Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MSDUnerity of Ceneva
Geneva, Switzerland
lack I. Nicbolls, PhD"
Univeisity of Washington
Seattle, Washington
1995:8:105-116.
tfuo
T
K
N
B, Number 2, 1995
105
N,
n
P
Rs
s
s
S.
s,
s
s.
T
Neutral fiber
Tension
Fig 1 Elemenlary leatures of crack nucleation and progression. Under compression from above, the beam tends to dislocate on
the tensile (lower) surface o the beam. The crack appearing on the tensile side is said to open in mode / (the most frequent).
Modes II and III are shear and twist modes.
Thus, the resistance of the material to crack progression (ie, its fracture toughness) is an important
parameter. This property is characterized by the
stress intensity factor A', which can be loosely
described as the mathematical equivalent of the
stress fringes in polarized light tests." Under load,
(he beam of Fig I develops internal stresses that
locally may he high enough to initiate a crack and
cause it (o progress. In other words, K has reached
its critical ievel and is therefore equated to the
fracture toughness of the material. In general terms
fracture toughness is given by
K,, = \<T^-f^
(Table 1),
Physical Mechanism
where af is the overall applied stress at failure
and a is the length of a surface crack. The ind-x c
stands for critical (ie, inducing failure)
Inasmuch as fatigue is a peculiar mode of material ruptijre, a brief overview of elementary fracture
I o Prosthodorlii
106
Table 2
Material
Composition
[MPa|
[MPa]
[MPam'^l
Fe+ 0.1Gr0.5Mn
18Cr8Ni
Ni + 10Co 10W9Cr
5AI 2Ti
TI + 6AI 4V
Al + 3Mg 0.5 Mn
170-1600
460-1700
50-170
800
1300
> 100
800-900
40-300
900-1000
120-430
50-80
30^0
3-5
4-12
5
0.2
ZrO, + 5wt%MgO
SijAION,
CaO + SiOj + AI20
[n- ]
[
1- H
Epoxy
Composites
75-200
300-500
500-830
7
80-90
1.6[20'C)
COOCH J
OH
0.6-1
1050
32-45
Data from engineered stnjclures are given lor comparison. Note extremely lew material constants o( concrete.'
Opening crack
Fig 3 Irwin's plastic zone correction. The metal distends ahead ct the crack tip. Therefore, the effective crack length is a = a +
iristhe limiting stress factor inside the material.
a. Number 2,199";
107
Testing
Devices applicable to fatigue testing are all capable of repeatedly placing a test sample under stress
(5), However, they may differ considerably in the
stress parameters that are applied to the structure.
These parameters are: the cycling frequency, the
prestress (S4, the stress amplitude (5,,), the stress
ratio (R. = 5/5J and the algebraic value of the
stress (compression, tension, alternating) (Fig 4),
Complex load spectra can also be generated. Some
machines attempt to reproduce a clinical environment by adding moisture and a controlled temperature to the test conditions. As to the number of
load cycles that should be applied to dental structures, tbe following computation can be made.
Assuming 3 periods of 15 minutes of chewing per
day, at a chewing rate of 60 cycles per minute (1
Hz), the average individual chews 2,700 times per
day. This amounts to roughly 10' times per year. If
the half-life of a fixed partial denture is given as 20
years,"' this prosthesis will have undergone 2 x 10"
stress cycles. Conversely, it can be argued that not
every chewing cycle is "active" (ie, applying a
maximum stress cycle to the structure). Therefore,
the total of 2 X 10' chewing cycles previously calculated should be decreased by a factor ranging
between 5 and 20 if a realistic value is to be
obtained. For dental applications, fatigue tests
should be performed for a minimum of 10^ cycles.
Also, as shown in Fig 5," functional loading of
teeth implies a multidirectional force pattern that
comprises a compressive as well as a buccolingual
component. Loading a prosthodontic test structure
uniaxially will thus only partly reproduce, the
mechanical conditions of the oral environment.
Many contemporary devices are based on a servohydraulic closed loop circuit under pressure that
drives an actuator. The specimen can thus be subjected to bending or compression-type stresses.
Further stress application can be either unidirectional (bend-release, compress-release) or reversed
(push-pull, reversed bending). In more complex
designs, the specimen is simultaneously subjected
to torsional forces. Since these machines are computer-driven, virtually any load spectrum may be
generated on the actuators. By combining several
actuators on a single specimen, extremely complex
strains can be induced.
lofPrusthiclor)(it>
108
Volume 8,
Wiskott et al
-^
One
stress
cycle
Tension
j A
/
0-
y
si Vy V
%"^
\J
^
T.nB,le
Compression
Time
Time
Fig 4
Elementary stress parameters in fatigue testing. For alternating stresses, the stress ratio (Rs) is negative.
