prole close to the coast.
3.1.1. The MTAMT data (Fig. 2a)
We have used two MT datasets, one acquired in 1973 (33
stations; EURAFREP, 1973), the other in 1981 (28 stations; Fabriol
and Petiau, 1985), and 131 AMT data acquired in 1983 (Barthes
and Benderriter, 1983). In addition we have used 10 electrical
soundings (direct current) acquired in 1983 (Barthes and
Benderriter, 1983). These latter data were important for correcting
the MT and AMT soundings for static shift effects, as explained
below. Unfortunately, the MT data (1983) were only available on
graphs in previously published reports or

Table 1
Synthesis of the electrical resistivity data available at the scale of Bouillante Geothermal Province and compiled in this study.
Data

Number of
soundings
or covered
area
MELOS
1.8 x 2.5 km
(1973)
around Bouillante
area
MT 5EX (1973) 33 stations

Original data

Isocontours of apparent resistivity

Original data set

quality
Digitizing
precision
Average quality Low
depth of
investigation

AMT (1981)

130 stations

Dipoledipole
(1983)
MT electrical
soundings
(1984)

236 stations

Paper tables of coordinates and

resistivity values
Paper tables of coordinates and
resistivity values
No numerical values

28 MT stations
10 electrical
soundings

No numerical values: sounding location Good quality High

from map and resistivity values from
data density
graphs

Resistivity

43 electrodes Prol

Numerical data

Digitizing precision

References

Better than 2 m in X Y
Dependant
of the interpolation for the

EURAFREP (1973) report Beicip

n30692

resistivity
No digitizing

Good quality Relief

No digitizing
effect
Not discussed in this paper

Very good quality

Better than 2 m in X Y
Better than 0.1 s fo r the period
Better than 0.2 ohm m for the
resistivity
No digitizing

Barthes and Benderitter (1983) report BRGM 83 SGN 716GTH

Bourgeois et al. (1983) report
BRGM 83GPH097
Fabriol and Petiau (1985) report
BRGM-AFME-IMRG, 85 SGN 331
IRG/GTH.
Sanjuan et al. (2005); Baltassat

array (2004)

length on map :
7800 m

and Bourgeois (2008) report

RP-56195-FR

Fig. 2. a) Distribution of the resistivity and magnetotelluric data available for the Bouillante Geothermal Province and compiled in this study. b) Interpolation of the MELOS data
(1973, 70 Hz) available as an isocontour resistivity map (ohmm), and superimposition of recent geologic data (faults, breccias, massive lava ows). The electrodes of the electrode
array (2004) are shown. The white line marks out the extent of the top of the cap rock inferred from the MELOS conductive contrast combined with the shallow conductive layer
imaged by the dipole dipole (Fig. 6). Coordinates in meters (WGS84 UTM 20N).

articles. These latter data have been digitized and we have

reconstructed a numerical MT dataset with a precision of more than
0.1 s for the period and more than 0.2 m for the resistivity values.
The digitalization of the coordinates of these soundings has been
estimated as being better

than 3 m in both directions. Although we faced various problems

related to missing acquisition parameters, we partially reconstructed
MT tensors to provide a qualitative interpretation of the resistivity
distribution at depth. The nal quality of the datasets is thus variable.
The 236 data

from the large dipoledipole acquired by the BRGM in 1983

(Bourgeois et al., 1983; red stations in Fig. 2a) will not be discussed
in this study, but will be the focus of a companion paper.
The data were then converted into EDI les and processed using
WinGLink Version 2.6.02 (Geosystem). In addition to processing
and modeling options, this software also acts as a geo-referenced
database for all geophysical measurements. When multiple sets of
data were available for sounding (i.e. HF and LF for AMT and MT
data), the data combination was also performed by this software.
Each sounding was inspected initially, and outliers masked. We
used smoothing functions specic to MT data, based either on the
phase (Sutarno) alone, or on both the phase and apparent resistivity
(function D+). This processing resulted in apparent resistivity
curves and smooth phases. A shift in the apparent resistivity curves
sometimes appears with local resistivity heterogeneities. Where data
are available from DC electrical soundings on the same sites, or
close to the AMT or MT soundings, these effects can be detected
and corrected by translation of the apparent resistivity curves. This
phenomenon was examined and adjusted when necessary for each
station either on the database or by minimizing sudden and
unjustied variations of shallow resistivity between close
soundings.
Artifacts related to the sea, topography and metal drilling can be
important and hide and/or disrupt the resistivity structure in such
an

environment. A recent detailed study on the validity of the

resistivity array from 2004 (Bourgeois and Debeglia, 2008) shows
that such artifacts do not affect the main deep conductive structures.
Additionally, we have studied the various parameters in 3D, mainly
sea and topography, which may affect AMT/MT measurements at
the surface (BRGM report; Gailler et al., 2011). Different types of
models were tested and the results show a signicant topographic
inuence and a pronounced effect of the sea at low frequencies.
Extending the model boundaries (on and offshore) does not seem to
inuence the results. In our case, however, even if we are able to
analyze and quantify these parameters, they could not be corrected
for because of the scalar conguration of the soundings.

3.1.2. The MELOS map (EURAFREP, 1973)

The MELOS method (Fig. 2b) is an induced electromagnetic
approach for which a metallic loop under tension produces an
electromagnetic eld. The measurement of this eld at several stations
allows the apparent resistivity to be calculated. The MELOS data from
1973 are only available as an iso-resistivity contour map (70 Hz). This
map has been digitized and interpolated using the minimum curvature
method (Surfer; Golden software) with a grid cell size of 25 m. The
depth of investigation (100 to 400
m) has been calculated according to the Bostick (1977) formula which

Fig. 3. a) Bouguer anomaly map computed for a density correction of 2.2 10 kg m ; the distribution of data location is shown with black crosses; b) Regional anomaly
obtained with a 500 m upward continuation; c) Residual gravity map obtained by subtracting the regional anomaly from the observed one; this residual anomaly is built to
extract the short-wavelength signal; the main geological features are shown. The MontserratBouillante fault is represented in red (faulting system from Calcagno et al., 2012
and Thinon et al., 2010). BC: Bouillante Capesterre fault. The areas unconstrained by the gravity data are blanked; d) Location of the main anomalies discussed in text.
Coordinates in meters, (WGS84 UTM 20N).

