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Blood
The only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
Components of blood
1) Living cells called ________________
Erythrocytes red blood cells
transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
Leukocytes white blood cells
defend body against pathogens
Platelets cell fragments formed
from megakaryocytes, important in
blood clotting
2) Non-living matrix: plasma is the fluid
and solutes
formed elements
kwashiorkor
Ringers Solution
A solution of distilled water containing electrolytes and compounds
so that the same concentrations as their occurrence in body fluids.
This solution is iso-osmotic to our blood and tissues
Why?
280-300 milliosmoles per liter (we will use __________ mOsm/L)
Blood and tissue osmolarity must be equal to prevent
net movement of fluids
blood
tissue
blood
tissue
Osmosis
Less solvent
Blood Plasma
Acidosis: blood becomes too acidic (less than 7.35)
Alkalosis: blood becomes too basic (greater than 7.45)
In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help
restore blood _________ to normal
Carbon dioxide can dissolve in water (blood plasma) and
form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O
Im an acid!
Acid-Base Balance
Normal pH of arterial blood = 7.4
pH < 7.35 = ___________
pH > 7.45 = alkalosis
Most ions originate as by-products
of cellular metabolism
Complications with acid-base
disturbance
Conformation change in protein
structure
Changes in excitability of
neurons
Changes in balance of other ions
Cardiac arrhythmias
Vasodilation/vasoconstriction
Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes (red blood cells or RBCs)
Main function is to carry oxygen
Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
biconcave disk: large surface area
which favors diffusion
Essentially bags of hemoglobin
Anucleate (no nucleus)
Contain very few organelles
No _________________
mitochondria
Use anaerobic glycolysis
5-6 billion RBCs per ml of blood
Flexible membrane
Also function to maintain osmolarity and
blood/plasma pH
Hemoglobin in RBCs
Hb binds strongly (but reversibly) to oxygen
98.5% oxygen bound to Hb and 1.5% dissolved
in plasma
Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen
binding sites
Globin + 4 heme groups = 4 polypeptides and
_______________
= iron-containing group
HEME
Iron-containing protein
Can also bind to CO2 and H+
Formation of Erythrocytes
Mature RBCs are unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
Wear out in 100 to 120 days
When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or
liver
Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow
__________________ is a component of hemoglobin
Normal hemoglobin content of blood
Men: 13 18 gram /dL
Women: 12 16 gram /dL
Increased
O2- carrying
ability of blood
60 mmHg
Stimulus: Decreased
RBC count, decreased
availability of O2 to
blood, or increased
tissue demands for O2
Reduced O2
levels in blood-sensed
by chemoreceptors
More
RBCs
Enhanced
erythropoiesis
Red bone
marrow
Erythropoietin
stimulates
Kidney releases
erythropoietin
Anemia
Types of Leukocytes
Two Major Classes of Leukocytes
Granulocytes
Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
Possess lobed nuclei
Include 1)neutrophils, 2)eosinophils, and 3)basophils
Agranulocytes
Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
Nuclei are spherical, oval,
or kidney-shaped
Include:
1)lymphocytes
2)_________________
Abundance of Leukocytes
List of the WBCs from most to
least abundant
Neutrophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Eosinophils
Basophils
Granulocyte: Neutrophils
Granulocyte: Eosinophils
1-4% of leukocytes
Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
Phagocytes (but ___________ main mechanism of action)
Defend against parasitic invaders (e.g. worms)
Granules contain toxic molecules that attack parasites
Granulocyte: Basophils
<1% of leukocytes
_____________________
May defend against large parasites by releasing toxic substances
Contribute to allergic reactions
Histamine-inflammation
Heparin-anticoagulant
Agranulocytes:
Monocytes become Macrophages
4-8% of leukocytes
__________________
New monocytes circulate in blood for
a few hours then
Migrate to tissues macrophages
Wandering macrophages
Fixed macrophages
Agranulocytes: Lymphocytes
20-45% of WBCs
3 types of Lymphocytes
____ lymphocytes (B cells)
T lymphocytes (T cells)
Null cells (also called
natural killer or NK cells)
Lymphocytes: B Cells
B cells associated with antibodies
2 major classes of B cells:
1)effector B cells become
plasma cells and secrete
antibodies
2) __________________
MEMORY CELLS
B cell contacts antigen then
become a plasma cell
Plasma cell secretes antibodies
(immunoglobulins)
Antibodies mark invaders (called
antigens) for destruction
Anti=antibody and
Gen=generator
Lymphocytes: T Cells
Helper T Cells secrete cytokines that enhance activity of B cells and
other T cells enhances activity of macrophages and NK cells
Cytotoxic T Cells kill virus-infected cells, abnormal cells, and bacteria,
Secretory products form pores in target cell membrane, Kills cells by
lysis
Memory T cells used for ______________________ infection
Suppressor (regulatory) T Cells secrete cytokines that suppress activity
of B cells and other T cells and used to end an immune response
(a) Inhibitory NK cell receptors recognize self MHC class I and restrain NK cell
activation.
