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ICE offer
ICE
We would like to
think of our page
as an exchange
page of
experience and
information.
/IamCheEng
/Egy.ICE
SLOGAN
Connecting chemical engineers.
VISION
Improving the chemical Engineering skills to meet the work
environment & to decrease the gap between study and work.
MISSION
Gathering information about any chemical engineering fields.
OUR HISTORY
9-9-2011
22-10-2013
We have founded specialized group for

Chemical Engineering jobs for Egyptians
"Get a Job"
Our first session was in Petroleum

Engineering department in Suez under the
name "The way to get a job"
27-12-2012
30-10-2013
We have founded our global Page "I am a

Chemical Engineer" serving Chemical
Engineers all over the world
Egy-ICE page was founded as a specialized

Chemical Engineering courses page in
order to announce our proposed Chemical
Engineering Courses.
11-6-2013
We launched our first magazine named
after our page "I am a Chemical Engineer"
18-9-2013
Second edition of our magazine was
launched.
11-11-2013
Was our first session in Chemical
Engineering held in Petroleum Engineering
department in Suez
27-12-2013
Third edition of our magazine was
launched.
How about a career where the opportunities are endless? Trying not to
sound like an advertisement, I'd like to describe some of the more
common careers pursued with a Chemical Engineering degree. Firstly, if
you're considering studying Chemical Engineering, but you're a little
timid because of the horror stories that you hear, you actually may want to
think about it some more! I've actually heard someone say, "How hard can
it be?" Really hard, but really rewarding too! True, the material involved
in far from easy and some of the concepts take hours (and in some cases
years!) to master, but isn't having this degree worth the effort? I think that
you'll find that it will be. I guess what I'm saying is, if you're serious
about wanting to be a Chemical Engineer, go for it and don't be afraid to
fail (as long as you've done your best). If you're not sure what you want to
do, take some preliminary courses first and then ask some of the current
students what they think so far and compare you're academic merit to
theirs.
Now, once you've got the degree, the fun really starts. I suggest taking the
Fundamentals of Engineering Exam (FE Exam) shortly before or after
graduation. The after 4 or 5 years of industrial work, you can take the
Professional Engineering Exam (PE Exam) and become a Certified
Professional Engineer. Always a good idea to take these exams,
remember, if you don't someone else will and they'll probably get your
job! Speaking of jobs, what kind of work can you do with a Chemical
Engineering degree?
"I love designing equipment, optimizing processes, and performing
financial analyses on these processes."
--DESIGN ENGINEER
"I like to analyze existing processes and suggest changes needed to
increase profitability"
--PROCESS ENGINEER
"I really like designing and performing experiments to test theories and
check the economic impact of plant changes on a small scale"
--RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ENGINEER
"I'm a people person and I don't like being trapped in one place all of the
time"
--FIELD ENGINEER OR TECHNICAL SALES PERSONNEL
"I want to be a physician"

--MEDICAL SCHOOLS REALLY LIKE CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
"I'm out of school, I'm tired of engineering and I never want to do it
again"
--YOU GRADUATED WITH ONE OF THE MOST DIFFICULT
UNDERGRADUATE DEGREES THAT THERE IS. MAYBE YOU'D
RATHER LOOK INTO BECOMING A FORENSIC CHEMIST OR
AN ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANT. WHATEVER YOU
DECIDE TO DO, YOU HAVE A QUALITY EDUCATION THAT NO
ONE CAN TAKE FROM YOU.
A Chemical Engineering degree may not be a free ride through life,
but it does provide a solid base to start a wide variety of careers and
after all, wasn't that you're objective to begin with?
Below you'll find an interview that was completed many years ago (circa
2000) that high schools students have used to help them make their
decision regarding chemical engineering.
Interview with a Chemical Engineer
NOTE
Many students find their way to The Chemical Engineers Resource Page
in search of a chemical engineer to interview for career research. We
applaud these students and are happy to help in their quest to learn more
about chemical engineering. The following are 17 of the most commonly
asked questions.
Why Become a Chemical Engineer? and Interview

with a Chemical Engineer BY
Christopher Haslego
Owner and Chief Webmaster
www.cheresources.com

1. How did you come to choose this career? Why did
it appeal to you?
Actually, as with many college students, I changed my major course of study
during my freshman year. I began college as a computer science major. I
quickly found that computer science just was not for me. I explored the
campus and found a course of study that combined technical thinking with a
topic that had always interested me..chemistry. As I learned more about
chemical engineering, I just knew it was for me.
2. What kind of training or education did this career require

and what college or university did you attend?
The training included a 5 year (sometimes 4 depending on the university that
you attend) academic cirriculum. I attended West Virginia University in
Morgantown, WV. My classes included 4 units of Calculus, at least 6 of
chemistry, some general engineering which included computer programming,
thermodynamics, transport analysis, fluid dynamics, heat transfer, material
and energy balance (2 classes), process control, chemical reaction
engineering, separation technology, and chemical process design just to name
some of the more important classes. However, at a university type setting,
you'll also be required to take classes known as core requirements to make
you a "well rounded individual". Mine included Theatre, Spanish,
Criminology, Political Science, Geology, and Physiology....you get the
picture. You can go to WVU's chemical engineering page at
www.cemr.wvu/~wwwche/ and look under the "Undergraduate program" to
see a complete cirriculum there.
3. Are there any other skills beyond formal training that

someone needs to do this job?
Your college training is just the beginning of your education. When you land
your first job, youll learn how the real world works. There are numerous
skills that chemical engineers entering a chemical plant environment just do
not know. You will learn many aspects of the business world, details of the
equipment and process that you work with, and other political issues of the
workplace. While the training that you receive in college is extremely
important, Id say that most people would agree hat on-the-job training is
where they learned the skills that made them a good engineer. These are all
reasons why its so hard to land that first job without any experience. In
short, many people will know more than you and will be more productive
much faster.

4. How long is a typical work day? What time does
your day end?
I begin work at 8:00 A.M. and I generally finish between 5 and 6 P.M. I
should mention that I now work in an office environment. I began my career
in a chemical plant, but the hours where the same. The problem was that it
was not uncommon to receive calls on weekends or late at night if problems
occurred at the plant. I work this schedule five days a week (Monday
through Friday).
5. What is the starting salary or hourly wage for this job? Is

there overtime pay?
The starting salary is usually around $45,000 per year but can be as low as
$38,000 or as high as $50,000 per year. Most chemical engineers work on a
fixed salary every two weeks or month. This means that they do not earn
extra money for working more than 40 hours per week. Most employers are
liberal with salary employees. For example, you may work 50 hours one
weeks, and only 35 the next. Usually, Id say that the yearly average works
out to be near 40 hours per week, but some people prefer to (or are required
to) work more.
6. How can you advance your career as a chemical engineer?

The best way for anyone to advance in their career is to separate themselves
from other employees. Stand out, do something great! In general, the best
ways to do this are to earn money for the company by finding ways to
manufacture products cheaper, find unique solutions to complicated
problems, or increase the efficiency of the way that you and others work.
All of these will help the company that you work for perform better. It will
also help you succeed.
7. How much paid vacation time do you receive?

I receive two weeks paid vacation, two float holidays, and two personal
days. Thats a total of 14 paid days off per year. During my fifth year of
service with my company, Ill receive an additional 5 days per year and
there are further increases the longer that youre with the company.
Although some companies place restrictions on the number of paid sick
days that one can receive, mine does not. We have a simple policy, if
youre sick, dont come to work (this is not very common and people
appreciate it and it is seldom, if ever, abused).

8. Do you have a retirement plan? What is included?
My company offer its employees a standard retirement package called a
401K. This allows employees to put money into an account (without being
taxed) to save for retirement. My company automatically contributes 3% of
my salary to this account and I can add up to 14% of my annual salary (up
to $10,000 per year) into the account. My company, additionally, matches
50% of the first 6% that I contribute. Essentially, if I save 6% of my salary,
my company puts in 6% of my salary. Dont overlook the importance of
saving for retirement when you begin your career. Young workers often
begin saving too late and may delay their retirement. This money is later
taxed when it is withdrawn after you retire.
9. Does the job have medical or dental benefits? Is it full

coverage or is there a deductible or co-payment?
I have both medical and dental benefits. With the cost of healthcare, very
few companies offer full coverage. I pay (very little) for these insurance
plans and my employer pays the remaining amount. Most dental work is
covered at 80% (check-ups and an annual x-ray are covered at 100%). I
have a small co-pay for hospital and doctor visits, but under normal
circumstances I have to visit my Primary Care Physician (PCP) and
coordinate my care with her. To avoid the circus that healthcare has
become.try to stay healthy :)
10. What are three things that you enjoy about your job?
I enjoy most everything about my job! I work as a design engineer for a
company that supplies heat transfer equipment to the chemical industry. I
also do some marketing and sales work as well. I guess I enjoy the
following the most:
a. The independent work environment (no one looking over my shoulder)
b. Knowing that Im directly responsible for helping my company to
succeed
c. Being able to travel anywhere in the US at any time that I choose
11. What are some things that you do not enjoy?

I spend a lot of time on the phone, which really is not my favorite thing to
be doing, but its important nonetheless. Sometimes, it can be hard to
accomplish goals because of the official channels that you have to work
throughthis can be frustrating.

12. How long have you been working in this occupation?
How long do you expect to remain in this field? If you are
going to make a change, why?
Ive been in my current position for two years now. I also working for
another company for a year. I made the change because I really did not feel
comfortable with my last employers. They did not encourage forward
thinking at all. Creativity was not encouraged for fear that an idea may not
work. This is not a good environment for a young engineer. I made the
change and Ive glad that I did ever since. My current employer goes out of
their way to encourage new ideas and were a better company because of it.
13. How much of a demand do you see for this occupation in

the future?
When I graduated from college in 1998, there was a great demand for
chemical engineers. Naturally demand goes up and down depending on the
economy and how many people graduate each year. Generally, Id say that
there is always a need for good chemical engineers. Chemical engineers can
perform many different functions. Probably why you dont hear of many
chemical engineers who are out of work.
14. What high school classes are good for preparing to become
a chemical engineer?
This is an easy question. While the classes are free, take as much math and
science as you possibly can. They will only prepare you better for college
and give you an advantage over your peers who will probably be very
intelligent.
15. What advice would you give to someone considering this

occupation?
Be ready to work hard to get through college. Dont get discouraged. If at
all possible, DO AN INTERNSHIP, DO AN INTERSHIP, DO AN
INTERSHIP. An internship will give you an opportunity to get some
experience before you graduate. The field is very rewarding and you most
likely will never have to worry about finding a job for the rest of your life.
Instead, youll only worry will be finding a job that you enjoy.

16. Where are job for chemical engineers available (rural,
urban)?
Most chemical plants are found in rural areas, so to begin youre career, you
may find yourself in a remote area. After you gain some valuable
experience, you may consider a bit of a career change and may be able to
land a good job in a more urban area (this is pretty much what I did). My
first job was in rural South Carolina and now I reside in beautiful
Richmond, VA.
17. Did you specialize in any topic in particular?

In school, I emphasized polymers (plastics) in my studies. This helped get
me my first job in a polymer plant. Now I concentrate on heat transfer (one
topic in chemical engineering).
18. How does chemistry enter into your profession?

