Fault_calculations

Fault calculations
1. Per Unit System Revision
The per unit quantity =

actual quantity
base value of quantity

The actual quantity and base value of quantity are in actual units, therefore the per unit value is
dimensionless.
The base value is always a real number, therefore the angle of the per unit quantity is the same as for the
angle of the actual quantity.

In a power system, balanced systems can be solved on a per phase basis after converting load impedances
to Y impedances. The base voltage (Vbase) and complex power (Sbase) are selected. The other base quantities
for a three phase Y system can be found from these as:
V base , line = V line
(the nominal line-line voltage of the HV or LV side of the transformer as appropriate.
Note Vbase,line and Vbase,phase vary with location)

Vbase , phase =

V line
3

S base = Pbase = Q base

S base

I base =

(where the value is chosen and remains the same throughout the system)

3 V base ,line

S base
3Vbase , phase

(This comes from ST = 3 VLIL = 3VpIp)

(For a Y system Ibase=Ibase,phase=Ibase,line)

Z base =

V base, phase
I base

2
V base
, line

S base

= Rbase = X base

The per unit system allows for complex systems involving many transformers to be analysed more simply, in
particular the calculation of symmetrical three phase faults. The calculation of fault level on a system allows for
the switch gear to be properly sized.
The approach used to solve three phase symmetrical faults is as follows:

Use the per unit system

Neglect normal load currents
Assume all generators are in phase and operate at rated voltage (to allow all generators to be replaced by
a single unit)
Neglect system resistance (X/R 20 for a generator, X/R 10 for a transformer, X/R 8 to 3 for HV lines)
Assume system is symmetrical so calculations can be performed on a per phase basis
Draw reactance diagram and reduce to a single reactance
Current and voltage obtained by retracing steps of network reduction

Note:
1. Current limiting reactors can be introduced to limit fault current
2. Circuit breakers are rated in MVA (product of fault current and rated voltage)
3. A specified fault infeed is represented by an equivalent generator and source reactance
However, it is sometimes necessary to consider other types of faults as shown below and to do this an
additional system must be used.

Earth fault

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Phase to phase
fault

Double earth
fault

Broken
conductor

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2. Unbalanced systems
In a 3-phase system it is easier to analyse a balanced system, since it is necessary to only calculate the
voltage, current and impedance in one phase. The values in the other phases are the same magnitude, but
displaced by 120.
In an unbalanced system the currents and voltages are unequal and not displaced by 120. However any 3phase unbalanced system can be broken down into three balanced systems known as the positive, negative
and zero sequence systems. (This can be extended for an N-phase system which can be broken into N
symmetrical components)
Each balanced system can be analysed in turn using volts/phase and current/phase. After analysis the original
system can be rebuilt using superposition.
The zero sequence components consist of three voltage (or current) phasors with equal magnitude and zero
phase displacement (subscripted 0)
The positive sequence components are made up of three voltage (or current) phasors all equal in magnitude,
120 phase displacement and are positive sequenced (this is sometimes subscripted as 1 in literature and
sometimes as + ).
The negative sequence components are made up of three voltage (or current) phasors all equal in magnitude,
120 phase displacement and are negative sequenced (this is sometimes subscripted as 2 in literature and
sometimes as - ).

Vc+

Vb

Vc0 Vb0 Va0 = V0

Va+ = V+

Vb+

Va = V

Vc

Where the voltage in phase a, Va = Va0 + Va+ + Va

the voltage in phase b, Vb = Vb0 + Vb+ + Vb
the voltage in phase c, Vc = Vc0 + Vc+ + Vc as shown below:

Va+
Va0

Va
Vb Vb+
Vb

Vc+

Vc

Vc0

Vb0

Va
a phase

Vc

b phase

c phase
2

For simplicity, we can refer to V0 , V+ and V- and use the transform a where a = 1120 = -1/2 + j3/2 and a
3
= 1240 and a = 1
The phase equations can therefore be written as :
Va = V0 + V+ + V
2
Vb = V0 + a V+ + aV
2
Vc = V0 + aV+ + a V

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(Equation set 1)