12 Kp
2Kp
5Kp
8, NLmbei2, 1995
109
and Iniplicatii
Descriptive Techniques
Micrographs
inasmuch as fatigue processes are determined by
a progressing fissure, in materials that present some
degree of ductility, the crack front may leave a
groove in the walls of the crack at each load cycle.
This develops a typical pattern of ripples that are
visible using electron microscopy and are referred
to as fatigue striations. Such striations are an abso-
pi
Growing crack
s
Fig 6 CT (Compact-Tension) specimen.== It contains a
chevron formed notch and is loaded through two pins in a tensile machine. Cyclic loading is applied to introduce a latigue
crack.
Fig 7 Fatigue striations on a solder joint fatigued experimentally'' Note differences in ripple depth wtiich depends on
the orientation relative to the direction of the applied stress.
no
Wiskod el al
Endurance limit
Foil g us limit
xc;iOStee 1
AUE tenitization 900"C 30 min
Applied stress
[MPa]
- 305 N/mn-
400
(Juts
375
= 400 N/mn
ational fatic ue Rs = - 1
350
325
300
9 5%
>
275
Endurance limit
'
250
"
a-
'
"a
1 "
27
43
"
225
10^
10*
10^
10^
10^
Number of cycles to failure
S=255N/mm=
S=12N/mm^
Fig 9 Example of S-A/diagram generated forXCIO steel (the X designates a special steel while CIO indicates 0.1% carbon), x:
failures; >: run-outs (Adapted from Lieurade^.
ments. Values between 10" and 10 cycles are typical. A conventional endurance limit is thus a censored value. It is symbolized by S or T.-. depending on the type of stress applied (tension or shear).
An S-N diagram as generated for an industrial
alloy is presented in Fig 9.'' Several aspects should
be considered. As shown, the lower the applied
stress, the greater the number of fatigue cycles sustained by the specimens. In the illustrated situa-
B, Number 2, 1995
111
logl da/dN)
,
j
f
Analysis
III
AK n
log AK
Recently advanced models of fatigue data analysis have been published by Conway and Sjvdahl"
and by Drummond.'"'
Fatigue of Dental Structures
In a classical paper on the long-term survival of
restorations, Schwartz et aP'' subdivided the failure
of fixed partial restorations into biologic (ie, plaque
related) and mechanical failures, of which breakage was a significant proportion. Analysis of these
data revealed that mechanical failures occurred
after 5 to 10 years. Similar results were reported by
Walton et al.'' Other authors reported failures in
terms of a mean annual rate which, depending on
the type of restoration, varied between 2.5 sn\ 1 '^
112
Volume 3, Nu
WiskoH et al
AN\ /I
\\
/ '
"'*
10%
Stress am Dlltude (
113
Table 3
Fatigue of Structures
Type of
stress
(Hz)
Outhwaite et al'
Martinet ef a l "
Retention
techniques
Partial denture
Saunders"
Mar/land FPDs
3,6
Composite
restorations
1,3
Fissore et a l "
10=
1,5
Kovarik et al"'
Core materials
Stewart et al"'^
i m pi ant-retained
Gjfidler et a l "
Crown retention
Reversed
bending
Bend-re lease
5- lO"
5- 10'
Peyton"
Wilkinson, tHaack"
Earnstiaw"
Bates'*
Hawbolt, iVlcEntee"
Sutow et aP'
Sub|eot
Gold alloys
Amalgam
Co-Cr alloy
Co-Cr alloy
hJi-Cr alley
Amalgam
4.
5.
6.
GM
Push-re lease
SC
Bend-release
Gtvi
> 10
Bend-re lease
GM
Bend-release
%S
Push-release
%S
9 10'
a\ curves for a given load are plotted; SC: staiicase analysis: SN: S-W cun/e. x-.
Type of
stress
/
(Hz)
12,5
30
16.7
13.3
60
1,3
30
10'
8i
5*10=
10
1
30
3.
Fatigue of Metals
Auttiors
2.
Findings
GM
1,2.
Table 4
Analysis
Findings
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
S,,:344-413MPa
S,,7; 96,5 MPa
S,>: + 275 MPa
Push-release
Bend-re lease
Rotational
SN
SN
GM
S5,,C;551
MPa
Description of fracture
patterns. S,, increases with
increasing/
Ranking of 9 brands
S.is: 300 MPa
for a given load are plotted; SC: Staircase analysis; SN; S-N cunie, x-.
Analysts
Bend-release
Push-pull
Reversed bending
Bend-re lea se
Push-release
Push-pull
References
Nutt MC, Mefallurgy and Plasfics for Engineers, Oxford:
Pergamon Press, 1976:360,
Anderson RC. Inspection of Metals, Vol II: Destructive testing.