For example: As a chemical engineer, you may have to separate water and
benzene sometime....you had better know how the two interact chemically
before you start. Do you know if they are miscible in one another?
"Miscible" is a term used to describe two liquids that mix thoroughly....like
water and alcohol. But water and oil are "Immiscible" in that the oil "floats
on top of the water"......this is just one example of how chemistry is very
important to a chemical engineer. If you're going to be responsible for
moving, separating, and reacting chemicals...you better know about the
chemicals and how they react to one another first! Some of the chemical
knowledge will also come with experience. For example, if someone were
to ask you how to remove caffeine from coffee beans, what would you
recommend? Experience tells me that there are two basic, industrially
accepted methods. One uses a solvent known as methyl chloride and the
other uses carbon dioxide under extremely high pressure (supercritical
carbon dioxide). The use of methyl chloride is an older method and requires
additional precautions because methyl chloride is poisonous so one must be
sure that is does not contaminate the coffee. Using supercritical carbon
dioxide requires more expensive equipment, but the risk on contamination is
no longer there because carbon dioxide is not poisonous to humans. Using
carbon dioxide to decaffeinate coffee has been advertised as "natural
decaffeination".
CAVITATION AND NPSH IN

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Cavitation is the formation and collapse
of vapor bubbles in a liquid. Bubble
formation occurs at a point where the
pressure is less than the vapor pressure,
and bubble collapse or implosion occurs
at a point where the pressure is
increased to the vapor pressure. Figure
1 shows vapor pressure temperature
characteristics. This phenomenon can
also occur with ship propellers and in
other hydraulic systems such as bypass
orifices and throttle valvessituations
where an increase in velocity with
resulting decrease in pressure can
reduce pressure below the liquid vapor
pressure.
CAVITATION EFFECTS
BUBBLE FORMATION PHASE
Flow is reduced as the liquid is
displaced by vapor, and mechanical
imbalance occurs as the impeller
passages are partially filled with lighter
vapors. This results in vibration and
shaft deflection, eventually resulting in
bearing failures, packing or seal leakage,
and shaft breakage. In multi-stage
pumps this can cause loss of thrust
balance and thrust bearing failures.
BUBBLE COLLAPSE PHASE
1. Mechanical damage occurs as the
imploding bubbles remove segments of
impeller material.
2. Noise and vibration result from the

implosion. Noise that sounds like gravel
being pumped is often the users first
warning of cavitation.
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
When designing a pumping system and
selecting a pump, one must thoroughly
evaluate net positive suction head
(NPSH) to prevent cavitation. A proper
analysis involves both the net positive
suction heads available in the system
(NPSHA) and the net positive suction
head required by the pump (NPSHR).
NPSHA is the measurement or
calculation of the absolute pressure
above the vapor pressure at the pump
suction flange. Figure 2 illustrates
methods of calculating NPSHA for
various suction systems. Since friction in
the suction pipe is a common negative
component of NPSHA, the value of
NPSHA will always decrease with flow.
NPSHA must be calculated to a stated
reference elevation, such as the
foundation on which the pump is to be
mounted. NPSHR is always referenced
to the pump impeller center line It is a
measure of the pressure drop as the
liquid travels from the pump suction
flange along the inlet to the pump
impeller. This loss is due primarily to
friction and turbulence.
Turbulence loss is extremely high at low

flow and then decreases with flow to
the best efficiency point. Friction loss
increases with increased flow. As a
result, the internal pump losses will be
high at low flow, dropping at generally
2030% of the best efficiency flow, then
increasing with flow. The complex
subject of turbulence and NPSHR at low
flow is best left to another discussion.
Figure 3 shows the pressure profile
across a typical pump at a fixed flow
condition. The pressure decrease from
point B to point D is the NPSHR for the
pump at the stated flow. The pump
manufacturer determines the actual
NPSHR for each pump over its complete
operating range by a series of tests. The
detailed test procedure is described in
the Hydraulic Institute Test Standard
1988 Centrifugal Pumps 1.6. Industry
has agreed on a 3% head reduction at
constant flow as the standard value to
establish NPSHR. Figure 4 shows typical
results of a series of NPSHR tests. The
pump system designer must understand
that the published NPSHR data
established above are based on a 3%
head reduction. Under these conditions
the pump is cavitating. At the normal
operating point the NPSHA must exceed
the NPSHR by a sufficient margin to
eliminate the 3% head drop and the
resulting cavitation. The NPSHA margin
required will vary with pump design and

other factors, and the exact margin
cannot be precisely predicted. For most
applications the NPSHA will exceed the
NPSHR by a significant amount, and the
NPSH margin is not a consideration. For
those applications where the NPSHA is
close to the NPSHR (23 feet), users
should consult the pump manufacturer
and the two should agree on a suitable
NPSH margin. In these deliberations,
factors such as liquid characteristic,
minimum and normal NPSHA, and
normal operating flow must be
considered.
SUCTION SPECIFIC SPEED
The concept of suction specific speed
(Ss) must be considered by the pump
designer, pump application engineer,
and the system designed to ensure a
cavitation- free pump with high
reliability and the ability to operate over
a wide flow range.
The system designer should also

calculate the system suction specific
speed by substituting design flow rate
and the system designers NPSHA. The
pump speed N is generally determined
by the head or pressure required in the
system. For a low maintenance pump
system, Designers and most user
specifications require, or prefer, S2
values below 10,000 to 12,000.
However, as indicated above, the pump
Ss is dictated to a great extent by the
system conditions, design flow, head,
and the NPSHA. Figures 5 and 6 are
plots of S2 versus flow in gpm for
various NPSHA or NPSHR at 3,500 and
1,750 rpm. Similar plots can be made
for other common pump speeds. Using
curves from Figure 5 and Figure 6
allows the system designer to design
the system S2, i.e., for a system
requiring a 3,500 rpm pump with 20
feet of NPSHA, the maximum flow must
be limited to 1,000 gpm if the maximum
Ss is to be maintained at 12,000.
Various options are available, such as
reducing the head to allow 1,750 rpm
(Figure 7). This would allow flows to
4,000 gpm with 20 feet of NPSHA. It is
important for the pump user to
understand how critical the system
design requirements are to the
selection of a reliable, trouble-free
pump. Matching the system and pump
characteristics is a must. Frequently,

more attention is paid to the discharge
side. Yet it is well known that most
pump performance problems are
caused by problems on the suction side.
Figure 7 is a typical plot of the suction
and discharge systems. It is important
that points A, B, and C be well
established and understood. A is the
normal operating point. B is the
maximum flow for cavitation-free
operation. C is the minimum stable
flow, which is dictated by the suction
specific speed. As a general rule, the
higher the suction specific speed, the
higher the minimum stable flow
capacity will be. If a pump is always
operated at its best efficiency point, a
high value of Ss will not create
problems. However, if the pump is to be
operated at reduced flow, then the Ss
value must be given careful
consideration.
REFERENCES
1. Goulds Pump Manual.
2. Durco Pump Engineering Manual.
3. Hydraulic Institute Test Standards
1988 Centrifugal Pumps 1.6.
OPERATING & MAINTENANCE

INFORMATION
FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS
LOCATION
The heat exchanger should be located in
a clean, open area, where it is easily
accessible for
inspection, service and repair.
Allowance should be made for the
clearance required to remove the
tube bundle.
2. Install unit level and square so pipe

connections can be made without force.
During
installation and operation, unit should
be adequately supported to prevent
settling that could
cause piping strains.
3. Provide sufficient clearance at
channel end for removal and
replacement of tube bundle.
PIPING
(Minimum clearance = one length of the
Long radius elbows should be used in
shell)
place of standard elbows wherever
4. Provide positive shutoff valves and
possible, because of their
superior flow characteristics. Liberal use by-pass to permit both shell and
tubeside to be shut off for
of shut off valves is recommended to
inspection and service.
enable inspection
5. After installation and prior to startup
and service.
all head flange bolts should be retightened.
INSTALLATION
1. To move or lift the heat exchanger,
place a sling around the unit's inlet and OPERATION
Start up - Open cold side first; then start
outlet
connections. Verify that all equipment, hot side fluid slowly to gradually bring
including the sling, is certified to handle unit to operating condition. Bring unit
from ambient temperature up to
the total
operating temperature gradually. Do
weight of the heat exchanger. Carefully not introduce hot or cold fluids
lift to piping site. Avoid slinging at the
suddenly. This could damage the unit
bolted gasket
and void the warranty.
head joint area.
Shut down - Always close off flow of hot fluid first.

Important - Never admit hot fluid suddenly when unit is empty or cold. Do not
shock with cold water when unit is hot.
Gasket Creep is inherent to most gasket joints, and retorquing is required. The
greater the operating temperature and pressure the greater the problem can
become. It is imperative that the head bolts be torqued after installation, after
initial startup, and inspected seasonally to be sure the bolts are torqued correctly.
The bolts should be torqued incrementally to 30%, 60%, and then to 100% of the
appropriate value in Figure 1. They should be torqued in the sequential order of
the appropriate pattern in Figure 2
Vacuum Measurement
Units (Aliens vs. Humans)
I was once captured by aliens and
transported to their home planet,
which rotates around the star,
Sirus.
"Earthling," asked their manyeyed leader, "Explain how subatmospheric pressures are
quantified on the 3rd planet from
your home star/'
"Well, it's kinda complicated
"Yes! Yes! We know. That is why
we have brought you here.
So we may gain insight and
achieve understanding. Speak
now Earthling, or die."
"Oka. It's like this. In America, we
use the system of inches of Hg
vacuum, This is how it works:
At sea level, atmospheric pressure
is zero inches of Hg. And full
vacuum is 30 inches of Hg.
At a higher elevation, like Denver,
atmospheric pressure is zero
inches of Hg. And full vacuum is
28 inches of Hg.
Thus, a vacuum of 26 inches of Hg
at my home in New Orleans (at

sea level), is the same pressure as
24 inches of Hg in Denver. Both
are four inches of Hg above a
pressure of absolute zero."
The multi-eyed green aliens
glared at me with disbelief and
hostility.
"Okay. Don't get angry," I said.
"We've got a simpler system of
measurement too. It's based on
mm of Hg. There are 25.4 mm per
inch. Here is the alternate
method:
In Denver, zero mm of Hg is full
vacuum. And atmospheric
pressure is 709 mm of Hg.
Thus a vacuum either in Denver or
New Orleans of 102 mm of Hg is
the same pressure.
And this 102 mm of Hg is the
same pressure as 26 inches of Hg
vacuum at sea level in New
Orleans and 24 inches of Hg in
Denver/'
"Creature from the blue planet,

we think the 'mm of Hg/ is best,"
the hostile alien said.
"I agree. But we have other
systems as well. For example:
Minus 13 psig at sea level is the
same as 26 inches of Hg or 102
mm of Hg.
Minus 12 psig in Denver is the

same as 24 inches of Hg, or 102
mm of Hg."
vacuums. And then there are

inches of water draft used in fired
heaters. Also, shall I explain
negative kpa and millibars of
vacuum?" I continued.
"No earth creature," intoned the
many-eyed commander.
"Go home in peace. We have
decided not to invade your blue
planet. It's too complicated."
For me, I avoid all these
complications. I make all my
measurements with my digital
pressure gauge, which reads in
mm of Hg and needs no
correction for elevation. I also
carry out all calculations in mm of
Hg, and would advise the reader
to do the same.
My captors turned from green to

brown, just like the lizards in my
backyard. What did this signify?
"And then we have another
system," I continued to explain.
"Minus 0.5 BARG at sea level is
equal to 380 mm of Hg, or 15
"Earthman," they said, "The
inches of Hg vacuum, or minus7.5 environment of this planet is so
psig.
degraded, it will not be habitable
by intelligent life forms for a
'At a higher elevation, in Denver, minimum of another 128 solar
0.5 BARG is equal..."
cycles. It's not worth our trouble
to invade."
"Stop, Earthling!" screamed my
captors.
"And then there are inches of
water vacuum used at smaller
And then they were gone, without actually inquiring about our
vacuum systems. However, you may find the following Tables helpful.
Incidentally, I made up the part about my being captured by aliens
and then transported to their home planet. The truth is that once
they realized how complicated all of this stuff was, they released me
almost immediately
Source
Troubleshooting Vacuum Systems Steam Turbine Surface Condensers
and Refinery Vacuum Towers
Authored by Norman P. Lieberman
Overview of Biogas Digesters