describes the attenuation of the electromagnetic wave propagation

depending on the formations encountered at depth.
3.1.3. The dipoledipole prole (2004)
This prole consists of 43 measurement electrodes with a 200 m
curvilinear spacing, over a total length of 7800 m (Fig. 2a) . The
acquisition combined 200 and 400 m electric dipoles, resulting in a
high resolution resistivity prole of the seven hundred meters
directly beneath the Bouillante area. The conguration was chosen
to partially overlap the geothermal exploitation boreholes to the
south (Fig. 2a) in order to constrain our interpretations. An additional
study was performed in 2008 to evaluate the artifacts related to the
proximity of the sea, the topography and the effects of drill hole
metal casings (Bourgeois and Debeglia, 2008). This additional
study conrmed that all these artifacts could be ignored on a 2D
interpretation. Therefore, the resistivity slice derived from a
standard 2D inversion (Sanjuan et al., 2005) provides a highly
detailed image of the top seven hundred meters of the Bouillante
eld structure.
3.2. Gravity data
3.2.1. Data compilation
Several on-land gravity surveys have been carried out since the
1980s on the Guadeloupe islands (BRGM; IPGP; Bureau
Gravimtrique International, BGI; Fig. 3a). The rst surveys were
carried out by Masson
and Smith in 1965, and supplemented in 19751976 by Coron et
al.
(1975) with a Worden gravimeter. They covered the BGP and
integrated the whole geothermal area. A more detailed survey was
performed in 1984 by the BRGM, focused on the western part of
Basse-Terre along a 3 by 5 km coastal area. More recently, a gravity
survey was performed in 2001 with a Scintrex CG3M on the La
Soufrire volcano (Gunawan, 2005) to look in more detail at the
active edice, and covering the southern end of the BGP. The
gravity coverage is heterogeneous, as shown in Fig. 3a, with 208
stations spaced on average between 200 m to 500 m, with a lack of
data along the topographic highs. In order to improve constraints on
the signal in the areas of interest, we have also included the data
available from the microgravimetric network from March 2009
(Matthieu et al., 2011; 37 stations; Fig. 3a),which was rst
measured in 2005 (Debeglia et al., 2007). Since it was impossible to
directly attach the data to absolute bases, the latter were qualitatively
attached to the previously described gravity dataset. We did not use
any marine data since the closest proles (Aguadomar surveycarried
out in 1998; Deplus et al., 2001) are located too far from the coast.
3.2.2. Data reduction and map construction
The gravity data were processed using standard procedures (tidal
variations and instrumental drift, free air gradient, Bouguer slab and
terrain corrections). The 1980 International Gravity Formula was
used to determine the theoretical gravity at each station located on
the Earth's spheroid. The Bouguer slab correction was computed
using the Earth's curvature (Lafehr, 1991). Terrain corrections were
calculated using Oasis montaj software from Geosoft. A far zone
correction was computed using a coarse regional 250 m cell size
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) whereas the near zone correction
was computed using a more detailed local one with a mesh size of
2
50 m. The near zone is a 25 km square, centered on the station, and
the far zone extends to 167 km from the station. Due to the marked
topography of the island, terrain effects are signicant over BasseTerre. An optimal reduction density was sought by analyzing the
correlation between the Bouguer anomaly and the topography
(Nettleton, 1939) along several proles crossing the island. While a
3
3
higher density (2.67 10 kgm ) is more suited to the
overall island (Gailler et al., 2013), we used a reduction density of
3
3
2.2 10 kgm , which is the best compromise on the scale of
the

BGP. The resulting Bouguer anomaly map has been interpolated onto
a regular 300 m cell-size grid (Fig. 3a). In order to focus on the local
subsurface structures, a long wavelength regional component (estimated
by

continuing the original map upwards to an altitude of 500 m; Fig.

3b) has been removed to compute the residual Bouguer anomaly
(Fig. 3c).
3.3. Magnetic data
3.3.1. Aeromagnetic data
An aeromagnetic survey (LeBorgne and LeMoul, 1976) of the
whole archipelago was carried out in 1975 using a proton
magnetometer, at an altitude of 500 m above sea level over
Grande-Terre and 1800 m over Basse-Terre (LeMoul et al., 1979;
Fig. 4a). The two panels overlap along a band of 10 km covering
the emerged relief and extending 10 to 30 km beyond the coast (Fig.
4a). The precision of the corrected magnetic
eld was estimated at close to 45 nT (LeBorgne and LeMoul,
1976).
For our study, we use six of the EW lines to constrain our study
area. The EW ight lines are spaced 10 km apart, with a distance
of about 80 m between successive measurements and an
uncertainty on the
horizontal coordinates of about 100 m (LeBorgne and LeMoul,
1976).
3.3.2. Ground and offshore magnetic data
Data from an on land magnetic survey carried out in 2004
(Truffert et al., 2004) are also available for the BGP area (425 data
measurements from a Geometrics G856 magnetometer; Fig. 4c). A
detailed NS prole
was measured at a distance of about 500 to 1000 m from the coast.
The other stations were measured according to accessibility,
avoiding the urbanized or industrial areas which generate
magnetic disturbances. In the same way as for the gravity data, the
distribution of stations is heterogeneous because of rough
topography. To supplement this dataset, we have also compiled
the data from the Geoberyx03 survey (Truffert et al., 2004)
acquired in 2003 on board the vessel Beryx, during which 325 km
of combined magnetic proles and seismic reections, and 125
km of high-resolution magnetic measurements off-shore of
Bouillante were acquired Fig. 4c. Here we will only use the
magnetic offshore data in close proximity to the geothermal eld.
3.3.3. Data reduction and map construction
We reduced all the data using standard procedures, including
correction of the distance between the magnetometer and the ship
or the aircraft. The initial marine data were acquired at a rate of
1/10 s and were then decimated to 30 s in order to reduce the
noise related to the navigation conditions and in order to
homogenize the data sampling. An intersection adjustment was
performed at prole crossings before applying the standard
corrections. The on land magnetic measurements were corrected
for diurnal variations (Truffert et al., 2004). The difference at
crossing points was estimated to be generally less than 30 nT,
using repeated measurements at some stations. The IGRF
(International Geomagnetism Reference Field) reduction was also
performed, providing the magnetic anomalies for each acquisition
period and data location. In addition, because of the inclination of
the magnetic eld at the latitude of Guadeloupe, the anomaly
induced by a normally or reversely magnetized body will have a
strongly dipolar appearance. Therefore, reduced-to-the-pole (RTP)
anomalies were then calculated using geocentric axial dipole
values for the inclination and declination (i.e. I = 29.7 and D =
0).
Two different magnetic maps provide complementary
information based on their compilation altitude and resolution.
The rst one integrates the aeromagnetic data for which the
anomaly map has been merged at an altitude of 1800 m (i.e. the
acquisition altitude) with a mesh size of 280 m (Fig. 4a). The
aeromagnetic anomaly map is just used to study the long
wavelength structures from a qualitative point of view. The second
map was compiled using both ground and offshore data (acquired
at surface and sea level elevation respectively) with a mesh size of