Metals Park, Ohio: ASM Infernatioral, 19B0;] 71-192.
Meyer SA, Saltzmann CL, Altjright |P, Stress frariures of
the fooL and leg. Clin Sparls Med 1 9 9 3 ; 1 2 : 3 9 5 M I i
Michel MC, Gu XD, Gibson L|, McMahon TA, Hayes
w e , Compressive fatifije behavior of bovine trabecular
bone, J Biomech 1 993,26:453-463,
114
Volume 8, N'
Table 5
Fatigue of Resins
Subject
/
(Hz)
Type ol
stress
Barber"
Denture resins
1.7
Bend-release
Johnson, Matthews"
Johnson, Matthews*'
Denture resins
Denture resins
0.5
0.5
Peyton et
Auto vs heatpolymerizing
resins
12.5
37.5
amitn
uenture resins
Kelly*
Denture resins
57
Kelly='
Denture resins
5.7
Stafford, Smith"
Draughn"
Denture resins
Composite resins
Johnston et a l "
Denture resins
Asmussen, Jorgensen'^ Different types
ol resins
Stafford et a l "
PMMA
Zardiakas et aP
Drummond"'
McCabe et a l "
Saunders"
Aquilino et aP
Llobell et al"'
2
2
1.6*10'
1.6*10^
Analysis
Bend-re ease
Bend-re lease
GM
Gtul
Bend-release
SN
4.3-10^
Bend-release
GM
1.B-10'
Bend-release.
Reversed every
30 minutes
Bend-re lease
Push-release
GM
10'
5*10=
SN
SC
Findings
Vulcanite = phenol
formaldehyde > vinyl resin
PEMA.PMMA mix > PMMA
Heating to 100"C during
polymerization increases
fat i que strength
S _ g 28 (ulPa
5.7
3
1.3-10
10
Bend-re lease
Reversed bending
GM
SN
1.2
2.3
5
Resin cements
Composite resins
0.5
Compcsite resins plaster
>2'10
Bend-release
GM
Raniting of 6 products
10
4-10'
10'
SC
SN
SN
SC
SC
5-10'
Pu II-re lea se
Bend-release
Push-release
Bend-release
Bend-release
10=
2 10-
Pull-release
Rotational
SC
GM
Composite resins
Adhesive resins
Porcelam reparr
systems
3.3
6
0.36
30
GM: group means; %S: percentage sun/pval percentage of survival curves tor a gii/en load are plotted: SC. staircase analysis; SN: S-N i
determined by cycling n samples al a preset lead until failure.
14.
5.
12.
13.
15.
16.
17
i8
19.
20.
21.
22.
ber2, 1995
23.
115
24.
25.
26.
27.
38.
29.
48. Wilkinson EC, Haack DC. A study o the fatigue characteristics of siivcv amaigam. I Dent Res 1958;37:1 36-143.
49. Earnshaw R. Fatigue tests on a dental cobalt-chromium
alloy. Br Denl ) 1961 ;110:341-346.
50. Bates IF. Fracture of partial dentures. Flexural fatigue of a
cobaU-throrrium alloy. Br Dent I !965;1 l:5 32'537.
51. Hawbolt EB, MacEntee Ml. Effects of fatigue on a soldered
base metai alloy.] Dent Res 1983;62:1 226-1 228.
52. Sutow E|, Iones DW, Hall GC. The response of dental
amalgam to dynamic loading. | Dent Res 1985,64:62-66.
53. Zardiackas LD, Bayne 5C. Fatigue characterization of nine
dentai amalgams. Biomaterials 1985;fa:49-54.
54. Butson T|, Nicholls |1, Ma T, Harper RJ. Fatigue life of preceramic soldered and postceramic soldered loints. Int |
Prosthodont 1 993;6:468-474.
30.
31.
Dixon W], Mood AM. A meihod (or obtaining and analysing sensitivity data. I AmerStJt Assn 1948:43:109-126.
56
32.
57
33.
58
34.
59
35.
Drummond |L, MJescke KL. Weibull models for the statistical analysis of dental composite data: Aged in physiologI cal media and cyclic-fatigued. Dent Mater 1991 ;7:25-29.
36.
38.
40.
41.
61.
43.
44.
46.
47.
Stafford GD, Smith DC. Flexural fatigue tests of some denture base polymers. Br Dent) 1970;127:442-445.
bZ. Johnston EP, Nicholls | l . Smith DE. Flexure fatigue of 10
commonly used denture base resins. J Prosthet Dent
1981;46:478-483.
64.
62.
42.
45.
60.
37.
39.
55
70.
71.
72
73.
116
Volume a, Numbi