Contents
1.
2.
Introduction.
Raw material for the biogas
plant (Substrates).
3. Advantages and
disadvantages in producing
biogas.
i.
Advantages.
ii.
Disadvantages.
4. Digester design.
i.
The Floating Drum digester
design.
ii.
The Fixed Dome digester
design.
iii. The Flexible Bag digester
design.
5. Operating the Digester.
6. Portable Bio-digester.
7. Biogas experimental data.
i.
Size of the digester.
ii.
Value equivalent of biogas
with other energy sources.
iii. Heating value of biogas.
iv. Composition of Biogas.
v.
Gas Yields and Methane
Contents for Various
Substrates.
List of Figures:
Figure (1): The Floating Drum
Digester Design.
Figure (2): The fixed dome
design.
Figure (3): The Flexible Bag
Design.
Figure (4): The Portable
Design.
List of Tables:
Table (1): Biogas is composed
of the following
Table (2): Gas yields and
methane contents for various
substrates at the end of a 1020 day retention time at a
process temperature of
roughly 30C.
Overview of Biogas Digesters

1. Introduction:
There is world-wide interest in
biogas production, and research is
undertaken and equipment
manufactured in very many
tropical countries.
Biogas is a combustible mixture of
methane (50 - 70%) and carbon
dioxide, with traces of hydrogen
sulphide and water. This gaseous
mixture is formed naturally. It is
produced spontaneously in the
rumens of cows. It is also given off
from the bottom of some marshes
and lakes, and from rubbish
dumps. It is formed by the process
of anaerobic digestion, in which
micro-organisms break down
organic material in the absence of
oxygen.
This process has been used to
treat sewage waste for over 100
years. The energy crises of the
1970s stimulated the construction
of digesters, particularly in India
and China, where there was
already a committed interest in
the process. Since the late 80s, a
great interest has developed in
many countries, partly because of
the fuel-wood crisis and partly

because of the improved
technology available.
In order to promote the
construction and use of digesters
at the household or village level,
therefore, it is important that
there exists:
At least one national supplier
of equipment suitable for
running on biogas lighting,
heating, refrigerators,
incubators etc.
The availability of credit
facilities, on good terms. This
usually requires government
backing.
2. Raw material for the biogas
plant (Substrates):
Substrates are biodegradable
materials, which can be used for
biogas production. The substrates,
which can be loaded to the biogas
digester, are the following:
Animal Wastes: chicken dung,
hog, cattle, goat manure.
Household Wastes: night soil
and kitchen refuse
Crop Residues: corn stalks, rice

straws, banana leaves, corncobs,
peanut hulls, cogon and bagasse,
water Lilly and grass cuttings.
Industrial Wastes: distillery slops,

coconut water, filter pressed
cake, banana and pineapple
peelings, Bottling wastes, fish

wastes and meat processing
wastes.
absorbed by the plants, and the

fibrous nature of the slurry
makes it a good soil conditioner.
If human feces are used, it may
lead to an improvement in
sanitation, and therefore health.
It leads to less deforestation, if
biogas is used in place of fuelwood.
An anaerobic digester uses
relatively simple technology.
3. Advantages and disadvantages in Small digesters can be made from
producing biogas:
locally available materials using
I There are many advantages in
locally available skills.
producing biogas:
Ii The disadvantages, however, are:
The gas can be used for cooking, The digester must be designed
lighting, heating and running
and constructed to a high
refrigerators, incubators and
standard.
engines. Small tractors have been Some skill is required in its
run from biogas, though the gas
operation.
cylinder must be transported by
Even a small-scale household
the tractor on a trailer.
sized digester is too costly for
It is produced from waste
many people.
materials.
The effluent is in the form of
The effluent from the process
liquid slurry, which requires
makes an excellent fertilizer. The
particular equipment to
nitrogen, potassium and
transport it to and spread it on
phosphorus present in the feed
the fields.
are made into a form more easily
4. Digester design
There are three widely used basic
designs, each of which can be
modified in the light of local
conditions and experience. They are:
1. The floating drum digester, from
India.
2. The fixed dome digester, from
China.
3. The flexible bag digester, from
Taiwan.
These digesters are essentially
cylindrical or partially spherical in
design. Such shapes are stronger, and
can be more easily sealed and made
water and gas tight than can a shape
with corners. Concrete and brick are
the best materials for construction.
up, the drum floats higher in the

liquid. As gas is used, the drum sinks
back down. If the drum becomes full
the gas bubbles out around the sides
and is lost to the air. The drum is
usually made from mild steel sheet,
welded around a light frame made of
welded steel angle bars. These bars
serve a second function - the drum is
rotated by hand and the bars stir up
the surface of the slurry, preventing
the formation of a solid layer, or
crust, of indigestible matter. If this
layer were allowed to form, then
there would be a serious pressure
build-up of gas beneath it.
The drum is held in place by a central
guide rod, which ensures that the
drum is free to rotate and does not
jam against the walls of the digester
I The Floating Drum digester design: while moving up and down.
The slurry is kept in a cylindrical pit in The major criticism of this design has
been of its cost (up to 35% of total
the ground. The pit is usually lined
expenditure) and the durability of
with bricks, similar to a dug water
well. The soil around the pit supports the steel drum, the biogas slurry is
corrosive to the steel.
the brick walls.
The gas is collected in a cylindrical

steel drum that floats inverted in the
slurry. As the quantity of gas builds
However, if the drum is conditioned properly initially and painted annually,

it should last a long time. Some drums have been reported to have lifetimes
greater than 30 years, while those that are poorly maintained will not last
more than five.
Figure (1): The Floating Drum Digester Design.
Ii The Fixed Dome digester design:

This type consists of an underground pit lined with brick or concrete with a
dome shaped cover, also made from brick or concrete. The cover is fixed and
held in place by earth (about 1m3) piled over the top to resist the pressure
of the gas inside. A second pit, the slurry reservoir, is built above and to the
side of the digester. As gas is given off it collects in the dome and displaces
some of the slurry into the reservoir. As gas is used the slurry flows back into
the digester to replace it.
The reservoir is built from brick or stone masonry. The gas is taken out form
the center of the dome, via a pipe which is supported by a small masonry
turret. Access to the digester pit during building, and also if the pit needs
cleaning, is through the slurry reservoir and outlet. The gas pressure inside a
typical dome plant can be as high as 1000 mm of water and can exert a force
of several tons upward from under the dome.
The main problem with the dome design is that concrete and brick masonry
are porous to biogas unless they are carefully sealed. In China, a cement and
lime plaster is used inside the dome, although it is possible to use polymer
based paints such as vinyl emulsion. However, epoxy and polyurethane
paints cannot be applied in a confined space since the fumes are toxic to
painters as well as to micro-organisms.
Figure (2): The fixed dome design.
Iii The Flexible Bag digester design:

This design uses a long cylindrical bag made of plastic supported in a trench
lined with masonry, concrete or compacted sand or mud. The slurry fills the
lower two-thirds of the bag and the gas collects above it. As the biogas is
used, the bag collapses.
The original rubber material used to make the bag was not very durable.
However, the introduction of a new material known as red mud plastic
(RMP) has proved to be much stronger and resistant to sunlight. Red mud
plastic is made from PVC and a filler material which is a by-product of
aluminum lining. Ten year lifetimes are claimed.
The major problem is the removal of the gas. A flexible PVC pipe coupling is
welded to the top of the bag but it must be capable of moving when the bag
inflates and deflates. There are reports of gas leakages at this point.
One of the attractions of this design is that its weight and compressibility
mean that it can be more easily transported to more remote locations.
However, the plastic is rather vulnerable to attack by children, goats, birds
and so on. Although it can be repaired, the necessary facilities may not
always be available locally.
Figure (3): The Flexible Bag Design.
5. Operating the Digester:

Household scale digesters are usually
run on a batch system. This requires
two digesters. The first is filled, and gas
output increases, peaks and then, as it
begins to decline, the second is filled
and brought on-line. The alternative is
to feed a larger digester once a day,
with a corresponding quantity being
withdrawn.
The feed must be chopped into small
pieces. The process is improved if the
Substrates are mixed with cow slurry,
which is rich in the micro-organisms
needed for digestion. The ratio of
substrates to cattle dung depends upon
the availability of cattle dung and the
size of the digester, but amounts as
small as 2% cattle dung are effective. A
lot will depend on the particular
experience in a location. Solid waste
must be mixed with water before being
put into the digester, possibly as much
as 10 parts water to 1 of solids.
The optimum temperature of operation
is between 30 and 35 degrees
centigrade. Some people say that 38 is
optimum. If the temperature drops
significantly, digestion will slow down,
or even stop altogether. The digestion
process can also be stopped altogether

if the micro-organisms are killed by
certain chemicals such as antibiotics,
disinfectants, detergents and
pesticides.
6. Portable Bio-digester:
Biogas Digester is a physical structure
whose main function is to provide
anaerobic condition (without the
presence of air) within it. This structure
when loaded by biodegradable
materials especially manure will
produce biogas. It is also known as
bioreactor or anaerobic reactor.
The mini biogas digester is just
equipped with all the required
materials that are square, welding,
riveting and fastening method to joint
all the part. This mini biogas digester
also equipped with rollers to make it
more portability and make it to be
friendlier to the user. The body of this
mini biogas digester is designed to
decrease it weight as light as possible
to increase its portability characteristic
and its volume of the body also
designed to get the bigger size as
possible but still suit with it
characteristic of portability and the
mini size.
Even though it is in mini size, the process stills same as the larger size
digester which is to produce methane gas to be used to replace cooking gas
as the example, and all the function still can operate like usual but the
volume is limited. The process of developing this digester is still considering
the suitable to the user and its ergonomic factor.
Figure (4): The Portable Design.
7. Biogas experimental data:

I Size of the digester:
A typical size for a household is between 5 and 10 cubic meters. The
following data might help in the decision about size.
Approximate gas consumption:
Cooking 250 liters per person per

day.
Lighting 120 to 150 liters per hour
per lamp.
Engine fuel 750 liters per kWh
power.
Fermentation time:
In hot, tropical countries 30-40
days.
In hot regions which only cool
slightly in winter 40-60 days.
More temperate climates, with
significantly cooler winters 60-90
days.
Ii Value equivalent of biogas with
other energy sources:
1 kilogram LPG = 0.45 cubic meter
biogas.
1 liter gasoline = 0.54 cubic meter
biogas.
1 liter diesel fuel = 0.52 cubic meter
biogas.
1 kilowatt hr. electricity = 1.0 cubic
meter biogas.
Iii Heating value of biogas:
The heating value of Biogas is 950
1050 BTU/ft3 or 20 Mega joules per
cubic meter. It has an ignition
temperature in the range of 650

degrees to 750 degrees Celsius.
Iv Composition of biogas:
Table (1): Biogas is composed of the
following
Substance
Methane
Carbon
Dioxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Water
Vapor
Hydrogen
Sulphide
Symbol
CH4
CO2
Percentage
50 70%
30 40%
H2
N2
H2O
5 10%
1 2%
0.3%
H2S
Traces
Iiv Gas Yields and Methane Contents

for Various Substrates:
Table (2): Gas yields and methane
contents for various substrates at the
end of a 10-20 day retention time at a
process temperature of roughly 30C.
Substrate
Gas yield (l/kg VS*)
Methane content (%)
Pig manure
340 550
65 70
Cow manure
90 310
65
Poultry droppings
310 620
60
Horse manure
200 300
N/A
Sheep manure
90 310
N/A
Barnyard dung
175 280
N/A
Wheat straw
200 300
50 60
Rye straw
200 300
59
Barley straw
250 300
59
Oats straw
290 310
59
Corn straw
380 460
59
Rape straw
200
N/A
Rice straw
170 280
N/A
Rice seed coat
105
N/A
Flax
360
59
Hemp
360
59
Grass
280 550
70
Elephant grass
430 560
60
Cane trash (bagasse)
165
N/A
Broom
405
N/A
Reed
170
N/A
Clover
430 490
N/A
Vegetables residue
330 360
N/A
Potato tops/greens
280 490
N/A
Field/sugar beet greens
400 - 500
N/A
Sunflower leaves
300
59
Agricultural waste
310 430
60 70
Seeds
620
N/A
Peanut shells
365
N/A
Fallen leaves
210 290
58
Water hyacinth
375
N/A
Algae
420 500
63
Sewage sludge
310 740
N/A
* VS = Total volatile solids, e.g. ca. 9% of total liquid manure mass for cows.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy is energy which
comes from natural resources such as
sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and
geothermal heat, which are
renewable (naturally replenished). In
2008, about 19% of global final
energy consumption came from
renewables, with 13% coming from
traditional biomass, which is mainly
used for heating, and 3.2% from
hydroelectricity. New renewables
(small hydro, modern biomass, wind,
solar, geothermal, and biofuels)
accounted for another 2.7% and are
growing very rapidly. The share of
renewables in electricity generation is
around 18%, with 15% of global
electricity coming from
hydroelectricity and 3% from new
renewables.
Wind power is growing at the rate of
30% annually, with a worldwide
installed capacity of 158 gigawatts
(GW) in 2009, and is widely used in
Europe, Asia, and the United States.
At the end of 2009, cumulative global
photovoltaic (PV) installations
surpassed 21 GW and PV power
stations are popular in Germany and
Spain. Solar thermal power stations
operate in the USA and Spain, and the

largest of these is the 354 megawatt
(MW) SEGS power plant in the
Mojave Desert. The world's largest
geothermal power installation is The
Geysers in California, with a rated
capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of
the largest renewable energy
programs in the world, involving
production of ethanol fuel from sugar
cane, and ethanol now provides 18%
of the country's automotive fuel.
Ethanol fuel is also widely available in
the USA.
While many renewable energy
projects are large-scale, renewable
technologies are also suited to rural
and remote areas, where energy is
often crucial in human development.
Globally, an estimated 3 million
households get power from small
solar PV systems. Micro-hydro
systems configured into village-scale
or county-scale mini-grids serve many
areas. More than 30 million rural
households get lighting and cooking
from biogas made in household-scale
digesters. Biomass cookstoves are
used by 160 million households.
Climate change concerns, coupled with

high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing
government support, are driving
increasing renewable energy
legislation, incentives and
commercialization. New government
spending, regulation and policies
helped the industry weather the global
financial crisis better than many other
sectors.
Renewable energy flows involve natural
phenomena such as sunlight, wind,
tides, plant growth, and geothermal
heat, as the International Energy
Agency explains:
Renewable energy is derived from
natural processes that are replenished
constantly. In its various forms, it
derives directly from the sun, or from
heat generated deep within the earth.
Included in the definition is electricity
and heat generated from solar, wind,
ocean, hydropower, biomass,
geothermal resources, and biofuels and
hydrogen derived from renewable
resources.
Renewable energy replaces
conventional fuels in four distinct
areas: power generation, hot water/

space heating, transport fuels, and
rural (off-grid) energy services:
Power generation. Renewable
energy provides 18 percent of total
electricity generation worldwide.
Renewable power generators are
spread across many countries, and
wind power alone already provides
a significant share of electricity in
some areas: for example, 14
percent in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40
percent in the northern German
state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20
percent in Denmark. Some
countries get most of their power
from renewables, including Iceland
(100 percent), Brazil (85 percent),
Austria (62 percent), New Zealand
(65 percent), and Sweden (54
percent).
Heating. Solar hot water makes an

important contribution in many
countries, most notably in China,
which now has 70 percent of the
global total (180 GWth). Most of
these systems are installed on multifamily apartment buildings and
meet a portion of the hot water
needs of an estimated 5060 million
households in China. Worldwide,
total installed solar water heating
systems meet a portion of the water
heating needs of over 70 million
households. The use of biomass for
heating continues to grow as well. In
Sweden, national use of biomass
energy has surpassed that of oil.
Direct geothermal for heating is also
growing rapidly.
Transport fuels. Renewable biofuels
have contributed to a significant
decline in oil consumption in the
United States since 2006. The 93
billion liters of biofuels produced
worldwide in 2009 displaced the
equivalent of an estimated 68 billion
liters of gasoline, equal to about 5
percent of world gasoline
production
Mainstream forms of renewable energy

Wind power
Airflows can be used to run wind
turbines. Modern wind turbines range
from around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated
power, although turbines with rated
output of 1.53 MW have become the
most common for commercial use; the
power output of a turbine is a function
of the cube of the wind speed, so as
wind speed increases, power output
increases dramatically. Areas where
winds are stronger and more constant,
such as offshore and high altitude sites,
are preferred locations for wind farms.
Typical capacity factors are 20-40%, with
values at the upper end of the range in
particularly favourable sites.
Globally, the long-term technical
potential of wind energy is believed to
be five times total current global energy
production, or 40 times current
electricity demand. This could require
large amounts of land to be used for
wind turbines, particularly in areas of
higher wind resources. Offshore
resources experience mean wind speeds
of ~90% greater than that of land, so
offshore resources could contribute
substantially more energy.
Wind power is renewable and produces

no greenhouse gases during operation,
such as carbon dioxide and methane.
Hydropower
Grand Coulee Dam is a hydroelectric

gravity dam on the Columbia River in
the U.S. state of Washington. The dam
supplies four power stations with an
installed capacity of 6,809 MW and is
the largest electric power-producing
facility in the United States.
Energy in water can be harnessed and
used. Since water is about 800 times
denser than air, even a slow flowing
stream of water, or moderate sea swell,
can yield considerable amounts of
energy. There are many forms of water
energy:
Hydroelectric energy is a term usually
reserved for large-scale hydroelectric
dams. Examples are the Grand Coulee
Dam in Washington State and the
Akosombo Dam in Ghana.

Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric
power installations that typically
produce up to 100 kW of power. They
are often used in water rich areas as a
remote-area power supply (RAPS). There
are many of these installations around
the world, including several delivering
around 50 kW in the Solomon Islands.
Damless hydro systems derive kinetic
energy from rivers and oceans without
using a dam.
Ocean energy describes all the
technologies to harness energy from the
ocean and the sea. This includes marine
current power, ocean thermal energy
conversion, and tidal power.
Solar energy
Monocrystalline
solar cell.
Solar energy is the energy derived from

the sun through the form of solar
radiation. Solar powered electrical
generation relies on photovoltaics and
heat engines. A partial list of other solar
applications includes space heating and
cooling through solar architecture,
daylighting, solar hot water, solar
cooking, and high temperature process
heat for industrial purposes.
Solar technologies are broadly
characterized as either passive solar or
active solar depending on the way they
capture, convert and distribute solar
energy. Active solar techniques include
the use of photovoltaic panels and solar
thermal collectors to harness the
energy. Passive solar techniques include
orienting a building to the Sun, selecting
materials with favorable thermal mass
or light dispersing properties, and
designing spaces that naturally circulate
air.
Biomass
Biomass (plant material) is a renewable
energy source because the energy it
contains comes from the sun. Through
the process of photosynthesis, plants
capture the sun's energy. When the
plants are burned, they release the sun's
energy they contain. In this way,

biomass functions as a sort of natural
battery for storing solar energy. As long
as biomass is produced sustainably, with
only as much used as is grown, the
battery will last indefinitely.
In general there are two main
approaches to using plants for energy
production: growing plants specifically
for energy use, and using the residues
from plants that are used for other
things. The best approaches vary from
region to region according to climate,
soils and geography.
Biofuel
Information on pump regarding ethanol

fuel blend up to 10%, California.
Liquid biofuel is usually either bioalcohol
such as bioethanol or an oil such as
biodiesel.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by

fermenting the sugar components of
plant materials and it is made mostly
from sugar and starch crops. With
advanced technology being developed,
cellulosic biomass, such as trees and
grasses, are also used as feedstocks for
ethanol production. Ethanol can be used
as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but
it is usually used as a gasoline additive
to increase octane and improve vehicle
emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in
the USA and in Brazil.
Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils,
animal fats or recycled greases.
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for
vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually
used as a diesel additive to reduce levels
of particulates, carbon monoxide, and
hydrocarbons from diesel-powered
vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils
or fats using transesterification and is
the most common biofuel in Europe.
Biofuels provided 1.8% of the world's
transport fuel in 2008.
Geothermal energy
Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast

Iceland
Geothermal energy is energy obtained
by tapping the heat of the earth itself,
both from kilometers deep into the
Earth's crust in some places of the globe
or from some meters in geothermal heat
pump in all the places of the planet . It is
expensive to build a power station but
operating costs are low resulting in low
energy costs for suitable sites.
Ultimately, this energy derives from heat
in the Earth's core.
Three types of power plants are used to
generate power from geothermal
energy: dry steam, flash, and binary. Dry
steam plants take steam out of fractures
in the ground and use it to directly drive
a turbine that spins a generator. Flash
plants take hot water, usually at
temperatures over 200 C, out of the
ground, and allows it to boil as it rises to
the surface then separates the steam
phase in steam/water separators and
then runs the steam through a turbine.
In binary plants, the hot water flows

through heat exchangers, boiling an
organic fluid that spins the turbine. The
condensed steam and remaining
geothermal fluid from all three types of
plants are injected back into the hot
rock to pick up more heat.
The geothermal energy from the core of
the Earth is closer to the surface in some
areas than in others. Where hot
underground steam or water can be
tapped and brought to the surface it
may be used to generate electricity.
Such geothermal power sources exist in
certain geologically unstable parts of the
world such as Chile, Iceland, New
Zealand, United States, the Philippines
and Italy. The two most prominent areas
for this in the United States are in the
Yellowstone basin and in northern
California. Iceland produced 170 MW
geothermal power and heated 86% of all
houses in the year 2000 through
geothermal energy. Some 8000 MW of
capacity is operational in total.
There is also the potential to generate
geothermal energy from hot dry rocks.
Holes at least 3 km deep are drilled into
the earth. Some of these holes pump
water into the earth, while other holes
pump hot water out. The heat resource

consists of hot underground radiogenic
granite rocks, which heat up when there
is enough sediment between the rock
and the earths surface. Several
companies in Australia are exploring this
technology.
Renewable energy commercialization
Growth of renewables
During the five-years from the end of
2004 through 2009, worldwide
renewable energy capacity grew at rates
of 1060 percent annually for many
technologies. For wind power and many
other renewable technologies, growth
accelerated in 2009 relative to the
previous four years. More wind power
capacity was added during 2009 than
any other renewable technology.
However, grid-connected PV increased
the fastest of all renewables
technologies, with a 60-percent annual
average growth rate for the five-year
period.
Selected renewable energy indicators