(b) When unimpeded by the inhibitory receptors, binding of NK cell activation
receptors to their ligands on target cells results in NK cell stimulation.
Leukocyte Issues
Abnormal numbers of leukocytes
Leukocytosis
WBC count above 11,000 leukocytes/mm3
Generally indicates an infection
____________
Abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroids
and anticancer agents
Leukemia occurs when bone marrow
becomes cancerous, turns out excess
WBC
Platelets
Platelets (a.k.a. thrombocytes)
Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells
( ___________________)
Needed for the clotting process
3
Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm (l)
Hematopoiesis
Blood cell formation
Occurs in red bone marrow
All blood cells are derived from
a common stem cell
(hemocytoblast)
Hemocytoblast differentiation
Lymphoid stem (lymphoblast)
cell produces lymphocytes
Myeloid stem (____________)
cell produces all other formed
elements
Erythrocyte synthesis
stimulated by erythropoietin
secreted from kidneys under
conditions of low oxygen levels
in blood flowing to kidneys
monocyte
Hemostasis
Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a
break in a blood vessel
Hemostasis involves three phases
1) Vascular _________________
SPASMS
Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to
spasm
Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss
2) Platelet plug formation
Collagen fibers are exposed by a break
in a blood vessel a platelets become
sticky and cling to fibers
Anchored platelets release chemicals
to attract more platelets
Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
3) Coagulation (blood clotting)
Platelet Components
NUCLEUS
Healthy tissue
Damaged tissue
Aspirin
Prevents_____________________activation
PLATELET
Inhibits the activation of thromboxane A2
Hemostasis
Coagulation
Injured tissues release tissue factor (TF)
PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with TF, blood protein clotting
factors, and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an
enzyme)
Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like molecules of
insoluble fibrin
Fibrin forms a meshwork
(the basis for a clot)
Blood usually clots within
3 to 6 minutes
The clot remains as
endothelium ____________
REGENERATES
The clot is broken down
after tissue repair
Extrinsic Pathway
Requires Tissue Factor III
Clot Formation
Fibrinogen
Fibrin (mesh)
(Fibrin clot = blood
clot)
Dissolving a Clot
Requires another cascade initiated by exposure of
collagen
Plasminogen
plasminogen activators
Plasmin
Dissolves Clot
Undesirable Clotting
Thrombus
A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
Can be deadly in areas like the
heart or brain
__________________
EMBOLUS
A thrombus that breaks away and
floats freely in the bloodstream
Can later clog vessels in critical
areas such as the brain
AB+
O-
Blood Typing
Blood samples are mixed with anti-A
and anti-B serum
______________
or no agglutination
AGGLUTINATION
leads to determining blood type
Typing for ABO and Rh factors is
done in the same manner
Cross matchingtesting for
agglutination of donor RBCs by the
recipient s serum, and vice versa
Rh Blood Groups
Named because of the presence or absence of one of eight
Rh antigens (agglutinogen D) that was originally defined
in Rhesus monkeys
Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh positive)
Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a body with
Rh (Rh________________) blood
NEGATIVE