50 m (Fig. 4c). This second map extends about 4 km to the west

along the coastal shelf and provides more detailed and
shallower information of the geothermal eld. In order to
emphasize the shallow anomalies caused by the volcanic
constructions related to volcanism, we have also calculated the
vertical gradient of the RTP

40

L.-S. Gailler et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 275 (2014) 34
50

Fig. 4. a) RTP aeromagnetic anomaly map of Bouillante Geothermal Province compiled at the altitude of acquisition (1800 m). The distribution of data location is shown with black
crosses;
b) Location of the main aeromagnetic anomalies; c) RTP magnetic anomaly map of Bouillante Geothermal Province. The distribution of data location is shown with black crosses;
d) Vertical gradient of the residual RTP map presented in (c); e) Location of the main magnetic anomalies observed onand offshore. Faulting system (observed or inferred) from
Calcagno et al., 2012 and Thinon et al., 2010; Isobaths 100, 0 and 100 m are shown. The main magnetic axes are shown with thick black lines. Coordinates in m (WGS84, UTM
20N).

map (Fig. 4d). This magnetic derivative enhances the short

wavelength component of the eld and helps to resolve closely
spaced or superimposed anomalies. The vertical gradient anomalies
are more focused on their causative bodies and can be used to
localize magnetic contacts and the extent of their sources.

4. Qualitative interpretation
Firstly, the qualitative interpretation of this newly compiled
geophysical dataset was performed on the residual Bouguer and
RTP magnetic anomaly maps. Secondly, a comparison was carried
out between

the high resolution dipoledipole (2004, Sanjuan et al., 2005) and

the MELOS, gravity and magnetic geophysical signals.
4.1. The Bouguer anomaly map
The rst interpretation of Guadeloupe gravity data was made by
Coron et al. (1975), and a more detailed one was done by the
BRGM in 1984 on the scale of the geothermal province. The very
short wavelength anomalies observed are due to the heterogeneous
distribution of the gravity data and also their variable quality. Thus
they may be considered as artifacts or noise in the measurements,
and are not discussed further. However, the superimposition of the
main geological features (inferred or observed faults, distribution of
the volcanic edices and hyaloclastite formations; Fig. 3c) on the
newly compiled gravity map (Fig. 3c) helps gain more insight into
previous interpretations. Qualitatively, we observe three main longwavelength positive anomalies (Fig. 3d). In the north, there is a
strong correlation with the dacitic domes of les Mamelles (anomaly
A), associated with the volcanism of the Septentrional Chain. The
geothermal eld is also associated with a positive anomaly which
could be attributed to the volcanism of the Bouillante Chain
(anomaly B). This anomaly extends from Pointe Lzard in the
west to Beaugendre valley in the east, and is limited
to the NE by the BouillanteCapesterre fault. To the SSE, a longwavelength positive anomaly could be associated with the
volcanism of the Axial Chain (anomaly C). Conversely, we note
two main longwavelength negative anomalies. The coast is marked
with a disrupted
negative NS anomaly with a lateral extent of about 1 km
(anomaly
D). Hyaloclastites have been identied in several places within this
area (Fig. 3c), and since their density is generally lower than that of
massive lava ows (Moore, 2001), it would cause a negative gravity
pattern. As previously suggested by BRGM (1984), the presence of
several EW faults superimposed on the hyaloclastites could
reinforce the negative signal. Beaugendre Valley is also associated
with a strong negative
anomaly (anomaly E). The close correlation between this anomaly
and the topography suggests an incorrect choice of density
correction. However, this feature persists for all tested densities (i.e.
from 1.6 to 3.2
3
3
10 kgm ), implying that the anomaly cannot be interpreted
simply in terms of shallow density variations. Based on the topography,
there might be a wide, subvertical fault (BRGM, 1984). There is a
similar negative anomaly to the south of Vieux Habitants Valley
(anomaly F), which is also associated with a large fault. We
measured the density of altered lava ows in this area, and they
showed a lower density than expected for the surrounding lava ows
(Supplementary data A). In addition, this is an alluvial plain,
associated with detritic deposits, which could also reinforce the
negative signal. Modeling of the gravity data will be carried out in
Section 5.2 in order to interpret the various anomalies outlined
above.
4.2. The RTP magnetic anomaly maps
4.2.1. The aeromagnetic anomaly map
The rst interpretations of the aeromagnetic anomaly map
(LeMoul et al., 1979) highlighted some regional tectonic
discontinuities, and the relationship between the main onshore and
offshore tectonic features.
We found only three axes within the BGP: two of them oriented
NNE
SSW, delimiting the BGP to the north and south, whereas the third
one follows the same orientation as the MB fault at La Soufrire.
However, due to the low resolution of the aeromagnetic survey
compiled at an altitude of 1800 m and the large spacing between
the ight lines (2.5 km), we only used the resulting long

wavelength anomaly map for large-scale interpretation of deeper

structures (Fig. 4a). Four main anomalies can be identied (Fig. 4b).
The northern (anomaly A) and southern (anomaly B) areas of this
map, the coast and the offshore environment (anomalies C and D,
respectively) are closely associated to long wavelength negative
signals. On the other hand, the eastern area of Bouillante is
associated with a high amplitude positive anomaly

about 6 6 km, extending to the north-east (Mamelles Domes)