Selected global indicators
2007
2008
Investment in new renewable capacity (annual) 104
130
Existing renewables power capacity,
1,070
1,140
including large-scale hydro
Existing renewables power capacity,
240
280
excluding large hydro
Wind power capacity (existing)
94
121
Solar PV capacity (grid-connected)
7.6
13.5
Solar hot water capacity
126
149
Ethanol production (annual)
50
69
Biodiesel production (annual)
10
15
Countries with policy targets for renewable
68
75
energy use
2009
150 billion USD
1,230 GWe
305 GWe
159 GWe
21 GWe
180 GWth
76 billion liters
17 billion liters
85
Economic trends
All forms of energy are expensive, but as time progresses, renewable energy
generally gets cheaper, while fossil fuels generally get more expensive. Al Gore has
explained that renewable energy technologies are declining in price for three main
reasons:
First, once the renewable infrastructure is built, the fuel is free forever. Unlike
carbon-based fuels, the wind and the sun and the earth itself provide fuel that is
free, in amounts that are effectively limitless.
Second, while fossil fuel technologies are more mature, renewable energy
technologies are being rapidly improved. So innovation and ingenuity give us the
ability to constantly increase the efficiency of renewable energy and continually
reduce its cost.
Third, once the world makes a clear commitment to shifting toward renewable
energy, the volume of production will itself sharply reduce the cost of each
windmill and each solar panel, while adding yet more incentives for additional
research and development to further speed up the innovation process.
Wind power market
Wind power: worldwide installed capacity 1996-2008

At the end of 2009, worldwide wind farm capacity was 157,900 MW, representing
an increase of 31 percent during the year, and wind power supplied some 1.3% of
global electricity consumption. Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of
electricity use in Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the
Republic of Ireland. The United States is an important growth area and installed
U.S. wind power capacity reached 25,170 MW at the end of 2008. As of November
2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm (781 MW) is the world's largest wind farm.
As of September 2010, the Thanet Offshore Wind Project in United Kingdom is the
largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209
MW) in Denmark. The United Kingdom is the world's leading generator of offshore
wind power, followed by Denmark.
New generation of solar thermal plants
Large solar thermal power stations

include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar
Energy Generating Systems power plant
in the USA, Solnova Solar Power Station
(Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power
station (Spain, 100 MW), Nevada Solar
One (USA, 64 MW), PS20 solar power
tower (Spain, 20 MW), and the PS10
solar power tower (Spain, 11 MW).
The solar thermal power industry is
growing rapidly with 1.2 GW under
construction as of April 2009 and
another 13.9 GW announced globally
through 2014. Spain is the epicenter of
solar thermal power development with
22 projects for 1,037 MW under
construction, all of which are projected
to come online by the end of 2010. In
the United States, 5,600 MW of solar
thermal power projects have been
announced. In developing countries,
three World Bank projects for integrated
solar thermal/combined-cycle gasturbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico,
and Morocco have been approved.
Photovoltaic market
40 MW PV Array installed in
Waldpolenz, Germany
Photovoltaic production has been
increasing by an average of some 20
percent each year since 2002, making it
a fast-growing energy technology. At the
end of 2009, the cumulative global PV
installations surpassed 21,000
megawatts.
As of November 2010, the largest
photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the
world are the Finsterwalde Solar Park
(Germany, 80.7 MW), Sarnia
Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 80
MW), Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park
(Spain, 60 MW), the Strasskirchen Solar
Park (Germany, 54 MW), the Lieberose
Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 53 MW),
and the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park
(Spain, 50 MW). Many of these plants
are integrated with agriculture and
some use innovative tracking systems
that follow the sun's daily path across
the sky to generate more electricity than
conventional fixed-mounted systems.
There are no fuel costs or emissions
during operation of the power stations.
Topaz Solar Farm is a proposed 550 MW

solar photovoltaic power plant which is
to be built northwest of California Valley
in the USA at a cost of over $1 billion.
High Plains Ranch is a proposed 250 MW
solar photovoltaic power plant which is
to be built on the Carrizo Plain,
northwest of California Valley.
However, when it comes to renewable
energy systems and PV, it is not just large
systems that matter. Building-integrated
photovoltaics or "onsite" PV systems use
existing land and structures and generate
power close to where it is consumed.
Use of ethanol for transportation
program uses modern equipment and

cheap sugar cane as feedstock, and the
residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to
process heat and power. There are no
longer light vehicles in Brazil running on
pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there
were 35,000 filling stations throughout
Brazil with at least one ethanol pump.
Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United
States today is mixed with 10 percent
ethanol, a mix known as E10, and motor
vehicle manufacturers already produce
vehicles designed to run on much higher
ethanol blends. Ford, DaimlerChrysler,
and GM are among the automobile
companies that sell flexible-fuel cars,
trucks, and minivans that can use
gasoline and ethanol blends ranging
from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol
(E85). By mid-2006, there were
approximately six million E85-compatible
vehicles on U.S. roads. The challenge is
to expand the market for biofuels
E95 trial bus operating in So Paulo,
beyond the farm states where they have
Brazil.
been most popular to date. Flex-fuel
Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an
vehicles are assisting in this transition
ethanol fuel program which has allowed because they allow drivers to choose
the country to become the world's
different fuels based on price and
second largest producer of ethanol (after availability. The Energy Policy Act of
the United States) and the world's
2005, which calls for 7.5
largest exporter. Brazils ethanol fuel
billion gallons of biofuels to be used

annually by 2012, will also help to
expand the market.
Geothermal energy commercialization
assumed to have little exploitable

resource.
In 2010, the United States led the world
in geothermal electricity production with
3,086 MW of installed capacity from 77
power plants; the largest group of
geothermal power plants in the world is
located at The Geysers, a geothermal
field in California. The Philippines follows
the US as the second highest producer of
geothermal power in the world, with
1,904 MW of capacity online;
geothermal power makes up
approximately 18% of the country's
electricity generation.
Geothermal (ground source) heat pumps
represented an estimated 30 GWth of
The West Ford Flat power plant is one of installed capacity at the end of 2008,
with other direct uses of geothermal
22 power plants at The Geysers.
heat (i.e., for space heating, agricultural
The International Geothermal
drying and other uses) reaching an
Association (IGA) has reported that
10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal estimated 15 GWth. As of 2008, at least
power in 24 countries is online, which is 76 countries use direct geothermal
energy in some form.
expected to generate 67,246 GWh of
electricity in 2010. This represents a 20% Wave farms expansion
increase in geothermal power online
capacity since 2005. IGA projects this will
grow to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to the
large number of projects presently under
consideration, often in areas previously
One of 3 Pelamis Wave Energy

Converters in the harbor of Peniche,
Portugal
Portugal now has the world's first
commercial wave farm, the Agucadoura
Wave Park, officially opened in
September 2008. The farm uses three
Pelamis P-750 machines generating 2.25
MW. Initial costs are put at 8.5 million.
A second phase of the project is now
planned to increase the installed
capacity to 21MW using a further 25
Pelamis machines.]
Funding for a wave farm in Scotland was
announced in February, 2007 by the
Scottish Government, at a cost of over 4
million pounds, as part of a UK13
million funding packages for ocean
power in Scotland. The farm will be the
world's largest with a capacity of 3MW
generated by four Pelamis machines.
Developing country markets
Renewable energy can be particularly
suitable for developing countries. In rural
and remote areas, transmission and
distribution of energy generated from
fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive.
Producing renewable energy locally can
offer a viable alternative.
Biomass cookstoves are used by 40
percent of the worlds population. These

stoves are being manufactured in
factories and workshops worldwide, and
more than 160 million households now
use them. More than 30 million rural
households get lighting and cooking from
biogas made in household-scale
digesters. An estimated 3 million
households get power from small solar
PV systems. Micro-hydro systems
configured into village-scale or countyscale mini-grids serve many areas.
Kenya is the world leader in the number
of solar power systems installed per
capita. More than 30,000 very small
solar panels, each producing 12 to 30
watts, are sold in Kenya annually.
Renewable energy projects in many
developing countries have demonstrated
that renewable energy can directly
contribute to poverty alleviation by
providing the energy needed for creating
businesses and employment. Renewable
energy technologies can also make
indirect contributions to alleviating
poverty by providing energy for cooking,
space heating, and lighting. Renewable
energy can also contribute to education,
by providing electricity to schools.
Industry and policy trends
Global renewable energy investment

growth (1995-2007)
Global revenues for solar photovoltaics,
wind power, and biofuels expanded from
$76 billion in 2007 to $115 billion in
2008. New global investments in clean
energy technologies expanded by 4.7
percent from $148 billion in 2007 to
$155 billion in 2008. U.S. President
Barack Obama's American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act of 2009 includes more
than $70 billion in direct spending and
tax credits for clean energy and
associated transportation programs.
Clean Edge suggests that the
commercialization of clean energy will
help countries around the world pull out
of the current economic malaise. Leading
renewable energy companies include
First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Q-Cells,
Sharp Solar, Siemens, SunOpta, Suntech,

and Vestas.
The International Renewable Energy
Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental
organization for promoting the adoption
of renewable energy worldwide. It aims
to provide concrete policy advice and
facilitate capacity building and
technology transfer. IRENA was formed
on January 26, 2009, by 75 countries
signing the charter of IRENA. As of March
2010, IRENA has 143 member states who
all are considered as founding members,
of which 14 have also ratified the
statute.
Renewable energy policy targets exist in
some 73 countries around the world, and
public policies to promote renewable
energy use have become more common
in recent years. At least 64 countries
have some type of policy to promote
renewable power generation. Mandates
for solar hot water in new construction
are becoming more common at both
national and local levels. Mandates for
blending biofuels into vehicle fuels have
been enacted in 17 countries.
New and emerging renewable energy
technologies
New and emerging renewable energy technologies are still under development and
include cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. These
technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization.
Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable
energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and
research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding.
Cellulosic ethanol
Companies such as Iogen, Broin, and Abengoa are building refineries that can
process biomass and turn it into ethanol, while companies such as Diversa,
Novozymes, and Dyadic are producing enzymes which could enable a cellulosic
ethanol future. The shift from food crop feedstocks to waste residues and native
grasses offers significant opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to
biotechnology firms, and from project developers to investors.
Selected Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plants in the U.S.
(Operational or under construction)
Company
Location
Feedstock
Abengoa Bioenergy
Hugoton, KS
Wheat straw
BlueFire Ethanol
Irvine, CA
Multiple sources
Gulf Coast Energy
Mossy Head, FL
Wood waste
Mascoma
Lansing, MI
Wood
POET LLC
Emmetsburg, IA
Corn cobs
Range Fuels
Treutlen County, GA
Wood waste
SunOpta
Little Falls, MN
Wood chips
Xethanol
Auburndale, FL
Citrus peels
Ocean energy
Systems to harvest utility-scale electrical
power from ocean waves have recently
been gaining momentum as a viable
technology. The potential for this
technology is considered promising,
especially on west-facing coasts with
latitudes between 40 and 60 degrees:
In the United Kingdom, for example, the
Carbon Trust recently estimated the
extent of the economically viable
offshore resource at 55 TWh per year,
about 14% of current national demand.
Across Europe, the technologically
achievable resource has been estimated
to be at least 280 TWh per year. In 2003,
the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) estimated the viable resource in
the United States at 255 TWh per year
(6% of demand).
The world's first commercial tidal power
station was installed in 2007 in the
narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland.
The 1.2 megawatt underwater tidal
electricity generator, part of Northern
Ireland's Environment & Renewable
Energy Fund scheme, takes advantage of
the fast tidal flow (up to 4 metres per
second) in the lough. Although the
generator is powerful enough to power a
thousand homes, the turbine has

minimal environmental impact, as it is
almost entirely submerged, and the
rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they
turn quite slowly.
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
uses the temperature difference that
exists between deep and shallow waters
to run a heat engine.
Enhanced Geothermal Systems
Enhanced geothermal system