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The complex number a is very similar to the complex number j. The only difference being that the angle of j
is 90, while that of a is 120.
The above three equations can be written in terms of V0,V+ and V as:
V0 = 1/3 (Va + Vb + Vc)
2
V+ = 1/3 (Va + aVb + a Vc)
2
V = 1/3 (Va + a Vb + aVc)

(Equation set 2)

This shows there is no zero sequence voltage in a balanced 3-phase, because the sum of the three balanced
phasors is zero.
Note: generators normally generate balanced positive sequence voltages and supply balanced positive
sequence currents, even under a 3-phase symmetrical fault.
Similar equations can be deduced for the phase current as:
Ia = I0 + I+ + I
2
Ib = I0 + a I+ + aI
2
Ic = I0 + aI+ + a I

(Equation set 3)

And the sequence currents as:

I0 = 1/3 (Ia + Ib + Ic)
2
I+ = 1/3 (Ia + aIb + a Ic)
2
I = 1/3 (Ia + a Ib + aIc)

(Equation set 4)

In a 3-phase Y connected system with a neutral, the neutral current In is the sum of the line currents
In = Ia + Ib + Ic
By comparison with the equations for sequence components
In = 3I0
The neutral current is three times the zero sequence current.
In a balanced system or in a 3-phase system with no neutral such as a or an ungrounded Y system there is
no neutral current and therefore no zero sequence components.

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3. Positive, negative and zero sequence impdeances
In some respects the idea of symmetrical components is similar to that of harmonic analysis.
In harmonic analysis a complex waveform containing, say fundamental, third and fifth harmonics is broken
down into three harmonic components and analysed as pure sine waves. After analysis they are reconstructed
into the original system. The impedance presented to the fundamental is often different to the impedance
presented to the third and fifth harmonic systems. Similarly, it possible for the impedance presented to
positive sequence currents to be different from that presented to negative or zero sequence currents.
The positive and negative sequence components are normally fairly straightforward. However, when there
are transformers in a system, it is important to get the zero sequence components correct since these
are more complicated.
As a typical guide:
For non rotating pieces of equipment Z+ = Z
For transmission lines: Z0 = 3 to 4 times Z+, Z+ = Z
For underground cables: Z0 = 1.5 to 2.5 times Z+, Z+ = Z
For a generator: All impedances are different. The negative sequence system is particularly interesting.
In a balanced induction machine system, the currents and voltages set up a rotating flux in the positive
direction. If for some reason the system becomes unbalanced, a flux wave rotating in the opposite direction
will be set up (interchanging two phases of an induction motor, changes its direction).
Usually the positive sequence component is much greater than negative sequence component keeping the
machine running in the positive direction. However, even a small negative sequence current can cause the
machine to overheat because the rotor conductors are travelling through the negative sequence flux at
approximately twice synchronous speed.
Transformers
There are two aspects associated with transformers in an unbalanced system. Firstly, there is the impedance
and secondly the phase shifts. The per-unit positive and negative impedances are identical for all non-rotating
equipment. The zero sequence impedance (if present) depends on the type of transformer and the neutral
impedance.
If the transformer is a shell type 3-phase transformer, or a five limb core type transformer, or 3 separate single
phase units, then if the neutral impedance is very small compared to the positive and negative impedances
(for example if it is solidly earthed) then Z0 can usually be assumed to be equal to the positive and negative
impedances.
Z+ = Z = Z0

Shell type

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5- limb type

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But for a 3 limb core type X0 X+ since the zero sequence fluxes of each phase are in phase in each limb and
have no return path in the iron core (there is a small amount of leakage flux contributing to the zero sequence
impedance)

3- limb type

The per-unit positive and negative impedances do not depend on the winding connection, that is the per-unit
impedances of a transformer connected Y-Y, Y-, -Y or - are the same. However the base voltages do
depend on winding connection.
In order to determine the zero sequence impedance it is necessary to determine where the zero sequence
currents can flow. This depends on the circuit configuration.
Star windings no neutral winding
If we look closely at all the phases of a star connected system and remember that each phase has the same
zero sequence current (with no phase shift), then summing the currents at the star point gives :

I0
I0
I0

I0 + I0 + I0 = 0
3I0 = 0
I0 = 0

THERE ARE NO ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENTS IN AN UNEARTHED STAR WINDING

Star windings earthed
If we look closely at all the phases of an earthed star connected system and remember that each phase has
the same zero sequence current (with no phase shift), then summing the currents at the star point gives :