and the south-east (anomaly E).
4.2.2. The ground-offshore magnetic anomaly map
On land, because of the heterogeneous distribution of the
data (Fig. 4c), magnetic patterns appear less continuous than
offshore, where high density data has been acquired. On this scale
the RTP magnetic signals (Fig. 4c) could be interpreted as magnetic
lineaments in terms of preferential alignment of rock magnetization.
They are dened as elongate anomalies or, alternatively, as faults
which cut the main magnetic orientation. These axes have been
identied on the vertical gradient map (Fig. 4d and eby the
dipolar appearances of the anomalies which persist after the RTP
transformation. On land, the vertical gradient shows an alternation
from north to south of positive and negative magnetic anomalies cut
by N90E to N130E magnetic axis (Fig. 4e). These axes could
correspond to a horst and graben structure in the magnetic
basement, but could equally be interpreted as alignments of
intrusions at depth (from 0 to 200 m depth according to the Euler
deconvolution of the vertical gradient, not presented here). Along the
coastal shelf, the main positive anomaly is marked by a progressive
change in the orientation. The anomaly rotates slightly from EW in
the north (anomaly A1), to NS in the south (anomaly A3). This
observation correlates with the coastal shelf morphology which is
more laterally developed to the north (about 3 km), decreasing to
about 2 km width in the south.
In Bouillante Bay, the positive anomaly which is oriented N40
N60E (anomaly A2; Fig. 4c) includes a volcanic relief which also
appears in the seismic prole (Thinon et al., 2010). This axis
coincides
with a NESW rupture in the continuation of the indurate area
recognized on land near Pointe Marsolle and is connected to the main
MB fault. A slight attenuation of the magnetic effects can be
identied closer to the coast along the bay (anomaly B). This
attenuation does not correspond to a deepening of the bathymetry
and does not appear in the morphology of the seismic basement
(Thinon et al., 2010). In addition, we have estimated the depth of
possible causative sources by the Euler method, which indicates
relatively shallow sources in this area. Thus this feature is not
linked to a deepening of the magnetic sources, but more probably
to a reduction in magnetization in this area. The hydrothermal
alteration or high temperatures could contribute to this
phenomenon, and explain the observed magnetic contrasts. In
this case, the NESW magnetic axis dened by the negative
anomaly could delimit the offshore extent of the geothermal eld,
as also suggested by the conductive NESW-elongated anomaly
shown by the MELOS method (Fig. 2b). Offshore, to the west of
the study area, the main positive anomaly is oriented N10E (anomaly C). Accordingly, the MB
fault marks a break within the main positive anomaly found to the
north of the coastal shelf.
4.3. Data comparison
In addition to the qualitative analysis of the data compiled in
this study, we have compared the highly detailed resistivity
interpretation at depth deduced from the dipoledipole prole
(2004, Sanjuan et al., 2005) with the MELOS, gravity and
magnetic geophysical signals
along a collocated NS cross-section (Fig. 5).
4.3.1. Interpretation of the dipoledipole prole (2004)
The resistivity prole displays contrasting structures between
the northern and southern parts of the section (Fig. 5a). To the
north, a large resistive layer about 400 m thick is identied
(Pointe Lzard area), and several hypotheses can be proposed
for its origin. The rst is inlling of a deep valley from lateral
collapse of massive lava ows. The second invokes highly
resistive products derived from the vicinity of volcanic centers
such as the Desmarais edice (fall deposits, pyroclasts,

phreatomagmatic products such as hyaloclastites). The third, and

favored option, is that this area has not been affected by
hydrothermal
alteration
(in
contrast to the
central
hydrothermalized

42

L.-S. Gailler et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 275 (2014) 34
50

Fig. 5. a) NS oriented cross-section aligned with the dipoledipole prole (located in gure on the bottom left): comparison between the distribution of resistivity in depth provided
by the resistivity array (2004) and the different geophysical signals, from (b) MELOS, (c) gravity, (d) aeromagnetic, and (e) on land magnetic methods investigated in this study.
The faults are projected as dashed gray lines. The supposed lateral extent of the geothermal reservoir from Bouchot et al. (2010) is shown with an arrow in (a). The gray shading
covers the shorter wavelength and high amplitude anomalies which could be linked to the effect of the geothermal reservoir.

zone) and would thus be associated with thick massive, unaltered

lava ows. Within this resistive zone, two more conductive shallow
areas are also visible: the rst one close to the Pointe Lzard axis
and the second one to the north of Bouillante Bay. Lithological
heterogeneities could generate conductive signatures such as these in
a highly resistive block, and could also be associated with the
subvertical faults recognized in this zone (Calcagno et al., 2012).
For example, the southern shallow conductive lens beneath the
Pointe Lzard axis is bordered by the two faults of Morne Lzard
and Machette-Pointe Sel. To the south, the prole highlights the
main geothermal system: a shallow resistive layer overlies a
conductive one (200 to 300 m thick) marked by a strong rise just
beneath BO4 well. This conductive layer has been identied as the
impermeable cap rock, following detection of a smectite clay cover
over the geothermal system (Mas et al., 2006). In turn, it lies on a
deep resistive layer which is interpreted as the rst hundred meters
of the currently exploited geothermal reservoir.
4.3.2. Comparison with MELOS data (1973)
Despite covering only a small lateral area of the BGP, to a shallow
depth of investigation, the newly interpolated MELOS map (Fig. 2b)

highlights two main contrasts which are consistent with the

resistivity distribution on the dipoledipole prole. To the SE there
is a highly conductive anomaly of about 1 km long, trending NE
SW. This
anomaly is located at the northeastern continuation of the
productive geothermal zone (BO4 well) but is not associated
with any known surface structure. The decrease in resistivity
towards Bouillante Bay, just beneath well BO4, correlates closely
with the
rise in conductive layer imaged by the dipoledipole method in this
area (Fig. 5b). To the NW, there is a contrast between the shallow
conductive layer extending from Pointe LzardPointe Marsolle
and a highly resistive structure associated with the volcanic edices
of this area (for example Courbaril). This latter structure also
correlates with the large resistive layer imaged on the dipole
dipole prole (Fig. 5b). The shallow conductive lenses of this area
also appear
in the MELOS data, corresponding to two minima in the apparent
resistivity. Based on these correlations, the conductive contrast
combined with the lateral extent of the shallow conductive
layer
identied by the dipoledipole method can be used to determine a
rst order extension of the top of the cap rock (i.e. at a depth of a
few meters below the surface; Fig. 2b). The cap rock might be