1:Reservoir 2:Pump house
3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall
5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot
water to district heating
8:Porous sediments 9:Observation well
10:Crystalline bedrock
Enhanced Geothermal Systems are a

new type of geothermal power
technologies that do not require natural
convective hydrothermal resources. The
vast majority of geothermal energy
within drilling reach is in dry and nonporous rock. EGS technologies "enhance"
and/or create geothermal resources in
this "hot dry rock (HDR)" through
hydraulic stimulation.
EGS / HDR technologies, like
hydrothermal geothermal, are expected
to be baseload resources which produce
power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant.
Distinct from hydrothermal, HDR / EGS
may be feasible anywhere in the world,
depending on the economic limits of drill
depth. Good locations are over deep
granite covered by a thick (35 km) layer
of insulating sediments which slow heat
loss.
There are HDR and EGS systems currently
being developed and tested in France,
Australia, Japan, Germany, the U.S. and
Switzerland. The largest EGS project in
the world is a 25 megawatt
demonstration plant currently being
developed in the Cooper Basin, Australia.
The Cooper Basin has the potential to
generate 5,00010,000 MW.
Nanotechnology thin-film solar panels
Solar power panels that use

nanotechnology, which can create
circuits out of individual silicon
molecules, may cost half as much as
traditional photovoltaic cells, according
to executives and investors involved in
developing the products. Nanosolar has
secured more than $100 million from
investors to build a factory for
nanotechnology thin-film solar panels.
Renewable energy debate
Renewable electricity production, from
sources such as wind power and solar
power, is sometimes criticized for being
variable or intermittent. However, the
International Energy Agency has stated
that deployment of renewable
technologies usually increases the
diversity of electricity sources and,
through local generation, contributes to
the flexibility of the system and its
resistance to central shocks.
There have been "not in my back yard"
(NIMBY) concerns relating to the visual
and other impacts of some wind farms,
with local residents sometimes fighting
or blocking construction. In the USA, the
Massachusetts Cape Wind project was
delayed for years partly because of
aesthetic concerns.
However, residents in other areas have

been more positive and there are many
examples of community wind farm
developments. According to a town
councilor, the overwhelming majority of
locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind
Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area.
Renewable energy in Egypt
Since the 1970s, Egypt has had a policy
on use of renewable energy
resources. In early 1980s, a renewable
energy strategy was formulated by the
countrys Ministry of Electricity & Energy
as an integral part of national energy
planning. The strategy has been revised
in the light of the projections for possible
new renewable energy technologies and
application options, the available
financing sources and investment
opportunities in the field.
Currently, Egypts strategy has adopted a
target to meet 20% of electrical energy
demand from renewable energy
resources by the year 2020, including
about 12% from wind power, hydro
power with additional contributions
from other renewable applications.
While Egypts greenhouse gas emissions
have been among the fastest growing in
the world, the country is acting to
reverse the trend with the help of the

recently established Clean Technology
Fund aimed at scaling up low-carbon
technologies and energy efficiency.
Egypt is among the first countries to tap
the $5.2 billion fund currently supported
by eight governments, managed by the
World Bank, and administered through
the World Bank Group and other
multilateral development banks.
Egypt plans to use $300 million in
concessional financing from the fund,
blended with financing from the World
Bank Group, the African Development
Bank, bilateral development agencies,
private sector and other sources to spur
wind power development and introduce
clean transport optionsenabling the
country to meet its
target of 20 percent of energy from
renewable sources by 2020.
Under business-as-usual conditions,
Egypt could face a 50 percent increase in
greenhouse gas emissions from 2007
levels in the electricity sector alone.
Electricity and transport contribute over
70 percent of the greenhouse gas
emissions in the country.
But Egypt considered a leader in the

region on renewable energy and energy
efficiencyhopes to change that
scenario by realizing a 7200 MW wind
power capacity by 2020, cutting vehicle
emissions in heavily populated regions
through improved public transportation
systems and making industry more
energy efficient.
Egypt is also a participant in a proposed
CTF co-financed regional programme to
scale up concentrating solar power
plants in the Middle East and North
Africa (MENA).
From a global perspective, it is critical
that the best solar resources are used for
solar scale-up and MENA region offers
this opportunity, says Jonathan Walters,
transport and energy manager for the
World Banks Middle East and North
Africa region. Egypt is piloting a small
scale concentrating power plant with
support from the Global Environment
Facility and Japan Bank for International
Cooperation.
Wind Power
On wind energy, high and persistent
winds in the Gulf of Suez suggest Egypt
has excellent potential for wind power
among the best in the world, says
Walters.
The government and partners such as IFC

of the World Bank Group have already
financed 400 megawatts of wind-energy
capacity. Another 600 megawatts of
projects are in the pipeline and expect to
start in the next two to four years.
But further development has so far been
constrained by lack of infrastructure. For
that reason, the government plans to use
$100-$120 million in Clean Technology
Fund money to co-finance a highcapacity transmission system from the
wind farms in the Gulf of Suez to serve
heavily populated areas such as Cairo.
Without CTF financing, such
infrastructure development could be
delayed three to five years, according to
the CTF Investment Plan for Egypt.
The funding is quite game-changing for
them, says Walters. It comes with cofinancing from the Multilateral
Development Banks (MDBs) that include
World Bank, the African Development
Bank and the IFC. Putting $300 million of
concessional financing into the mix
overall is quite a significant subsidy for
investments that have a substantial
impact on reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
Eng. Abdel Rahman, Chairman of Egypts

National Renewable Energy Agency
(NREA), says the CTF will alleviate some
of the financial burden of higher
renewable
energy prices, especially in light of
current low prices of oil.
The CTF is a strong support tool for
developing countries with a serious plan
to expand renewable energy, and it is
even more effective in these times of
financial crisis, says Rahman.
The CTF supports those countries that
are still backing the renewable energy
plans they set forth. It also supports
availing infrastructures, such as
transmission lines that make scaling up
of RE possible, and gives confidence to
investors to invest in RE in the region.
Urban Transport
Likewise, CTF funds, combined with
World Bank financing, will accelerate
Egypts urban transport plans, including
light rail and bus rapid transit
development expected to accommodate
5 million passengers daily in Greater
Cairo.
Half of Egypts vehicles operate in the
area and account for 20 million

motorized person trips a day and about
13 million tons of CO2 a year. The
economic and environmental costs of the
megacitys pollution and traffic
congestion have been considerable, says
Walters.
To alleviate traffic and reduce CO2
emissions by about 1.5 million tons a
year, the government is planning six new
bus rapid transit corridors in Cairo, and
light rail transit to connect Cairo with
fast-growing suburbs.
The plan also calls for replacing 613 old
and polluting public minibuses with
1,310 large clean technology buses.
In 1986, Egypt established the New &
Renewable Energy Authority (NREA) to
act as the national focal point for
expanding efforts to develop and
introduce renewable energy
technologies on a commercial scale
together with implementation of related
energy conservation programmes.
1.
What are the field operator roles?

Monitoring & inspection of all rotating equipments for any
abnormalities like abnormal sound, checking lube oil levels, motor
load (Amps), suction & discharge pressures, suction strainers DP (If
DP gauge available, normally for compressors suction strainers will
be provided with DP gauges) etc. and if any abnormalities are
found informs to panel operator to raise the work order.
Monitoring & inspection of all instruments, checking all the control
valves for any hunting, gland leak, instrument air leak etc.
comparing the local gauge reading with respective transmitters and
if there is any deviation or abnormalities, informs to panel operator
to raise the work order.
Check the plant thoroughly and records readings.
Collecting samples and send to laboratory for analysis, based on
the results adjusting the parameters, like adjusting the chemical
doings (for example steam drum BFW PH: 9 to 10, TSS: 0 to 6 mg/l,
Phosphate: 5 to 10mg/l, Silica: 0 to 0.3 mg/l).
Prepares equipment for maintenance and re-commission when
completed.
Undertakes minor maintenance like providing 1 hose connections
for any purging or draining, topping up the lubricating oils for
pumps and housekeeping etc.
Monitors chemical inventory levels and adding dosing chemicals as
required to the system.
Responds to emergency situations as a team member and follows
the emergency procedures.
Undertakes minor troubleshooting like stabilizing the flame by
adjusting the air to burners, back flushing the strainers if required,
de-chocking the sample points, if the control valve is hunting taking
the control valve on hand jack, if control valve not having hand jack
than slowly open the control valve bypass and isolated the control
valve U/S & D/S valve and hand over to maintenance (controlling
the flow by adjusting the bypass valve) etc. all trouble shootings
will be done by communicating to panel and following panel
instructions.
Co-ordination with various maintenance departments such as
mechanical, instruments and electrical in carrying out maintenance
activities.
2.
3.
Participates in planned plant shut down procedures preparations,

like preparing isolation list, blind list and equipment hand over
procedure. Responsible for smooth shut down and start up of the
plant.
Why permit is required to carry out any work?

Permit is required to carry out the job safely and to eliminate all
near misses and incidents.
Work scope will be clearly described in the permit and all the
hazards involved in that job will be clearly identified and all the
necessary control measures will be taken in advance before starting
the job and job can be performed in safe manner.
Before starting the job all the hazards involved in that job and all
the necessary control measures will be discussed with performing
party and with the work group, so that all the necessary
precautions will be taken in advance to protect people,
environment and equipment from potential hazards.
With permit we can Control the work starting time and work
completing time.
Before opening the permit what are the things to

be checked?
Read the job description which is written in the permit and
understand the job scope.
Check for the permit validity and the issuing authority signature
(Supervisor).
Check for all the isolations and safety precautions mentioned in the
permit.
Inform to panel operator about the job and get the clearance from
him.
Ensure all isolations are in place and all the safety precautions
mentioned in the permit are followed ( Equipment isolation, depressurization, purging, gas testing, if it is a hot work ensure
surrounding about 10 to 15 meters area is free of combustible
gasses & liquids, for hot work water hose, fire extinguisher and
continues gas monitoring is required. Also safety watch is required
for continues monitoring the work.
Ensure supporting documents (Job Safety Analysis (JSA), Isolation
list, blind list, Material Safety Data sheet (MSDS) etc, are attached
along with the permit as per the permit requirements.
Read the Job Safety Analysis (JSA) which is attached along with the
permit and inform the performing part to follow all the precautions
mentioned in the JSA. For all the permits JSA will be attached (JSA
is a mandatory supporting document for all kind of permits).
Ask the performing party (maintenance person who is going to
perform the job) to explain the job scope, nearest master points,
and inform performing party to conduct tool box talk for his work
group about the identified hazards and control measures.
4. Types of work permits: We are having three types of

permits, those are hot work permit, cold work permit and
confined space permit.
Cold work permit. Cold Work is any work activity that does not
involve a source of ignition. For example: -, bolting and unbolting of
pipeline and vessel flanges using hand tools (if pneumatic tools are
used than it comes under hot work), removal of electrical and
instrument equipment which has been already de-energized (For
electrical isolation or de-isolation hot work permit is required),
manual excavations to a depth of less than 1.2 meters (If jack
hammer is used for excavation than it comes under hot work, if the
depth is more than 1.2 meters than along with cold permit
excavation permit also required) etc., Normally permit color will be
Blue. It can be renewed for 5 Shifts or 2.5 Days (This renewal period
will vary company to company). Some cold work activity may
require to have continues gas monitoring this will be decided based
on the activity (for example cleaning vessel or sump from inside,
excavation if the depth is more than 1.2 meters etc. for all this
continues gas monitoring is required). Where a gas test is identified
as necessary, an initial gas test must be conducted prior to the start
of the work.
Hot work permit. Any work activity involving a source or potential