I0
I0
I0
In
I0 + I0 + I0 = In
3I0 = In

POSSIBLE ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENTS IN AN EARTHED STAR WINDING depends on circuit and
other windings

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Delta windings
If we look closely at all the phases of a delta connected system and remember that each phase has the same
zero sequence current (with no phase shift), then summing the currents at point P gives :

Ia0
Ib0

I0
I0

Ic0
I0 - I0 + Ia0 = 0
Ia0 = 0
I0 = any value

I0

ZERO SEQUENCE CURRENTS CAN CIRCULATE WITHIN A DELTA WINDING BUT NO ZERO SEQUENCE
CURRENT MAY ENTER OR LEAVE THE WINDING.
2-winding transformers
All transformers are a combination of two or more windings. We will limit our work to two windings. In our
transformers the fundamental rule is that the AMPERE TURNS ON THE PRIMARY MUST EQUAL THE
AMPERE TURNS ON THE SECONDARY. For example, if we were to look at the zero sequence current in the
windings of a star (unearthed)- star (earthed) transformer :

Ip0

Is0

Ip0

Is0

Ip0

Is0
In

Under all circumstances Ip0 is zero. Consquently from consideration of the ampere turns :
Ip0 Np = Is0 Ns
Is0 = 0 and In = 0
This can be easily shown to be the case for all unearthed star connected two winding transformers.

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SCHEMATIC

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

I0 = 0
Xpu
1. No zero sequence current

Xpu

2. No zero sequence current

Xpu

3. zero sequence current possible

Xpu

4. No zero sequence current

Xpu

5. No zero sequence current

Xpu

6. zero sequence current in Y winding and internal

circulating currents in winding possible
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In example 6, for a fault on the secondary side of the transformer, the zero phase sequence reactance looks
like an open circuit and therefore no current can flow. For a fault in the primary windings, compensating
current can flow in the secondary windings and therefore the zero sequence impedance is as for the positive
and negative impedance assuming the primary circuit is complete.
This can be shown more clearly using another diagram. Lets assume a single phase to earth fault.
Example 3 expanded to show the zero sequence currents

The impedance to the zero phase sequence is the impedance of the generator plus the impedance of the
transformer:

Xgenerator

Xtransformer

Z0
Example 6 expanded to show zero sequence currents

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The impedance to the zero phase sequence is the impedance of the transformer :

Xtransformer

Z0
Note the zero sequence impedance network may not be the same as the positive and negative
sequence networks.
Earthing Resistors
Neutral earthing resistors are used to help limit the fault current. It can be seen that the neutral current is three
times the zero sequence phase current. In order to represent the earthing resistor in a phase equivalent circuit
it is necessary to think of it as three resistors of value 3R in parallel (this gives the same voltage drop namely
INR )

3R

R
I0

3I0

3R

I0

3R

I0

3I0

Earthing resistor, R

Phase shifts
There is no voltage or current phase shift in a Y-Y or a - transformer. For a Y- or -Y transformer a phase
shift may need to be included in the per-unit positive and negative sequence networks.
For a Y- transformer, the positive sequence currents and voltages (on the Y, H.V. side) lead the
corresponding values on the L.V. side by 30. While for negative sequence, the H.V. quantities lag by 30. The
phase shift can be worked out by referring to the figure and steps below.
Step 1 Draw the phasor diagram of the positive (or negative depending on the sequence being
considered) sequence voltages which are applied to the primary Y (or - depending on the transformer being
considered) winding.
Step 2 Move the phasors next to their appropriate terminals.
Step 3 For each phase the voltage induced in the secondary (or Y) windings is in phase with the voltage in
the primary windings. So draw a line parallel to the phasors in step 2 next to the secondary terminals.
Step 4 Label the lines by inspection.
Step 5 Bring the lines together to complete the new phasor diagram. Observe where the labelling lies in
relation to the primary winding. Note in our example that VAB leads Vab by 30

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(Step 1).

(Step 5)

VAB
30

b
Vab
B

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4. Analysis of unbalanced faults
In any unbalanced system the three sequence components can be treated individually. In the positive
sequence diagram, E+ represents the positive sequence supply voltage, I+ represents the positive sequence
current and V+ represents the positive sequence voltage at the fault.

Z+

I+

V+

E+

E+ = V+ + I+Z+

Similarly for the negative and zero sequence diagrams.

Z0

E0

E- = V + I Z

I0

E0 = V0 + I0Z0

V0

Normally the voltages being generated by a supply system are balanced and therefore contain only positive
components. The three equations simplify to:
E+ = V+ + I+ Z+
V = I Z
V0 = I0 Z0

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Single phase to earth fault
Now examine a real 3-phase system when a single earth fault occurs on phase A

C
B
A

Any load connected to the system is ignored. For a single earth fault, the boundary conditions can be written
down:
IB = IC = 0 and VA = 0
From equation set 4 the following can be written:
I0 = 1/3 IA
I+ = 1/3 IA
I = 1/3 IA
That is I0 = I+ = I
Similarly from equation set 2 the voltages can be written as:
V0 = 1/3 ( Vb + Vc)
2
V+ = 1/3 (aVb + a Vc)
2
V = 1/3 ( a Vb + aVc)
2

Adding the voltage equations together and noting that 1 + a + a = 0 gives:

V0 + V+ + V = 0
This suggests that the three circuits can be connected together in series (ignoring E- and E0) to give:

E+

Z+

Z0
I+

V+
Solving for I+ gives:
I+ =

E+
Z+ + Z + Z0

IA can then be calculated from equation set 3 as: IA = 3I+

Two phase to earth fault

A
B
C

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12

V0

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Setting the boundary conditions gives :
IA = 0 , VB = VC = 0
Solving for the equations in sets 2 and 4 gives :
I+ + I + I0 = 0
V+ = V = V0
This suggests a parallel connection

E+

Z+
I+
V+
Z

Z0

Where I+ can be found as :

I + = ( I + I 0 ) =

I0

Z + Z
V V0
+
= V+ 0
Z Z0
Z0Z

Substituting for E+ and re-arranging gives

E+ = I+

I + = E+

Z0Z
+ I+ Z+
Z0 + Z

Z0 + Z
Z0 Z + Z0 Z+ + Z Z+

Phase to Phase fault

A
B
C
There is no earth current therefore no I0. The boundary conditions are:
IA = 0
IB = - IC
VB = VC
Using these equations gives I+ = -I and V+ = V
E+ = V+ + I+ Z+
= V + I+ Z+
= -I Z + I+Z+
= I+ Z + I+Z+
hence
I+ =

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E+
Z+ + Z

13

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A summary of fault boundary conditions
The diagram below shows the more common faults and the boundary conditions that are applicable.
Earth fault

Double earth fault

IA

VA

IB

VB

IC

VC

IB = 0
IC = 0
VA = 0

I+ = I = I0
V+ + V + V0 = 0

IB
IC

V+ = V = V0
I+ + I + I0 = 0

IXA

VXA

IXB

VXB V VYB
B
VXC VC VYC

VYA

VXA

VYA

VA

IXA

VB
VC

IXB

VXB

VYB

IXC

VXC

VYC

VA

IXA = 0
IYA = 0
IXB = - IYB
IXC = - IYC
VXA- VYA = VA
VXB = VYB
VXC = VYC

Two broken conductors

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VB
VC

IA = 0
VB = 0
VC = 0

V+ = V
I+ = -I

IXA = - IYA
IXB = IYB = 0
IXC = IYC = 0
VXA= VYA
VXB - VYB = VB
VXC - VYC = VC

IB

One broken conductor

IA

IXC

VA

IC

Phase-to-phase fault

IA = 0
VB = VC

IA

IYA
IYB
IYC

IX+ + IX + IX0 = 0
IY+ + IY + IY0 = 0
IX+ = -IY+
IX- = -IY
IX0 = -IY0
VX+ - VY+ = VA/3
VX - VY- = VA/3
VX0 - VY0 = VA/3

Crossed phases

IYA
IYB
IYC

IXA

VXA

VYA

IXB

VXB

VYB

IXC

VXC

VYC

IXA = - IYA
IXB = - IYC
IXC = - IYB
VXA= VYA
VXB = VYC
VXC = VYB

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IYA
IYB
IYC