affected on land by the EW Bouillante fault and the NESWoriented Pointe Marsolle fault system offshore.
4.3.3. Comparison with gravity data
The residual gravity signal is dominated by short wavelength,
high amplitude anomalies in the area thought to be affected by the
geothermal reservoir (Fig. 5c), and was thought to be linked to
undulations in the cap rock (Bouchot et al., 2010). However,
compared to the previous
area proposed by Bouchot et al. (2010), these undulating anomalies
seem to be better developed in the north, covering part of the
dipole dipole resistive layer images. While density and resistivity are
parameters
which can be compared, they highlight different structures. Our
work suggests that gravity is better suited to providing an integrated
image of the study area at depth, while the resistivity signal is
strongly inuenced by shallow structures. In addition, the gravity
signal seems to be linked to the main faults recognized in the area.
For example, a positive anomaly is well correlated with the zone
delimited by the EW striking Bouillante and Cocagne faults around
the bay axis, whereas the northern block (between the Bouillante
and Morne Lzard faults) and southern block (south of the Plateau
faults) both display negative anomalies.
4.3.4. Comparison with magnetic data
There is a noticeable correlation between the aeromagnetic
signal and the location of the reservoir observed at the surface (Fig.
5d). This area is associated with a long wavelength negative anomaly
relative to the surroundings. This zone is also slightly offset to the
north (gray area in Fig. 5) compared to the proposed extent of the
reservoir (Bouchot et al., 2010). However, this feature might also
be related to the data interpolation, since, as shown in Fig. 3a, this
area is poorly constrained by the aeromagnetic proles. Short
wavelength, high amplitude anomalies are present along the onland magnetic prole
(Fig. 5e) collocated with the NS dipoledipole prole. The most
interesting feature is the presence of a short wavelength negative anomaly
in the area proposed by Bouchot et al. (2010) and Bourgeois and
Debeglia (2008) as being affected by the geothermal activity. A
comparable negative anomaly appears further to the north along the
Pointe Lzard axis. As with the gravity data, this feature suggests
that the cap rock might be more developed to the north (gray area in
Fig. 5) than previously proposed (Bouchot et al., 2010) or imaged
with the resistivity data. In the same way as the gravity signal, the
magnetic method provides an integrated signal of the formations at
depth, explaining the difference between the methods.
5. Discussion: quantitative interpretation of the geophysical
structure of the Bouillante Geothermal Province
5.1. Modeling methods
The MT data have been processed using WingLink software
from Geosystem. We initially carried out 1D modeling to derive the
resistivity structure at each sounding. For this, we systematically
modeled the TE curve, using a gradual variation of resistivity (Bostik
and Occam) and layered models (rapid variation of resistivity at layer
interfaces). While the resistivity structure in the prospect area is
clearly not one-dimensional or layered, it does not signicantly
change from one prole to another. This suggests that the resistivity
structure is approximately two-dimensional (2D), and thus suitable for
2D modeling. We then performed 2D smooth inversions and we
present the edited models here in order to (1) mask areas not
constrained by the available data, and (2) improve the continuity of
resistivity in areas where soundings are too far apart.
For the gravity and magnetic data, we used two modeling
approaches in order to dene the geophysical structure of the BGP
as well as the geothermal Bouillante eld sensus stricto. The 3D
inversions were computed using the GRAV3D and MAG3D software

developed by Li and Oldenburg (1998). The inversions were carried out

on residual

Bouguer and RTP (Reduced to the Pole) magnetic data separately.

Because of the low resolution of the aeromagnetic data at the scale
of this study, we only used the combined ground and offshore
magnetic data. This approach provides smooth models of the
density and magnetization distribution respectively. They were
subsequently used to derive more detailed 2D, 2D and 2D
models using GMSYS software from Geosoft where more
geological and geophysical constraints could be used compared
to the 3D inversion approach.
For the various methods presented here, it must be kept in
mind that, even if the geological source of an anomaly is unique,
an innite number of solutions can account for the signal observed
in surface if there is no a priori knowledge. Consequently, the
modeling approach has to explore several types of models using
geological variables, as well as consider previous interpretations
that could constrain the eld of solutions.
5.2. General geological and geophysical constraints on the physical
properties of the Bouillante Geothermal Province formations
In order to build reliable models, we established constraints to
dene the density, magnetization and resistivity ranges within the
models. Because of the non-uniqueness of the modeling approach,
these physical parameters are essential for providing quantitative
interpretations. However, the limited number of geothermal wells
(7), and the relative scarcity of the outcrops in this tropical
volcanic environment, provides limited geological constraints with
which to interpret the geophysical data and thus infer the
geometry of the BGP's internal structure. We have mainly used
data from studies on the Guadeloupe archipelago or similar
environments such as Martinique (Salom and Meynadier, 2004).
The general geological and geophysical constraints for the
physical properties of the BGP formations are detailed in the
Supplementary Material A, which we summarize below.
The density of the rocks can be evaluated either for individual
samples or, at a macroscopic scale, using Nettleton's method to
estimate the global density of topographic features. Rock density
measurements were performed on typical BGP samples, giving a
range of density values from 1.6 to 3.0 103 kg m 3. According to
the paleomagnetic studies (Carlut et al., 2000) available for the
magnetization of Guadeloupe island rocks, we have used a realistic
range of magnetization from 6 to 10 Am1, and we assumed
the formations altered by geothermal activity to be demagnetized
(0 to 1 Am1). The resistivity of rocks is affected by their water
content, the conductivity and temperature of the uids and the
presence of hydrothermal minerals such as clay minerals and
zeolites. Therefore, especially at the scale of the BGP, the resistivity
of rocks will be controlled by the water table and the
hydrothermal systems.
5.3. Resistivity structure
The resistivity structure of the Bouillante geothermal eld is
summarized along two main NS proles collocated with the
dipoledipole in 2004 (Sanjuan et al., 2005; Bourgeois and
Debeglia, 2008; Fig. 6).
These proles have been chosen based on the distribution of the
MT and AMT soundings located closest to the resistivity array.
Although this area contains only a small number of soundings, the
sections show the general pattern of the resistivity distribution at
depth obtained by means of a large-scale 2D inversion. Both
proles show a succession of resistiveconductiveresistive layers commonly associated
with
volcanic and high-temperature geothermal areas (Johnston et al.,
1992). For the western prole (Fig. 6a), which lies closer to the
coast in the northern part, the shallower thick resistive layer
exhibits values higher than 1000 m. For the eastern one (Fig.
6b), this resistive layer is thinner, with lower resistivity values (~b
1000 m), and seems to be more continuous along the overall

section. In this volcanological context, such resistive layers are

interpreted as piles of water-unsaturated recent lava ows near the
surface and lava ows saturated with fresh water at

Fig. 6. 2D MT resistivity sections onto a 3D view of the topography following the north to south resistivity array prole (in blue in the sidebars) along a) the coastal prole and b)
the on land one. The corresponding proles are shown in red in the sidebars. The black crosses mark the sounding location. The zones not constrained by the sounding (i.e. where
the depth of investigation is too low for interpretation) are whitened.