source of ignition. Hot work requires an initial gas test prior to the
work start and continuous gas monitoring throughout the work.
Examples of hot work involving a source of ignition are welding,
burning, grinding, disk cutting. Examples of hot work involving a
potential source of ignition are: portable engines (generators, car
engines), sand blasting, working on electrical / electronic
equipments, use of soldering irons, steel wire brushes, use of
battery powered cameras, work with X-ray radiation sources etc.
Normally permit color will be Red. Hot work permit is valid for only
one shift, for hot work we have to do the gas test around the work
area about 10 to 15 meters circumstances. If any welding or
grinding job, work spot to be covered with flame retardant blanket
(flame proof tarpaulin) so that no sparks are spread. For all hot
works fire extinguisher and water hose to be kept as stand by. For
welding or other big hot works one person should be assigned as
safety watch.
Confined Space permit. Normally permit color will be Yellow or
Green and it will be valid up to 14 days (This renewal period will
vary company to company). For all confined spaces before
entry/starting the job gas test to be done and continues gas
monitoring is required. We have to follow all confined space
procedure. Mainly positive isolation, gas freeing, ventilation,
providing enough lighting and safety watch. Confined space permit
is only to enter in to a confined space, to work inside the confined
space along with confined space permit cold or hot work permit is
required based on the activity (If there is source of ignition than
hot work permit is required and if there is no source of ignition
than cold work permit can be taken)
Excavation permit. For excavation there is no separate permit, it is

only a supporting document. This document is attached along with
hot or cold work permit. If they are doing excavation with hand
tools they have to take Cold work permit and excavation document
to be attached with that permit as a supporting document. If they
are doing excavation with Jack hammer or any other tools which
may creates spark than they have to take hot work permit along
with Excavation document. Normally excavation permit (document)
color will be White and it will be valid up to 30 days (This document
validity period may vary company to company). This excavation
permit (document) will contain all department heads signatures i.e.
Electrical, Instrument, Maintenance and operation. Before signing
this excavation document all departments will check and ensure
that there are no underground cables in that excavated area. This
excavation document is required only if the excavation depth is
more than 0.25 meters. If the excavation depth is less than 0.25
meters than excavation permit (document) is not required, only
cold or hot work permit (Based on the tools used) is enough to
carry out the excavation. If the excavation depth is more than 1.2
meters along with excavation document confined space permit and
cold or hot work permit is required (Based on the tools used) to
carry out further excavation. If the depth more than 1.2 meters
prior to start the job gas test is required and confined space
procedure to be followed. Manly continues gas monitoring (maybe
there will be risk of oxygen deficiency) and safety watch is
mandatory.
Electrical Permit. There is no separate permit for electrical job. Hot
work permit is used for electrical isolation or electrical de-isolation.
For all electrical jobs hot work permit is used and also for vehicle
entries hot permit is used. Where ever there is source of ignition
than hot work permit is used.
5. What is mean by confined space?
Entry is possible but the entry and exit is physically restricted or

difficult.
There is a risk oxygen deficiency.
There is risk of accumulation of dust and hazards gases.
For example storage tanks, process vessels, boilers, columns and

pits (excavations depth more than 1.2 Meters) etc.,
6. What are the precautions to be taken during

confined space entry?
All the lines connected to the vessel to be isolated positively.

Purge the vessel with nitrogen or with steam to remove all the
flammable & hazards gasses, check for the gas test if LEL - 0%, CO
0 PPM & H2S - 0PPM than fix the blinds close to the vessel.
Open the man ways and fix the exhaust fan at top man way and
provide the ventilation to increase the O2 content to 20.8%. (If the
vessel has only one may way fix the exhaust fan at that man way
and keep the top vent & bottom drain open to atmosphere, so that
air will be sucked from the vent and drain and exhausted through
the man way).
Check for the Gas test inside the vessel (Before doing gas test stop
the exhaust fan for 10 to 15 Min and do the gas test. If the exhausts
fan running it will not give the correct reading, because fresh air
will be circulating it will sweep out the hazardous gas.)
If the gas test result is ok (LEL- 0%, H2S- 0PPM, CO- 0PPM, O220.9%) than confined space Permit can be issued. To enter in to the
confined space O2 content should be above 19% and below 23%.
For confined Space entry all the time stand by person should be
standing outside and watching the inside people and Exhaust fan
should be running for ventilation.
Stand by person will be maintaining the record of the people
working inside the confined space (i.e. Name of the person,
Emp.No, Time In, Time Out). All the time he has to monitor in side
working persons, If he see inside any abnormality he as to call for
help to rescue the inside people. Stand by person should not enter
inside the vessel to rescue people.
For most of the confined spaces continues gas testing is required.

Once the job is stopped for some time for any break, than before
restarting the job gas test to be done.
7. Handing over of any equipment or vessel for

maintenance.
Positive isolation: - Isolate all connected lines to the equipment

(Inlet valve, Outlet valve, drain valve, vent valve, PRV valves etc.).
If the vessel contains flammable or toxic gas than Depressurize the
vessel to flare.
If there is any H/C condensate or chemical drain it to the tank.
Purge with Nitrogen to flare by pressure bumping (Pressuring up to
6 bar and de-pressuring) 7 to 8 times and check for LEL & H2S
concentration, If LEL is 0% and H2S is less than 5 PPM, stop purging
with nitrogen.
Fix blinds at all lines connected to the vessel (nearest to the vessel).
If the equipment contains Pyrophoric iron than required do the
steam purge for minimum 8 Hours. This required for removal of
Pyrophoric iron, During steaming open vessel top vent to
atmosphere and time-to-time drain the condensate to closed drain.
After stopping steam purge keep KOD vent open to avoid vacuum
formation during steam condensation.
Open top and bottom man way and fix exhaust fan at top man way
for air ventilation (to remove purge N2 and to bring up O2 content
to 21%).
Keep exhaust fan running for 6 to 8 hours and check for gas test. If
the gas test is Ok and O2 is about 20.8% than confined space
Permit can be issued.
For confined Space entry all the time stand by person should be
standing out side and watching the inside people. Also keep the
exhaust fans running for ventilation.
8. Inside the plant if you see one person is fall down

unconsciously, what are the actions you will take?
Check the wind direction and come out from that location (Come
out cross wind direction).
Communicate the message to Panel operator and get the help.
Wear breathing apparatus, take help of the other people (All
should wear breathing apparatus, dont go alone) and rescue the
Victim.
Check the area with the defender for any gas leak. If there is any
gas leak find the source of the leak, inform to panel operator and
isolate the source of leak.
Clear the area (if there is any H/C liquid spill than flush with water,
If only gas leak than gas will disperse by the wind). Check the area
with portable gas defender and if the gas test is OK and area is safe
inform panel operator that area is safe and all clear (siren) can be
given.
9. What is mean by near miss and Incident?
Near miss means by luck nothing happen but there is possibility

(potential) to cause incident. Example: Walking inside the plant
without helmet (Now nothing happen but there is chance to get
injury) it is a warning that procedures are not being followed
correctly, Maintenance working without permit (There is possibility
for incident), Walking under suspended loads (There is chance to
get injury), Not using correct tools for the job (There is chance to
get injury), erecting scaffolding without barricading the area (There
is chance to get injury who is walking in that area) etc. If we ignore
the near misses these near misses will lead to incidents. So all near
misses as to be reported and corrected immediately to avoid the
incidents happening.
When an injury, loss or damage occurs that is called Incident.
Example: person getting injured while working, Oil spill or
production loss (Plant trip due to human error or due to equipment
failure), property damaged (line damage, pump damage, motor
burned or something broken etc).
10. Have you handled any near miss? If so what is the

probable reason?
There was a scaffolding erecting job was going on pipe rack for
attending steam valve gland leak. Bottom area was not barricaded
and one scaffolding pipe follow-down and luckily nobody was
injured. I stopped the job and asked them to barricade the area
and I told them to take care of loose materials.
During shut down, Inspection person enter in to the vessel without
following the confined space procedure (Vessel was ready for
inspection and Confined space permit was issued but when he
entered in to the vessel at that time there was no safety watch).
Asked him to come out and explained him the confined space
procedure and hazards involved. Later job was carried out by
following confined space procedure.
11. Have you handled any emergency or incidents?
Naphtha vaporizer outlet line there was a flange leak and got fire
(since the operating temp is more than auto ignition temp 230C).
Immediately inform to panel operator and trip initiated by
activating field trip switch and fire was extinguished with the help
fire people by using DCP (dry chemical powder).
Syn Gas Compressor discharge PT impulse line ferrule was broken,
tube came out and there was big gas leak, nearby gas detector got
activated. There was gas alarm (Siren) and also Panel operator
informed me about the gas detector activation. I went to SIH, wear
BA set and I waited for EMS (Emergency Management Service) and
On Scene Commander (Supervisor). Once they arrived, I gone along
with EMS personnel and identify the leak, communicated to panel
and isolate the source of leak. After isolating the source of leak,
surrounding area checked once again with defender and confirmed
that the area was safe (No LEL) and all clear was given.
12. How to line up steam system?
Before opening the steam first remove all the holdup condensate in
the system by opening the drains.
Open the main steam valve bypass valve and slowly warm up the
line and remove all the condensate.
Once it is fully warmed up, Line up all the traps and make sure all
traps are working and then slowly line up the main steam isolation
valve.
13. What is TLV for H2S?
Threshold Limit Value for H2S is 10 PPM.
14. If there is Toxic gas leak alarm actuated? Where

you will go?
Filed operator action: Hearing the announcement I will move to the

SIH and communicate to panel. If the activated alarm is in my area I
will wear BA set and I will wait for EMS (Emergency Management
Service) and On Scene Commander (Supervisor). Once they arrive I
will go along with EMS personnel to identify and isolate the source
of leak.
If the alarm activated in not in my area then I will go to the SIH and
communicate to the panel that I am safe (This information is
required for head count purpose). All non-operating persons
(maintenance people) have to go to nearest muster point based on
the wind direction.
15. What is mustering Point?
Muster point is a place where everyone has to go when there is an

emergency. This is mainly for head count purpose.
16. If heavy Hydrocarbon leak happen through