depth. They overlie a continuous conductive layer (~ b 70 m)

with variable thickness and resistivity values. This layer deepens
signicantly to the north and south of the eastern prole (Fig. 6a),
but its upper surface remains horizontal along the western one (Fig.
6b). The most interesting feature is that, in both cases, the
conductive layer rises beneath BO4, with its top at about 200 m
a.s.l. and 500 m b.s.l. for the western prole (Fig. 6a) and eastern
prole (Fig. 6b) respectively. The doming of the conductive layer
could be associated with an upow zone below Bouillante Bay.
This observation provides strong support for the identication of
high temperature and clay-rich hydrothermally altered rocks beneath
the productive area. As shown along the rst prole, the rise of this
conductive layer coincides with the EW trending Cocagne and
Bouillante faults. To the north and south respectively, the deepening
of this layer is associated with the Pointe Sel-Machette and Plateau
faults. The deepening to the north of the Bouillante fault has
already been interpreted as the limit of the geothermal reservoir by
Bouchot et al. (2010). Beyond the geothermal area, the conductive
body could be interpreted in terms of clay minerals associated with
meteoric alteration (for example breccias rich in clay minerals;
Cumming, 2009) or with salt water intrusion. At depth, the layers
become more resistive
(N 100 m), reaching a thickness of about 4 km beneath well
BO4. As shown in the interpretation of the dipoledipole prole
(Sanjuan et al., 2005; Bourgeois and Debeglia, 2008), the 240 C
isotherm correlates well with the limit between the intermediate conductive layer
and the deep resistive structure at depth (Fig. 6a). Two deep
resistive layers are modeled on the basis of the second prole (Fig.
6b), but we are not able, at this scale and given the low resolution
of our models, to dene whether or not both resistive cores are
connected at depth.
As a general rule, it is inherently difcult to resolve resistive
structures beneath conductive layers using the MTAMT
techniques. The lateral extent of the deep resistive core is in good
agreement for the models

in both methods, together with the rise of the overlying conductive

layer just beneath well BO4.

5.4. Gravity and magnetic structure

5.4.1. Gravity structure
We present the results for the residual Bouguer anomaly map
along the dipoledipole prole (Fig. 7a and b). The model is based
on the geological information and the section within the general 3D
model is used
to constrain the lateral extent of the inferred formations (Fig. 7c).
According to the geological data (Fig. 3c), this coastal area is
composed of lava ows (meters to tens of meters thick) from
the Bouillante Chain edices (located in Fig. 3c), as well as
hyaloclastites from the volcanic chain. The gravity signal could,
therefore, be accounted for simply by modeling shallow formations
(i.e. the rst hundred meters), with the superposition of low and
high density layers representing the hyaloclastites and massive
lava ows, respectively (Fig. 7d). The general 3D model provides
interesting additional constraints, particularly on the lateral extent
of the inferred formations modeled in 2D. The density of the
shallow formations is xed at 2.4 103 kgm3, with a range of
thickness from a few tens of meters to about 500 m. The density of
the intermediate layer ranges from 1.8 to 2.0 103 kgm 3, with a
thickness of 300 m to 1 km. Note that the shorter wavelength
anomalies are accounted for by modeling shallower density
contrasts within the upper dense layer. A rise in the intermediate
low density (conductive) layer is also required to account for the
gravity signal just beneath well BO4. In addition, the two shallow
conductive layers shown by the
dipoledipole and MELOS methods in the Pointe Lzard area
are
well modeled with low density structures. Another interesting
feature is that the discontinuities at the base of the high density
layers, modeled in order to satisfy the observed short wavelength
signal (Fig. 7d), are associated with the main faults recognized in
this area. At depth, the underlying substratum (i.e. the top of the
oceanic crust) is modeled with respect to the density correction
3
3
(i.e. 2.2 10 kgm ). From the regional bathymetric and seismic
studies (Dorel et al., 1979; Thinon et al., 2010), its base is xed at
4000 m. According to the resistivity

Fig. 7. a) Location of the study prole superimposed on the residual Bouguer anomaly map; b) Observed and modeled gravity anomaly along this prole; c) 2D gravity model
superimposed onto a slice of the GRAV3D model. The 2D structures are truncated at a distance of 2 km to the west and 3 km to the east; d) Interpretative cross-section of the 2D
model. The main faults are shown with black dashed lines.

distribution deduced from the dipoledipole and MT interpretation,

we can also take the indirect, but commonly assumed correlation,
between density and electrical resistivity parameters into account.
The resistive formations are generally associated with massive
formations which are typically denser than the conductive altered
ones. In the geothermal system, the propylitization due to mineral
deposition or replacement during the geothermal uid circulation is
commonly associated with a reduction in porosity and consequently
with an increase in density (Santos and Rivas, 2009). According to
this assumption, we have tentatively modeled a huge, deep resistive
core which has already been postulated as the source of the
productive reservoir of Bouillante
geothermal eld, characterized by chloriteillite geothermal clay.
We
3
3
model it as having a denser structure (2.4 10 kgm ), and a height
of 3500 m and a lateral extent of about 2 km. However, given the

precision of a model at this scale, we are not able to dene its

extent and geometry clearly.
Three complementary north to south gravity proles running
parallel to the resistivity array one, and a west to east prole, are
also presented in Supplementary data B (Fig. B1). The results of
the 2D
models are consistent with the succession described above. Note
that the WE prole (prole 4) is also marked by an ascent of the
conductive, low density structure towards the east.
5.4.2. On-land magnetic data
Following the same rational as for the gravity approach, we
model the on-land RTP magnetic anomalies along the dipoledipole
prole (Fig. 8a and b). As described above, the magnetization values
1
are set at between 10 Am
for the recent, normally magnetized
formations

Fig. 8. a) Location of the study prole superimposed on the RTP magnetic anomaly map; b) Observed and modeled magnetic anomaly along this prole; c) 2D magnetic model
from the ground data superimposed onto a slice of the MAG3D model; the 2D structures are truncated at a distance of 4 km to the west and 2 km to the east; d)
Interpretative scheme of the 2D model. The main faults are shown with black dashed lines.

encompassing the Brunhes period, and 6 Am

for the older,
reversely magnetized formations of the Matuyama period (N 0.78
Ma). As for the gravity modeling, the base of the substratum is
xed at
4000 m. The model is computed at a constant elevation of
400 m a.s.l. in order to eliminate the very short wavelength effects
which occur in such 2D models. The 2D modeling is constrained
by the smooth MAG3D inversion (Fig. 8c). Based on geological
information we model the superposition of
two
normallymagnetized layers (10 Am 1) from the Bouillante Chain (a few
meters to less than 500 m thick) and the recent formations of the
Axial Chain (500 to 1000 m thick, possibly including massive lava
ows). Additional shallow magnetization contrasts are introduced
to make the observed signal t the results from the 3D inversion.
These layers are disconnected by a 500 m-thick intermediate
demagnetized zone (about 0 Am 1), and overly a reverselymagnetized basement associated with the oldest formation of the Axial Chain ( 6 Am1). The transition between
normally and reversely magnetized formations (i.e. the Brunhes
Matuyama

transition) occurs at a depth ranging between 500 and 1500 m. The

strong doming of the associated layers could be related to the
upow which may demagnetize the modeled formations (Fig.
8d). In the same way as for the gravity interpretation, we consider
the deep resistive core beneath the Bouillante eld as being the
imprint of the geothermal reservoir. This structure is modeled as a
demagnetized body at depth, using the same geometry as for the
gravity models (Fig. 8c and d). In addition, we note that the
irregularities modeled within the magnetic layers to t the short
wavelength signal are closely correlated to the main faults in this
area. For example, there is a well developed rise in the
intermediate demagnetized layer to the south of the Bouillante
fault, whereas this layer deepens and thickens signicantly to the
north.
A complementary model has been carried out along an EW
direction (Supplementary data B; Fig. B2), using the same layers and
magnetization values. The shallow, normally-magnetized layer is
modeled with a thickness ranging from a few meters to about 800 m
offshore. It overlies

Fig. 9. Joint 2D modeling of (a) magnetic, and (b) gravity data along the north to south resistivity prole (located in Fig. 5) providing a general geophysical model (c) based on the
3

conceptual model of the geothermal reservoir proposed by Bouchot et al. (2010) (d). In (c), the pairs of values for each layer represent the density in 10 kg m

and the magnetization

in Am

a demagnetized layer which appears to be between a few tens of

meters and more than 1000 m in the southern part of the coastal
shelf. The underlying normally-magnetized layer is about 700 m
thick. This succession of recent units lies on a reversely-magnetized
substratum whose base is at 4000 m depth. This model is in good
agreement with the NS dipoledipole prole (Fig. 8c) for the
Bouillante Bay area. Offshore, there appears to be a volcanotectonic control; for example, the western part of the MB regional
fault zone is associated with a thinning of the shallow
normallymagnetized layer and consequently a thickening of the
underlying demagnetized unit. Conversely, a reverse trend is
observed at the western end of the coastal shelf.
We are aware that these models do not take the magnetization of
the deeper rocks predating Matuyama period into account (see
Supplementary data B). Similarly, the models are limited by a
uniform magnetization for each group of rocks and by the lack of
constraints for the choice of the average magnetization. Because the
models are optimized by dividing the surface into the two layers, the
shorter wavelength anomalies are accounted for by irregularities at
the base of the Brunhes formations; they could equally result from
heterogeneities in the internal magnetization. However, this approach
provides realistic rst order information on the relative thickness of
the Brunhes formations in this particular area.

5.4.3. A joint gravity and magnetic interpretation

Based on the well data, the NS dipoledipole prole and the
volcanic and structural mapping of the eld, Bouchot et al. (2010)
developed an innovative conceptual model of this high temperature
geothermal system, and also explored new ideas for the
Bouillante system in terms of heat source, deep uid ow and
reservoir geometry (Fig. 9a). According to this model, the
Bouillante eld reservoir can be dened by three main units. The
rst is the hot reservoir, corresponding to the
total rock volume affected by intense pervasive hydrothermal
alteration (illite dominant), with a homogenized temperature of
250260 C. In the NS section parallel to the dipoledipole
prole, the envelope of the heat reservoir is about 2 km wide
between Descoudes and the EW Bouillante fault. It is shaped by
the geometry of the Bouillante Bay mini-graben which controls
uid circulation. This envelope could be rooted at about 25003000
m depth in the MarsollePointe Lzard
area, assuming that the circulation of deep uids is controlled by
the major tectono-magmatic corridor (Bouchot et al., 2010). The
second main unit is the cap rock to the geothermal system. It
averages 300 500 m thick, is associated with clay alteration
(smectite dominant)
and is characterized by low resistivity (b 2.5 m). It is marked by
a rise towards well BO4 close to the Bouillante fault, which was
interpreted in terms of the upow within the geothermal reservoir.
Conversely, a broad deepening is modeled to the north and south of

this area. The third main unit is a hydraulic network made up of

permeable fault zones and secondary thin porous aquifers along
which the geothermal uids circulate within the connes of the hot
reservoir. Following this scheme, Bouchot et al. (2010) highlight the
major inuence of structural control on the development of the
recent volcanism (~500 ky) and subsequent geothermal activity at
different scales.
On the basis of this conceptual geothermal reservoir and using
the geophysical models derived in this study, the last step of our
work was to carry out a joint model using both the gravity and
magnetic
data. We propose a better constrained interpretative scheme of the
internal structure of the Bouillante geothermal eld along the same
NS
prole (Fig. 9b). The density and magnetization values have been
adjusted in order to satisfy both gravity and magnetic signals (Fig.
9c and d). Following this approach, we dene four main units, from
the surface downwards, in agreement with the geology and the
conceptual model from Bouchot et al. (2010):
The rst hundred meters is associated with a discontinuous,
3
3
shallow high-density (~ 2.4 10 kgm ) and high 1
magnetization (~ 10 Am ) layer, which is absent from the
Bouillante area. The shallow normally-magnetized formations
(Brunhes period) are assumed to be mainly composed of recent
dense andesitic lava ows
from either the Bouillante Chain or the recent Axial Chain,
which should be denser than their surrounding counterparts. As
previously described, these shallow layers are also resistive, and
their thickness ranges from a few tens of meters to about 1000
m. Within this surface layer, additional gravity and magnetic
contrasts are required to t the short wavelength signals. The
localized dense (between
3
3
2.4 and 2.8 10 kgm ) but low-magnetized (between 0 and
1
1 Am ) formations could be interpreted in terms of dense
rocks a few hundred meters thick, which have lost their
thermoremanent magnetization. Conversely, the localized lowdensity (between 1.6 and 2.0 103 kgm 3) but highly
magnetized (between 6 and 15 Am 1) formations are well
associated with the hyaloclastites of the Bouillante Chain,
which usually contain hydrated minerals and have a low
resistivity. Such formations outcrop in this area, such as the
thin structures modeled in the southern area of the prole.
Below this shallow series, we model an intermediate continuous
layer with low density (~2.0 103 kgm3) and low magnetization
(between 0 and 1 Am 1). It corresponds to the conductive
layers previously described in the resistivity models, with
doming related to the geothermal upow (productive area
beneath well BO4). The thickness of this layer ranges from a
few hundred meters to about 500 m. This type of formation
could be realistically attributed to rocks altered by geothermal
activity in the productive area. Beyond the geothermal area (to
the north for example), the conductive body related to the
geothermal system deepens and forms a pseudo-tabular layer,
probably resulting from a regional phenomenon. Its shape could
be inherited from a long period of meteoric (and/or
hydrothermal) alteration that followed a period of volcanic
activity. Lateral topographic and morphological indications suggest
that the top of the conductive layer may have acted as a slide
plane for mass movement during episodes of ank
destabilization. In the latter case, the conductive layer would be
composed of both altered rocks and breccia within a clay-rich
matrix, as has been observed on other volcanic islands (Ablay
and Marti, 2000). In this case, the later inlling of the valley will
form the upper dense, resistive layer.
Below this conductive formation, at a depth of about 500 m, we
consider the superimposition of two distinct continuous layers with
3
3
an average density of 2.2 10 kgm
. The upper layer is

normally magnetized (10 Am1) and corresponds to the

formations emitted during the recent period of the Axial Chain
(Brunhes period). Conversely, the underlying layer is reversely
magnetized ( 6 Am 1) and could correspond to the old
substratum from the Matuyama

period, assumed to be composed mainly of ancient Axial

Chain formations and products from the Septentrional Chain (see
Supplementary data A; Fig. A2). The transition between these two
layers
marks the BrunhesMatuyama reversal (0.78 Ma).
At depth, the hot reservoir (Bouchot et al., 2010) is modeled as
a dense body rooted at about 4000 m in depth. This feature is
consistent with the positive anomaly discussed in the qualitative
interpretation. We also considered this structure to be
demagnetized (from 0 to 5 Am1), with a wavelength
consistent with the upow covering the geothermal area.
However, the sparse distribution and the low resolution of our
data do not allow an unambiguous interpretation of this
particular structure at depth.
Finally, as previously suggested, one interesting feature is the
clear correlation between the derived internal structure (i.e. the
irregularities modeled at the base of the shallow layers or the shape
of the geothermal reservoir) and the fault system in this area. For
example, we note that the thinning of the conductive low-density
layer together with the doming of the supposed reservoir is well
associated with the area dened by the Cocagne and Bouillante
faults (Fig. 9d).
6. Synthesis and conclusions
Our analysis of gravity, magnetic and resistivity data, combined
with geological observations and previous interpretations, offers
major constraints for the internal structure of the Bouillante
Geothermal Province (BGP). The compilation of all available data
from various geophysical methods provides a general model,
based on a conceptual scheme and geological constraints, which is
strengthened by the correlations between the various geophysical
parameters studied here.
From a qualitative point of view, the residual Bouguer anomaly
map shows a positive anomaly in the productive zones of the
geothermal eld, but the latter seems to extend about 3 km further
to the east. Following the classic propylitization effect associated
with the geothermal reservoir, this feature could imply that the
geothermal activity extends further to the east than previously
expected. This is important for future explorations. Similarly, the
joint interpretation of the various geophysical data suggests that the
productive area could be slightly more developed further north (by
about 1.5 km) than previously inferred (Figs. 5 and 9).
Quantitatively, we propose here an updated model of the
geothermal eld, and beyond into the geothermal province, based
on the distribution of geophysical parameters that can be interpreted
in terms of the geological units observed in surface. The internal
structure of the geothermal area can be described in terms of four
main, superimposed units. 1) The shallow formations of the
Bouillante Chain (recent and massive), whose local geophysical
contrasts correlate well with observed lithological formations. 2)
The clay-rich cap rock of the geothermal system, which deepens
signicantly outside of the main productive zone. 3) A pile of thick
lava ows from the recent period of the Axial Chain, and an older
substratum (with its base at a depth of 4000 m) from the ancient
period of the Axial Chain and also probably the Septentrional
Chain. 4) At depth, a resistive dome is clearly associated with the
rising of the overlying conductive layer. The latter has been
already interpreted in terms of the geothermal reservoir
(Bouchot et al., 2010). However, this resistive core is not obvious
in all the geophysical signals studied here and a sensitivity study is
needed to determine how robust the high resistivity core is in the
3D MT resistivity model. Our current resolution of both our data
and models could be too low to provide an unambiguously wellconstrained image of the reservoir at depth.
Another important result is that we emphasize a strong tectonic
control on the development of the eld. The density,
magnetization, and even resistivity layers are all affected by the

main faults recognized in this area. The horst and graben structure
has a marked impact on the geometry of the eld. Consequently, the
local fault system will act as a

primary guide for both the origin and evolution of the geothermal
eld. This hypothesis could soon be examined in more detail using
the high resolution airborne electromagnetic survey which was
recently carried out by the BRGM (GuadEM) over the whole island.
This survey will provide a detailed 3D image of the 200300 m of the subsurface, in terms
of
geological units as well as their discontinuities across tectonic
structures. We can also refer to complementary works that were
done in passive seismology which bring some valuable information
that conrm some of our results. As an example, the 500 m depth
interface modeled in our study as the base of the conductive layer
is also visible in the seismograms of local earthquakes (Jousset,
2006).
Finally, this synthesis acts as a guide to the implementation of
upcoming surveys in order to improve constraints on the BGP and
to increase understanding of the island's evolution as a whole. Our
study is based on rst order models, but the acquisition of new
datasets could be used to develop multi-method inversion
techniques. For example, new gravity measurements should be
performed to complement the current dataset. 1D transient
electromagnetic soundings (TEM) and 3D MT surveys, together
with a temporary seismological network, could improve our
understanding of the relationships between structural features,
seismic activity and uid production (Jousset et al., 2011). A
classication of the lithology could be also envisaged using seismic
tomography (Bauer et al., 2003). On a larger scale, over the whole
Lesser Antilles Arc, geothermal provinces are present in the western
part of several islands (Montserrat, Martinique, Dominique, and
Saint-Vincent). While the majority is clearly attributed to volcanic
activity, the Bouillante geothermal system is associated with a
complex tectonic setting. Thus the role of the regional tectonic
system, i.e. the
MontserratBouillante fault, BouillanteCapesterre faults and other
secondary faults, needs to be investigated in more detail. This approach
will help understand the origin and evolution of the geothermal eld
in its volcano-tectonic environment. Some of these points, such as
the relationship between geothermal activity and major regional
discontinuities are addressed in Gailler et al. (2013).
Acknowledgments
Financial support for this post-doctoral study was provided by
the Carnot Institute and ADEME project. We would like to address
our special thanks to Philippe Calcagno, Gwendoline Pajot, Hubert
Fabriol,
Hubert Haas, for their help and contribution during this work. We
thank the editors and the reviewers, Philippe Jousset and an
anonymous reviewer, for their insightful comments which enabled a
considerable improvement of an earlier version of the manuscript.
This post-doctoral
study was carried out in the framework of a "Carnot institute"
project.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.02.002.
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