equipment what you will do?
I will activate the alarm from nearest manual call point, if it is far
away I will communicate through radio to panel operator and
supervisor.
Control room operator will activate the Gas alarm (Siren) and also
makes the announcement through PAGA to evacuate all the
people.
I will go to SIH, wear BA set and I will wait for EMS (Emergency
Management Service) and On Scene Commander (Supervisor).
Once they arrive I will go along with EMS personnel to identify and
isolate the source of leak.
Question # 1
What are some common causes of gas pipeline vibration 20 Carbon
Steel line?
Answer:Check / consider the following:
>> The upper pressure range and /or the smaller pipe diameters
prompts me to investigate the possibility that the gas is reaching critical
flow somewhere downstream within the pipe. When a gas gets to
critical flow, sonic booms (producing vibration) are expected. In fact, one
of the main means by which the additional pressure in the pipe is lost.
>> If the source is a compressor, look for surging.
>> If the source is a tower, look for pressure cycling in the tower
>> Look at critical flow through any control valve that may be in the line.
>> Are there any vapors in the line, which can condense and produce
two-phase flow? Two-phase flow can cause vibration.
In chemical plant design, if we suspect two-phase flow, we instruct the
piping designers to provide special anchoring.
Question # 2
While there, are many tests available to detect leaks on vessels, is there
a technology available to quantify the leak, or measure the flow through
a leak?
Answer:The RheoVac air in-leak monitor by Intek, Inc. in Westerville, OH is a
viable meter that gives the actual air in leakage flow rate. It also gives
you exhauster capacity and a vacuum quality reading. If you want to find
more information, you can view their web site below.
Question # 3
Is there any way to repair a valve that is passing leaking internally
without taking our process offline?
Answer:A 600 psig, 3" steam line is experiencing "passing" or internal leakage. If
you order to replace the valve, the process would have to be taken
offline. A temporary solution to the problem is sought to get the plant to
their next scheduled shut down ANSWER Research on-stream leak
sealing services. This problem is quite common. What they would do in
this case is drill a hole into the bypass valve on the upstream side but
not completely into the line. They would then tap the hole and install
one of your injection fittings, which is like a small plug valve. They would
then take a long 1/8" drill bit and drill through the open injection fitting
and into the pressurized line. The drill bit is then removed and our
injection equipment is then attached. Sealant (heavy fibers and grease)
is pumped into the line and caught in the flow, which will bind up against
the leaking seat on the bypass valve. If done properly, this technique can
be both effective and safe.
Question # 4
When using a pumping loop to mix two miscible fluids in a tank, when
can the content are considered well mixed?
Answer:A rule of thumb is to turn the tank over three (3) times and then sample
the tank for mixture properties. By "turn the tank over”, we
mean to force the entire volume of the tank through the pump at least
three times. More turnovers may be necessary, but three times is a good
starting point.
Question # 5
What are some good uses of low-grade steam at 12 atm and 1920C?
Answer:There are various traditional methods to employ waste steam in an
operating plant:
1. You can generate electricity through a steam turbine-generator set.
The electricity is usually put back in the line; this is the idea behind the
"Co-Gen" concept used today in many USA plants. Steam turbines can
effectively use saturated steam supply down to 75 - 100 psig. In special
conditions, they have used down to 50 psig as a turbine steam supply. I
have used steam as low as 100 psig.
2. You can pre-heat process streams that require pre-heating; this is
done by applying heat exchangers.
3. You can employ the waste steam as a refrigeration source by
employing it in vacuum jet ejectors and producing 50 of cooling water.
You have to consider these as viable options if you can identify the
heating, cooling and energy conservation requirements. An economic
analysis is required to identify the most attractive option. You usually
utilize a Discounted Cash Flow analysis to base your decision and that
means you must study each case as to savings generated. A fourth
method might be that you can use the steam for environmental heating
(if you live in a cold climate).
Question # 6
Are there any general rules for flushing slurry lines?
Answer:Slurry lines should be flushed with a minimum fluid velocity of 10 ft/s
and the total flushing liquid volume should equal 3-6 times the total
piping volume.
Question # 7
What is a good way to get started in doing a plant-wide steam
consumption analysis?
Answer:It is unclear as to whether or not you know the total steam
consumption. If you do not, one way to get it is to take the nominal
capacity of the boiler in terms of heat, i.e. the total rated Btu/hr. This is
usually available either through the documentation you have for the
boiler or even on the nameplate. You also must know the steam
pressure you are producing. Using the steam tables, get the enthalpy of
the steam and divide it into the nominal boiler capacity to get the total
rate. I hope that you also know how much of the capacity you are using,
50%, 75% etc. Multiply this by the total lb/hr to get your rate. Another
way to get the capacity is by using the amount of boiler feed water you
are sending to the boiler and the known level of steam you are
producing. Do not forget to include the blow down in your heat &
mass balance. Getting the rate to each plant is more difficult if you are
lacking in instrumentation. Use as much plant instrumentation as
possible; flow meters, pressure and temperature indicators. If you do
not have a meter in each header to each plant, then see if you have
them in sections or to pieces of equipment using the steam. Another
way is to measure the amount of condensate you are returning to the
boiler. If you are dumping the condensate, you may be able to collect
and measure the amount in a pail from each source. Another way is to
use the process instrumentation and do some mass and energy balances
around the steam users.
Question # 8
How can you determine the proper pipe thickness for a slurry line?
Answer:Design of slurry piping systems should follow ANSI/ASME B31.1 and
B31.11 Codes. A simple equation for this calculation is as follows: t =
(PD) / (2S) + C where: t = pipe wall thickness, in. P = maximum design
pressure of the pipe, psig S = maximum allowable design stress, psig C =
corrosion or erosion allowance, in.
Question # 9
What is the best way to handle bend or turns in slurry piping systems?
Answer:Even long radius elbows should be avoided in slurry pipes and lines.
They are often the site of severe erosion or solid/liquid separation. Only
gentle pipe bends or sweeps should be used to turn a slurry line.
Industrial experience has shown that a bend-radius-to-pipe-diameter
ratio of 3-5 is recommended.
Question # 10
How can you prevent bridging in a dilute phase pneumatic conveying
system?
Answer:Manufacturers of these systems recommend bin agitation or blowing air
into the top of the feeding bin. These methods can prevent fine particle
from bridging near the rotators valve. Two types of particles that are
especially prone to bridging include titanium dioxide and calcined- kaolin
clay.
Question # 11
What is some common piping materials used to transport slurries?
Answer:When selecting a piping material to transport slurries, corrosion and
erosion considerations must be accounted for. Some of the most
popular piping materials include:
>> Carbon Steel
>> Stainless Steel
>> High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
>> Acrylonitrile butadiene stryene (ABS)
>> Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)
>> Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
>> Elastomer-lined carbon steel
Question # 12
What are some common problems associated with dilute phase
pneumatic conveying?
Answer:Probably the most common problem encountered in dilute phase
pneumatic conveying is the wearing of the rotary valve that serves as an
air lock where the product is introduced into the system. If excess air is
allowed to pass by the rotary valve, this can cause bridging of the
material the flow can be slowed or stopped.
Question # 13
What are some common problems associated with dense phase
pneumatic conveying?
Answer:Dense phase pneumatic conveying, typically experiences one common
problem from system to system: plugging in the line due to a
malfunctioning booster valve. Dense phase systems require these
booster systems to introduce new, pressurized air. These boosters are
nearly always accompanied by a check valve. If the check valve becomes
stuck, the product is allowed to plug the line.
Question # 14
What is the most common carrier gas used in pneumatic conveying?
Answer:While many applications utilize air as a carrier gas, others are not suited
for using air. For example, if the substance being conveyed reactions
with moisture in the air or if there is a threat of dust explosions,
nitrogen is likely choice.
Question # 15
What is pneumatic conveying?
Answer:Pneumatic conveying is a method of moving bulk solids from one place
to another with the help of a carrier gas. A differential pressure is
applied inside a conveying line. The flow always moves from a region of
higher to lower pressure.
Question # 16
What types of pneumatic conveying systems are typically used?
Answer:Essentially, there are two types of pneumatic conveying systems. In
dilute phase systems, the solids are suspended in the carrier gas and
transported to their destination. In dense phase systems, the solids-togas ratio is much higher. The gas in these systems acts more like a piston
to push the product to its final destination. Dilute phase systems are
more typical than dense phase systems because they can employ
positive pressure displacement or a vaccum system. Dense phase
conveying is useful if the product degrades easily (works at lower
velocities) or is particularly abrasive.
Question # 17
What is the practical particle size limit for pneumatic conveying?
Answer:As a rule, pneumatic conveying will work for particles up to 2 inches in
diameter with a typical density. By "typical density”, we mean
that a 2 inch particle of a polymer resin can be moved via pneumatic
conveying, but a 2 inch lead ball would not.
Question # 18
What can cause bulk solids to stop flowing from a bin?
Answer:Causes of such problems can fall into one of two categories: Material
strength or Bin Geometry: Factors that can affect material strength
include. Moisture is especially with particles, which fuse together with
moisture.
Question # 19
What is the most common cause of solid size segregation in bulk solid
systems?
Answer:Many engineers usually point directly to the pneumatic conveying
system as a source of such a problem. The truth is that in most cases,
segregation occurs because of the differences in sizes of the articles. As
a rule-of-thumb, if the size ratio extends outside of around 1:1.3, then
there will most likely be segregation. This being said,
one should inspect the equipment responsible for determining the
particle size rather than the pneumatic conveying system if this problem
is occurring. Reference: Richard Farnish, the Wolfson Centre for Bulk
Solids Handling Technology
Question # 20
How can one determine the particle size distribution for a given bulk
solid?
Answer:While there are high-tech methods of performing such an analysis
(laser-diffraction and video imaging system are available), the simplest
way is to use a sieve stack. For example, to analyze a particular solid,
one would stack several different mesh sizes into a cylinder with the
largest mesh opening on the top and progress down through the
cylinder to finer mesh. The cylinder would contain a pan on the bottom.
Before beginning, weight the test sample, each piece of mesh, and the
pan. Then, the sample is loaded into the top of the test cylinder and the
cylinder is exposed to a combination of movements (shaken) to allow
the solids to pass through the appropriate mesh sizes.
SESSIONS CURRENTLY READY
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Session Duration :
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5. Centrifugal pump curves and calculations
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7. Troubleshooting of a centrifugal pump
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10. How to operate a positive displacement pumps
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12. Pumps interview questions
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1. Introduction to gas compression
2. Types of compressors, their uses and which are the
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6. Troubleshooting of a centrifugal compressor
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10. Troubleshooting for positive displacement
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operation and troubleshooting)
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2. Heat transfer basic
3. Fired heaters types & components
4. Fired heater draft system types
5. Combustion & excess air
6. Burners types and fuel systems
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Part

Some of general information about chemical engineering Topics

(AN INTRODUCTION TO PUMPING EQUIPMENT) course

Questions asked by the page and their correct answers

Questions asked by our fans and answers by others

Some of general information about chemical engineering Topics

(PROCESS VALVES) course

Questions asked by the page and their correct answers

Questions asked by our fans and answers by our page

Questions asked by our fans and answers by others

Some of general information about chemical engineering Topics

Questions asked by the page and their correct answers

We have founded specialized group for

Our first session was in Petroleum

We have founded our global Page "I am a

Egy-ICE page was founded as a specialized

"I want to be a physician"

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

Why Become a Chemical Engineer? and Interview

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

2. What kind of training or education did this career require

3. Are there any other skills beyond formal training that

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

5. What is the starting salary or hourly wage for this job? Is

6. How can you advance your career as a chemical engineer?

7. How much paid vacation time do you receive?

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

9. Does the job have medical or dental benefits? Is it full

11. What are some things that you do not enjoy?

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

13. How much of a demand do you see for this occupation in

15. What advice would you give to someone considering this

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

17. Did you specialize in any topic in particular?

18. How does chemistry enter into your profession?

CAVITATION AND NPSH IN

2. Noise and vibration result from the

Turbulence loss is extremely high at low

required will vary with pump design and

The system designer should also

characteristics is a must. Frequently,

OPERATING & MAINTENANCE

2. Install unit level and square so pipe

Shut down - Always close off flow of hot fluid first.

at my home in New Orleans (at

"Creature from the blue planet,

Minus 12 psig in Denver is the

vacuums. And then there are

My captors turned from green to

Overview of Biogas Digesters

Overview of Biogas Digesters

the fuel-wood crisis and partly

Crop Residues: corn stalks, rice

Industrial Wastes: distillery slops,

peelings, Bottling wastes, fish

absorbed by the plants, and the

up, the drum floats higher in the

The gas is collected in a cylindrical

However, if the drum is conditioned properly initially and painted annually,

Ii The Fixed Dome digester design:

Iii The Flexible Bag digester design:

5. Operating the Digester: