iin6

BRARY
A project of Volur~teers

iti Asia

,&ocal, Experience with

HWPSSSRAT Publication
by: Uelj

Micro- Hvdro Tech,noloay

No. 11, Vol. 1

Meier

Published by:
Swiss Center for Appropriate
Varnbuelstrasse
14
CH-9000 St. Gallen
Switzerland
Paper copies

are 32 Swiss francs.

Available
from:
Swiss Center for Appropriate
Varnbuelstrasse
2.4
CH-9000 St, Gallen
Switzerland
Reproduced
Appropriate

Technology

by permission
Technology.

Technology

of the Swiss Center

for

Reproduction
of this microfiche
document in any
form is subject to the Same restrictions
as those
of the original
document.

HARNESSING

WATER FOWER ON A SMALL

SCALE

Publication No. 11, Vol. 1

Author:

Ueli Meier, St.Gall, 1981

Varnbiielstrak 14, CH-9000 St.Gallen,

Switzerland, Tel. 07 1 23 34 8I
SKAT
Schweizerische Kontaktstelle filr AngepaOte Technik am ILE,
Institut fiir Lateinamerikaforschung
und Entwicklungsrusammenarbeit an der Hochschule St.Gallen

SKAT
Centre Suisse pour la Technologie Appropri&z S 11LE.
Institut de Recherche SW lAm6rique Latine et de
Cooperation au Developpement, Universit6 de Saint-Gall

SkAT
Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology at ILE,
Institute for Latin-American
Research and for Development
Co-operation, University of Saint-Gail

S KAT
Centro Suizo de Tecnologia Apropiada en el ILE,
Institute de Investigacibn sobre Amdrica Latina y
de Cooperacibn al Desarrollo. Universidad de Sankt-Gallen

Errata

PAGE

Ei

60

63
71
76
rs
99
103
105
111
112
115
11a
122
126
131
137

141
146
149
162

b
t

LINE

sheet

READS

Publ.

No. 11. Vol.

SHOULD READ

scarce
5b
scare
insensitive
at
unsensitive
Q = 0.15*160+Q = 0.15.160-30
footnote *
choosing
chasing
::
if
is
asynchronous
generator
inductiongencrator
Due
4j:
DU
moment of inertia
mass of intertiz.
10 t
looses
2t
loses
and keep
fig. 51 an keep
para. 2
positive
drive
10 b
postitive
drive
Shala
at
Sala
multiplied
multipled
16 t
in charge
6b
incharge
ANSALDO
ANSOLDD
5t
too high or too low
19 t
to high or to low
remain
reamin
13 t
choosing
6t
chasing
gained
12 b
made
gained
made
6,: :
us s
us t
costly
tricks
on
3t
a costly
trick
cF
(anticipating
3t
(evitating
head
heads
11 t
low labour intensive
14 t
labour extensive
were
6b
where
16 t
preceding
preceeding
12 t
of
on
which could make a
12 b
which a manufacturer
manufacturer
could make
1t
Turbomeccanica
Otisal SA have ceased to exist

means from the bottom

means from the top of the page

HARNESSIXG

WATER
Publication

POWER ON A SMALL
No. 11, Vol. I, St.Gall, 1981

LOCAL

IENCE

MICXO-HYDRO

Ueli
with

Author:

Published

by:

TECHNOLOGY

Meier,
SKAT,
the collaboration

B. Antener,
U. Meier

Photographs:

SCALE

A. Arter,

of

Jean-Max

M. Eisenring,

SKAT, Swiss Center for Appropriate

ILE, Institute
for Latin-American
Development
Cooperation,
St. Gall

Baumer,

ILE

J. Litscher,

Technology
at
Research and for
University

Comments,
enquiries:

All questions
and comments concerning
this
publication and its contents
are welcome at SKAT. Please
use the postcard-questionnaire
enclosed.

Copyright:

Material
of this publication
may be freely
quoted,
translated
or otherwise
used. Acknowledgement
is
requested.

Price:

SFr.

32.--

AFFIX

POSTAGE
HERE

Sender'

s address:

...........................
..........................
...........................
....................

.......

............

Varnbi3elstrasse
CH-go00 st.Ga11

...............

.........

14

..................

SWITZERLAND
-

.......

.........

.......

............

..................

Please return
this card to SCAT for feedback
information
our cooperation
and the future
research
and/or
acknowledgment
of receipt
of document No.

- improving

'\
L d \.I /

What is yoUr opinion

8 excellent
o useful,
but
:
o of no use, because:
Your other

comments:

about

this

material?

o insufficient
details
o too complicated
o outdated

o lacks essential
o is beside
the

data
point

................................................

. . . . . . ..I............................................................
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......................................... ............................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .."............
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..-.......................................
. . . . . . . . . . . . ..*......................................................
..... ... .................................... ......................
* Narue:

Date:

Preface
In

and Acknowledgment

the

discussion

cally
a

in the

of

rural

significant
can

are

The paper

presented

field

discussed
sible

it

in

is

and different
of know-how

volumes

in

the

of the

form

is

of

less

design

which

and socially

technology

technologies

shall

construction

manuals

acceptable.
based on

and tile

approach

approaches

technological

what

rgecific

answer,

different

other

may play

quest-on

of

some specific

No doubt,

and

the

question

the

and specifi-

hydropower
is

feasible

made that

specific

small

clear,

the

give

may require

countries

that

also

to

a71 situations.

situations

Transfer

is

and

an attempt

No claim

in

developing

and economically

here

valid

What

achieve

technically

in

recognised

development.

experience.
are

situation

is widely

realistically

technologies

actual

energy

areas,

role

hydropower

the

are pos-

solutions.

be possible
in

with

the

further

same series

of

publications.
Realising
for

the

Development

on this
gies,

Cooperation

paper

on the

Nairobi

contents

are

Development

Actual

based,

has

to

(UMN).

Nepal

Shala
other

rural

the

of

been

initiated

(NIDC)

in

was

organisations

such

Aid

work
and

in

the

Engineering

Directorate

financed

the

the

work

the

with
EPFL,

Industrial

Association
United

engineering

(BEW),

Ener-

most of the

Nepal

Swiss
with

local

CEDT, ETHZ,

on which
by the

formally

Works

as ADB/N,

field,

with

hy the

has

Swiss

on New and Renewable

sponsored

and less
out

the

(DEH)

UN-conference

cooperation

carried

and Butwal

development,

Humanitarian

(SATA/HELVETAS)

t!ork

(BYS)

in

development

Corporation
Assistance

many

and

occasion

1981.

Technical

Yantra

:.c energy

importancs

the

for
Mission

firms

Balaju

cooperation

of

HTL Brugg-Windisch,

SHDB and SKAT.*

In

addition,

World
gave

mate;.ial

was used

Bank and many other

specific

permission
are

to use material

thanks

directly

or

Jean-Max

Baumer who has written

who has done all

the

ATDO, ESCAP, NEA, NRECA, OLADE, UNIDO, the

and the

sources,

Grateful

indirectly

from

acknowledged
in

typing

to

providing
the

all

Bibliographisches

from

Institut,

one of their

institutions

and individuals

and information.

chapter

on economics

Gall,

to annexe II

for abbreviations

used

who helped

Special
and to

work.
June 1981

SKAT, Swiss
Appropriate
* refer

publications.

support

St.

Mannheim,

Center for
Technology

Vreny

thanks
Knijpfler

to

-1-

HARNESSINGWATERPOWERON A SMALL SCALE

page
ABSTRAC?

A. INTRODUCTION

1. The Need to

Expand Domestic

2. Traditional

Energy

Energy

Resources

Production

in Rural

8
9

Areas

3. New Solutions
are Necessary
a) Liquid
Fuel from Biomass
b) Gaseous Fuel from Biomass
c) Direct
use of Sun and Windpower
d) Water-Power
Resources

12

B. DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROPOWERRESOURCES
1. The Unused
2. Distribution
Geographical

Hydropower

of Resource-Availability
Area

3. Characteristics
t

4. Big
a)
b)
c)

13

Potential

of Hydropower

over

14

Resources

C. SMALL HYDROPOWERIN THE RURAL

2. Rural

SITUATION

22

History

Electrification

in

Developing

Countries

25
27
31

D. A PRACTICABLE APPROACH
1. Constraints

16
17

or Small Hydro?
Big Hydropower
Small Hydropower
Summary of Conclusions

1. Past and Recent

a) Switzerland
b) China

Time and

and Problems

2. Technology
a) Water Turbines
b) Other Equipment
c) Survey and Civil

32
33
50
74

Engineering

82

E. PROJECT EXAMPLES
1. SalleriKhialsa
Micro-Hyde1
a) Scheme Details

Project,

Nepal

-II-

b) Power Transmission
and Use
c) Implementation
and Present
State
d) Investment
Cost
2. Bhorletar
Turbine-Irrigation
Project,
a) Organisation
and Management
b) Benefits
c) Project
Execution
d) Technical
Details
e) Investment
Cost
3. Nam Dang Hydro-Electric
a) Technical
Details
b) Investment
Cost

Project,

Nepal

Thailand

F'. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

1. Basic Approach
a) Cost-Benefit-Approach
for Socio-Ecorzic
Seli.:.tion
b) Constraints
on the Selection
of Energy-Sources
c) Concluding
Remarks on Decision-Criteria
2. Micro-Hydropower
a) Experience
b) Experience
c) Experience
d) Experience

with
with
with
with

and larger
Tangible
Tangible
Tangible
Intangible

3. Micro-Hydra
Plants
and other
a) General Remarks
b) Oil Fuels
c) Wood an Dung
d) Biogas
e) Liquefied
Biomass
f) Solar and Wind Power

Hydropower Plants
Internal
Costs
Internal
Benefits
External
Costs and Benefits
Costs and Benefits
Alternatives

6. ASPECTS OF TECHNOLOGYTRANSFER AND

1. Policies
and Institutions
a) Tasks and Responsibilities
b) Which Institutional
Arrangement
c) A Country
Example
d) The Need for Training
2. Finance

DISSEMINATION

is

Best?

148

-III-

ANNEXE I:

Alphabetical

Index

ANNEXE II:

Glossary

ANNEXE III:

Alphabetical

ANNEXE IV:

Alphabetical
involved
in

ANNEXE V:

Standard

of Abbreviations
Manufacturer's
List
Hydro

Energy

152

of Bibliography

157

used

159

List

of Institutions
Development

& Power Conversions

and Organisations

163

168

-l-

ABSTRACT
Introduction

Most

developing

resources
is

depend

a parallel

because
fuel

cost

cits

of

such countries

the

very

medium

scale
in

ity

is

have

tricity

in

affair

and economically

is

high,

area.
are

In

In
near

rural

tries

live,

far

high-grade
energy
as
unit
sites
tion

is

area

- often
to

of

there
and

increasing,
payment

defi-

in

over

feasible.

urban

too,

long

the

of

prevalent

reason

distances
consumers

to
to

industry.

the

existing

where

of electricof

scattered

in

often

low,

small

developing

coun-

settlements

are

requires

less

style
dwellers.

Industrial

activities

electricity
from

such

demand
large

terrainover

density

industries

small-scale

and difficult

exist.

a relatively

people

why supply

a costly

population

demand.

Thus,

elecnet-

centres

a large

city

po-

distribution

load

life

and

MW capacity)

therefore

large

simple

compared
confined

is

water

of

form

and

very

of

Some big

energy-intensive

the

is

form

quantities

demand in

represents

capita

of

in

areas

and

density

and the

portion

domestic

such a worsen-

the

hundreds

where

large-scale

generally

to

in

untapped.

consumers

a majority

per

low

the

a high

many low-demand

economically

balance

The large

possible

and cottage
is

always

transmission

to

and the

agroprocessing
of

complex

population

energy
demand

Since

are

in

energy

installations.

This

apart

grade

be found

where

few

A small

only

areas.

the

(a

countries.

most

areas,

frequently

schemes

creating

urban

fuel

development

themselves

remained

to

addition,

find

extent

electricity

thus

the

a large

require

usually

energy.

oil)

resources

such

Bringing

are

own fossil

and.economic

(mainly

that

and high

works.

These

consumption
energy

their

primary

natural

used thus,

produced

of

major

these

produced

possess

are growing.

to

of

not

and consequently

hydropower

all
is

bills

possess

that

exist

energy

same countries

situation

power,

do

on imports

imported

energy

tential

rural
situation

for

yearly

ing

large hydro
costly
transmission

between

prices

that

heavily

the

Often

hydro
potential

countries

a large

per

generating

and distribuarea,

is

not

-2-

The

consequence

supply
of

to

of

rural

these

this

unfavourable

areas

areas

has

situation

is

that

a great

so far

not

benefitted

regarding

proportion
from

electricity

of

the

the

population

amenities

of elec-

tricity.

energy

Up to and sometimes

more tnan

consumption

of

agro-waste

biomass

energy

(wood,

requirements

such

agro-processing
alone,
ventional
to

fuel

provide

least

these

584 kWh per

ures ,of
or

of

143

for

suitable
cooking

energy

tions

as

energy
economic

India
3!

Lastly,

equipment

or

Compared

the

for

terms,

form

thermal

households

and in

for

of

five

would

day.

Or,

for

with

- which

the

cooking

then

need

cooking

possesses

large
that

at'

alone,

1976 consumption

, one may conclude

for
besides

high

costs

(hot-plates,
rural

even

it

as electricity

involves

sector

mainly

in

absolute

per

speaking,

cooking.

necessary

used

in

fig-

industries

such

a gale

of

be unrealistic.

such

also

for

Nepal

scientifically

grade

unsuitability

energy

for

for

In

a family

and year.

kWh/c.y.

would

Moreover,

cooking

transpor-

electric

11 kWh/c.y.

development

not

quoted

capita

is

is

1000 to 4000 kWh per capita

and year in con2) If electricity
is supposed
in literature.

requirements,

kWh of

consumed

and heating

curing).

from

is

etc. 1 which

as cooking

(drying,

a requirement

of energy

90 %I'

is

practice

such

low-grade

high

generating

on

the

part

good quality
-

transportation

practical

bad

of

the

agricultural

draft

high

applica-

costs,

electric

consumer

+ pans).

electricity
This

use

thermal

pots

proposition.

to

is

includes

for

In another
also

the

net:

an

transport

tation

of people

and goods

by road,

port

excludes

perhaps

but

possibly

domain of
small hydro

ropeway

The domain
impact

2)

see

3)

Data
For

small

on development

from

full

hydropower
is

in

Energy
ESCAP,

Needs

Electric

bibliographical

can

domestic

Eiomasse 11, p 11, + Reddy,

Palmedo,

passing

through

rural

trans-

areas

and

systems.

where

1) see gate,

railways

power and river

Rural

potentially
lighting

Energy

have
and in

Centres,

Power
data

in Asia . . . 1976, p 15
see alphabetical

index,

annexe

providing

p 110 ff.

. . . p 74 ff.

an important
sta-

-3-

tionary

motive
wood

ing,

power

and metal
While

and weaving.
neration
mechanical
use

diesel

sets

of

of

power

the

of

small

In

regions

history

for

movers

(typically

decades.

dividual
for

engines)

and

farms

of

machinery.

in

recent

years

in the

Small

and

large

hydro

on the

one

diesel

sets,

on the

other.

such

as costly

transmissions

large

hydro,

and dependence

very

maintenance

nessing

of
itself

management,

and the

There

are

today

all

highly
ment

in

developed
has

a history

manufacturing

4)

the

Invention
P 32

hand

been

gears

and

belt

by a look
and the

of

role

electricity

fuelled

installed

over

rural

communities

more

often,

perhaps
have

found

economics,

schemes

prime
the

last

and in-

motive

it

more

mainly

power

and more

due

to

the

advantages

of

of

and the

technology

local

local

small

case

need for

Moreover;

of

highly

the

har-

nature,

implementation

mainly

hydro
turbine

highly

150 years.

1827, see also

the

based

and

on self-

resources.

hydraulic
is

in

a decentralised

possible

have evolved

in

of

utilisation,

hardware

more than

plants.

being

Modern

and the

as with

disadvantages,

issues

fuel

diesel

of

supply,

have many of the

on imported
case

the

power

and environmental

development

world.

combine

an decentralised

many thousands

of Fourneyron

oil-derivate

They do not

the

rural

of

many

mair,tain

use of natural,

fact

over

or

decentralised

making

transmission

for

hydro-resources,

to

ge-

same source

illustrated

the

have

hydropower

in

small

the

of fuel.

small

skilled

reliance

cost

for

Operators
to

rises

the

via

is

spinning

with

in Switzerland

electricity

sharp

lends

conventional
tech..ology

diesel

kinds

difficult

small hydra

system

provide

that

directly
This

fibre

time.

explained,

These

as water-pump-

concerned

be recognised

industrialisation
that

uses
textile

is

tasks

reasons

plantations

all

must

economically.

no grid

the

milling,

discussion

mechanical

during

where

the

it

early

hydropower

productive

grain

of

more

of

exists

few

much

often

diverse

working,

perform

very

at

such

electricity,

can

drives,

for

in

plants

operation

techno7r;gy

dependable.
4) Sophisticated

industrialised

Wilson,

in

Engineering

is

its

very

developdesign

countries

Heritage

and
over

Vol.

1,

-4-

the

last

efficiencies,
or

which

less

such
it

Again,

in

Small

installations

hydro

is

tal

often

cost

of

economics

to

simpler

the

unit
of

in

higher

large

As far

technology

tends

schemes where

for

which

the

economic

installed

scale

or

For

is

either
in

con-

expensive.
possible,
of

large

a much higher

without

reasons

very

more

are

technology

increase

these

1 percent

viability

have

8 significant

technology.

be

sophisticated

capacity,

conversion

as costs

to

down indiscriminately,

of

and higher

schemes where

capacity.

big

scaled

per

ac::ieve

MW of

sophisticated

is

to

makes sense

may mean several

cerned,

scaled uown
large hydra

The aim is

40 years.

the

advantage

capacity

a different

capi-

compared

approach

is

necessary.

issue of the
paper

The

prime

issue

the

development

micro-hydro

available
know-how

for

of

hydropower

the

use of

utmost

Emph:isis

is

this

local

lead

to

sory

than

a more

appropriate

required

principles

of

use
where

are

and
other

explained

the

Cross-Flow

the

is

with

scale

(e.g.

relatively

well

should

reduce

of

using

local

make

simple

construction

capital

large-scale

developed

almost

costs

as far

technology,

this

local

of

using

technology

explained.
machines,

and differences
turbine

are

the

the

art

For

of

of

for

with

of

stands

this

turbine

parts

effort

and accesproblems

of

civil

understanding
types

Also,
in

the

are described

most important
out.

Swiss

with

components,

all

better

pointed

propagated

basis

and installation

basics

the

Nepal

activities

ready-made

in planning
the

in

simultaneous

countries,

of

are

know-how,
use of

upgrading

addition,

hydraulic

of

implementation

to

down

The state

and experience

struction

aim is

(Michell-Banki),

in.

In

end

be achieved

stage.

possibilities

documented.

can

technology

how its

scaling

dissemination.

encountered,
and

Rather

type

design,

and

The

cooperation,

further

lower

and the

turbines

technical

the

can be made locally,

schemes at a later

Cross-Flow

at

available

and techniques.

may

show what

currently

materials
possible.

to

100 kW), which

use of

that

as

is

resources.

equipment

at

paper

purpose,

on the

same turbine

difference
with other
turbines

this

up to approx.

developed

larger

Cross-Flow
turbines

of

in

relation

conof

the

in current
order
to

to

see

output

-cj-.

local
potential

capacity

and

turbines,

respective

At

sight

first

the

in

all

filtration

the

over

a period

data

over

of

therefore
non-scien-

tific
approach

to

time.

for

For

It

can

necessary

The

of

infra-

surface
power

economics

water

The economics

with
sources

other

factors

with

interest

is

energy

investment

and the

high

fixed

costs

produced,

making

the

degree

interrelate
factors
briefly

how
to

and

investment
determine

others

analysed.

that

are

cases

under

in-

important

fac-

fluctuation.
discharge

good topographical
investigation

there

the

of

evaporation,

rivers,

Careful

even

deveiopment

is

risk
such

must

no choice

involved

but

should

circumstances

the

feasible.

workshops

and/or

indicators

relatively
interest

nor

estab-

a function

other

small

whereby

that

local

and

for

water

resources.

of renewable

sources
various

hydropower

of

the

operation

economic

viability.

be expressed

issue.

are

compared

to other

of

a critical

In
in

and

put.

resuit

quantity

cost

and

energies

therefore

utilisation

cost,

cannot

of

other

depreciation

plant

harnessing

in

a central

independent
of

the

tradition

are naturally

to, which

high

a local

technological

with

end-use

relatively

shown

exist,

In most

the

but

in

mountains).

and its

all

interest.

a comparison

is

not

obvi-

sites,

for

are

where

resulting

identify

area,

hydropower

Capital

is

if

mostly

resources.

It
social

are

of small-scale

conventional
Initial

metal

irrigation

can be initiated

Of prime
comparison

small

is

rain
(hills,

discharge

be shown that

of projects

structure

river

as to

speaking,

runoff

approach

implementation

existence

roughly

do not

projects.

a non-scientific

be understood.

small

resources:

of

costs

catchment

of

hydro

to

compare

most,

regions

all

ilable

question

deal

difficult

is,

the

the

topography

surface

period

all

precede

take

of
is

an extended

a great

;Ind

the

speed

to
small

a suitable

of

criterion

maps available

with

River-flow

and the
The main

answer

may prove

size

commercially-ava

developing

potential

sites.

and

for

and with

generating

alternative

tors.

a simple

it

to

are given.

countries

however,

reality,

rainfall

of

those

In

the

is

may exist

runoff,

of

lack

graphs

substantial

lish

compared

there

potential

ously

data

efficiency,

monetary

energy
factor.

plant

addition,

in

factor
social

terms

are

-6-

measures

for

development
+ dissemin.

identification

The

dissemination

of
of

the
institutions
and training

use

of

cerning

water

the

transfer

of

areas

of
financing

financing
of

the

items

financing

of

participation
plied,
or

are
the

calling

aspects

fomenting

local

of

operation

projects,
to

of

to

is

In the
it
In

solve

area

of

appears
addition,
<ymposia

common problems

financing,
of

methods

and

tariff

project

and
last

affect
sittiations

of financing.

information
not

lending
or

project
tend

least,

the

packages
local

structure

financing
to

and

flow,

policies,
the

the

financing

or regional

system

in

planning
the

but

installations

that

the

maintenance;

and

Insti-

and capacity

surveying,

components,

the

factors

Individual

know-how

missions;

Grant

are considered:

technology

hydropower

projects.

specific

maintenance

and specific

again

equipment,

transfer

problem-solving

a number

other.
for

different

of

in

of

necessary.

networks

with

levels

networks,

efforts,

manufacturing

of

all

and

is

con-

are dealt

activities.

know-how

governing

of mistakes.

individual

a number

towards

cooperatives

at

information

development

for

related
and

of 'the

information

duplication

training

operation

part

existing

of financing

training

of

of

coordinate

avoid

of

and specific

and regional

construction

project

as an essential

documentation

to

importance

construction,

technology

international

ins.titutional

The

as the

and

questions

community,

here

tutional

institutional

local

quoted.

step

such as policies

as well

stressed

On matters

first

enterprise

transfer

financing

development

authorities,

technology

and to

the

levels,

and tariffs,

planning,

help

is

the

local

manufacture,

will

technology

on different

licences

promoting

of government,

examples

that

for

involvement

and private
and

hydropower
Issues

implementation.

measures

be

apone way

diverse,

-7-

A, INTRODUCTION
7. THE NEED TD EXPAND DOMESTIC ENERGY PRODUCTION
Countries

that

energy

production

energy

(mainly

the

oil

large

depend

on

imports

due

to

the

oil).

import

bill

external

of

sharp

This

is

adds

every

energy
rise

are

(see

particularly

compelled

fig.

1)

so for

year

to

the

in

to

step

up domestic

the

cost

of

developing

problem

of

imported

countries,

financing

where

an already

deficit.
1j pr hfd
30

Fiq.

1:

Petroleum
Source:

Prices

World

developing

Bank

1972330
1980,

Energy

in

the

countries

01

1972

73

74

7s

76

77

70

79

J. OPEC government
s&s prws wcy,htcd
OPEC output.
b Deflated by manufactured
export prlccs.

Today,

energy

tion

ment

efforts.

land,

produced

should
labour
This

be treated

depletable

and the

is

future.
resources
possess
cheap.

no single

not

only

as
switch

Their

- in

of

for
the
priority

away from

such

or

energy

and the

potentials
is

quickly

questions

that

have

on oil.
remained

becoming

of

of

also

producdevelop-

for

energy

energy

supply

resources

can
are

inevitable.

could

development

but

conventional

is

b\

and general

energy

resources

00

factors

activities

because

dependence
that

classical

imported

technology

reduce

the

future,

a second

to

development

in

with
economic

applies

resource

necessary

considerable

importance

Now and

Conservation
are

in

and capital

domestically.

no longer

There

rank

of

replace

oil

in

all

new and

Many developing
unexploited

economically

viable

the

near

renewable
countries

while
now,

oil

was

but

not

all

resources

relevant
long

lend

technologies
gestation

times

environmental

A second
traditionally

supply

sumption

their

size

in

lev,els

consumed

of

in

U.S.

300

to

points

different

(wand.

growth,

where

and

(e.g.
of

satisfy

rural

kilograms

of

appropriate
and areas

people

use 90 %

- The remaining
p ple
less than 40 %. 93

7)

see

Palmedo,

are

energy

p 68

in

based
is

even

developing
on national
higher.

p XIV
to

use

and can be summarised

- 270 Million

referred

of

of

has far

environment.

equivalent

of

the

per

purposes
and data

reaching

con-

countries
to

amount

capita

village

Energy

according

figure

endan-

traditional

part

requirements

widely

energy

use 70 %

study

system

is

of fuel-

replaced,

in developing

vary

traditional

people

the

is

population

reference

are met with

- 160 Million

6)

The

rural

for

requirements
of

Palmedo,

coal

and diversion

consumption)

the

energy,

residues),

much an integral

subsistence

use 50 %

from

others,

biomass

agricultural

5)

increased

of the

people

cited

very

and

of

kerosene

life.

life

- 800 Mil'lion

5)

have

per

a study
of

energy

year

although

(kg

condi-

are available

only

cases.

rural

of traditional

dung,

An approximate

countries

given

supplies

more expensive

remains

A.I.D?

environments

The figures

others

on still

deforestation

village

use

seems

a few specific

centage

areas

majority

400

different

the

stage,

of

acceptability.

rural

supported

to

figure

Most of

A number

sophistication,

diminishing

aspects

the

by

This

ce/cy).

and

from

energy

only

is

exploitation.

experimental

coming

was

on other

commissioned

easy

or

political

cities,

which

change

sufficient

from

to

Population

always

consequences

tions

due

most

to

ecosystem

Any

are

research

limit

in

wood and charcoal

life.

the

simultaneously.

energy

and

in

crisis,

used

the

quick

ENERGY RESOURCES IN RURAL AREAS

energy

emerging

to

are

constraints

2. TRADITIONAL

ger

themselves

is:

Palmed0

...

traditional
in

energy

relation

to

total

resources.
energy

Pervary

in

as follows:

countries
averages,and

use around
for

rural

or
areas

the

share

-9-

Commercial

energy

used
high

such

as petrol,

port

and agricultural

duce

motive

used

typically

Attempts
been

is

to

dramatically

animal
a much

greater

costs

of

and

for

its

it

grain-

oil-derivates

goes

to

uses are

the

lighting

of motive

Very

form,

to

(kero-

power to
farms

industry.

trans-

pro-

and plansuch

often

run

all

kinds

of

and saw-mills.

todays

which

of

and individual

mechanical

for

traditional

cost

of

petroleum

suffering

based

important

cottage

products

by

are

if

i,he form

Much of

communities

pumps,

energy,

Other

in

petroleum

extent,

electrification
creasing

rural

undermined

and human

in

and kerosene.

industries

water

mainly

LNG, LPG)* and provision

directly

substitute

is

sector.

isolated

agro-based

power

machinery,

diesel

(kerosene,

for

small

areas

traction

electricity

tations,

rural

speed

cooking

sene lamps),

in

oil.

forms
Transport

products

a reversal

on oil-derivate

energy

have

and traction

by

substituted

to

had been

in

fuel

of

many

also

regions,

has

to

and

deal

rural

with

in-

supply.

3. NEW SOLUTIONS
ARE NECESSARY
Energy

problems

variable

mix

for.

There

of

is

servation,

are

scope

that

The

can

improving

of

a number

ethanol

cially

well

state

for

balance

effective
with

of

needs

of the

art

LNG

= Liquid

case

rural

lot

better

- consisting
- seems to

ecosystems

management,
devices

and

it

of the

is

major

be called

the

conuse

of

as more efficient
have

perhaps

of

through

and

such

new technologies

biomass

to

liquid

in

the

for

developing

established
of

carbohydrate

is

scare

emerged

worthwhile

in the

to

give

possibilities:

technology.
materials

Natural

Gas, LPG = Liquid

Petroleum

not

new.
It

fuel.

It

holds

The production

countries.
from

(ethyl-alcohol),

fuel

certain

types

Ethanol

is

such

solution

each
of

wood

Various

as a substitute

application

larly

a unique

from biomass:

World-War

distillation

the

may be enhanced

meet

fuel

and

and technologies

and charcoal-kilns.

conversion

Second

indeed,

and

summary of the

a) Liauid

for

for

energy

cooking-stoves

short

resources

reforestation

traditional

past

manifold

Gas

of

alcohol,

biomass,

cane,

during

considerable
of

produced

as sugar

was used

by

is

promise
particua commer-

fermentation

sugar

beet,

the

and

molasses

-lO-

and cassava.

with

only

tion

of

near

minor

ethanol

power

vehicles

either

can

subctitute

for

engine

modifications.

in

transport

difficult

the

to

It

could

use as a vehicle

volume

help

to reduce

alcohol,

produced

and does

fuel,

or blended

an equal

thus

Methyl

sector.

by itself

not

hold

of

the

with
petrol

consump-

from

wood,

promise

for

the

future.

economics

greatly

of

on the

efficiency
sess

of

the

derived
for

be used to

limits,

petroleum

more

The

can

Within

petrol.

is

It

alcohol
cost

of

biomass

production

prospects
alcohol

arable

production

and to

for

Great

well

but

cost.s,

the

direct

be taken

established

being

it

The biggest

is

must

very

R + D is

reduce

scale

care

not

material.

a breakthrough.

on a large

land.

are

is

done
still

to

to

early

of using
with

upset

improve

too

constraint

competition
not

and depend

food

the

to asbiomass-

production

an already

precarious

balance.

b) Gaseous fuel
Biogas,

from biomass:

a mixture

anaerobic

(in
It

wastes.

the

can

engine

be used

only.

exist

worldwide
varying

are

reduced

poorer
Although

India,

of

success.

economics

is

waste,

research

on biogas

material

from

which

a big
its

and

often

has

potential

in

use as a "free"
funds

are

required

the

prospects

no access

aquatic

weeds

feedstock

is

to

produced

to

range

(water
not

make biogas

small

operation
for

the

of

retains

of

Their

temperature

firewood.

adaptation

Millions

Nepal).

the

and human

demand for

is

soil.

from

plant

little

biogas

climates,

in

animal,
the

with

Korea,

In cold
best

of

to the

South

are

a population

there

vegetable

the

can be produced

reducing

cooking,

may be run

(China,

since
of

in

(CH4),

decomposition

and can be returned

levels

part

oxygen)

directly

Moreover,

as a fertilizer

with

of

engines

value

More

absence

combustion

Also,

55 - 65 % methane

containing

the

the'
its

plants
has met

application

25 - 35"

necessary

C. The

feedstock.

hyacinth)

and other

developed

to

any extent.

a viable

alternative

in

many more situations.

combustion

Partial
hulls,

produces

value.

It

use

in

gas

could

can

of wood or materials

a gaseous
be burned

combustion
be viable

engines,

mixture
for

such

(wood-gas,

thermal

energy

The production

much more widely

in

as straw,
producer-gas)

with

applications,

or

and use of
rural

nutshells,

areas,

both
given

bark

or rice

a low calorific
if

biogas
funds

filtered,

for

and producer
for

research

and

incentives

development,

for

experimentation

and

effective

dissemination

mechanisms.

c) Direct
Solar

use of sun and windpower

and windpower

veloping

countries.

ticularly

water

Machines
to

that

A firm
pumping

produce

Windpower

the

wind

for

the

Water

kind

properly

of existing

heating

technically,

by

and many others

hot

heat

water

use in

collectors

is

for

for

small

that

areas.

outputs
small

must be taken

machine

Par-

rural

and isolated

and care

the

to

Solar

for

solar

for

(up

consumto assess

has been designed

water

their

heaters

crops

in

most

Solar

ready

application.

own solar

are often

purposes.

drying

technology

widespread

manufacture

and industrial

heat

cells,

well

promise
price

remote

projects.

de-

regime.

begun

domestic

technology

for

Some

water

heaters

an economical

source

dryers

agriculture

that

basically

and are

already

in

a number of countries.

Photovoltaic
appear

for

energy

windpower

for

optimised

a suitable

do so.

can provide

air,

highly

and commercially

could

for

are

and to choose

have

of renewable

and effective

resource

plate

countries

exists

alternative

wind

flat

source

be an erratic

economically

developing

a simple

best

to

a third
basis

electricity

tends

regime

are

technical
is

5 kWj and may be the

ers.

of

technologies

which

suited

to

life

and

long
levels

on

falling

but

it

happen.

For

its

order

of

difficult

to

costs

it

needs

exist

low

power

electricity

for

water

of early

1981 - to

pumping

be viable

has

developing

in

countries

Solar

say when the

big

cost

only

in

locations.

water,

alternative

at

cells

are

applications

appears

they

still

breakthrough

The use of

irrigation)

no other

because
is

photovoltaic

prospects

electricity,

electricity
of

remote

where

into

kWh. Costs

good

(drinking
only

directly

operation.
$ 2 per

high

energy
in

trouble-free

s-till

relatively

solar

many applications

the
is

convert

will
where

photovoltaic
- at

prices

exists.8)

d) Water power resources:

For

many developing.

considerable
8) Material

potential.

countries,

unused

The technology

water
is

power

well

used from: World Bank, Energy in the Developing

resources

constitute

developed

and plays

Countries,

New York 1980

a very

an important

-12-

role

worldwide.

other

sources

"The

historical

tional

of flowing

sources

many countries
of

the

to

power

the

rural

The rest

countries.
a practicable

of

appears

to

suitable

sites

unequal

along

rivers

internal

and

sectors."

users

either

direct

or

experience

exists

harness

devoted

water

widely

applied

or often

power

conven-

systems.

field

of

through

Thus,

providing

alternative

(in

exists

to

other

and

developing

elaboration

scale

potential

of

and to the

on a small

mo-

electricity

a number

this

wherever

superior

the

from

to

of

growth,
and also,
a disin9; On the other hand, small
in

is

expansion

centralised

mainly

paper

the

large-scale

resource

to

be a viable

stresses

useful

this

but

size),

of

recent

approach

installation

to

planning

and non-commercial

Cons i derable

lighting.

limited

generally,

problem

stationary

to

is

energy

and,

may be a very

po,tentials
tive

face

it

water.

approach

energy

tegration

lly

Geographica

of

relation

to

and where

it

energy

sources.

B, DEVELOPMENT
OF HYDROPOWER
RESOURCES
Simple

water-wheels

some forms
steam

of

power

resource

the

the

many regions
land,

first

than

half
of

or

Zurich

installations
one

to

abundant

were
450

hydropower

nineteenth

century,

comprising
operating

HP and

also

about

the

long

before

use

of

the

40 turbines

use

this

man of

advent
of

of the

consider-

natural

energy

of the
soon

turbines.

industrialisation

entirely

year

the

emerged

by water

resources,

relieve

invention

industries

of

to

and the

with

powered

an area
by

times

The

small

America,

ent

water-wheels

developed.

The first

and North

alone,

but

and more widespread

1800's.

the

large

aI,-

in

Much later,

highly

easier

with

already

building

was

of Europe

used

labour.

of

early

a country

canton
450

art

capacities

in

been

manual

became even

turbine

the

hard

engine,

able

have

water-

after

in

In Switzerbegan

in

based
less

lSO0,
with

on hydropower.
In the
2
than 2000 km , more than

with

capacities

capacities

from

less

greater

than

in

hydro-

450 HP.")

In

later

9) Cited

years,

from:

10) Information

when

cheap

UNCNRSE Conference
from

Abteilung

oil

News
fiir'

became available

5,

worldwide,

1981

Landeshydrographie,

Berne

1914

interest

-13-

power

was lost

different

to

again.

sundry

a great
Governments,

institutions

still

identification
related

and

- to

does

the
of

to

extent

hydro

in

many

areas,

policy-makers,

individuals

new sites

of

and

today

funding

take

reassessment

but

and

a growing

many projects

potentials,

lending

interest.
once

and

the

situation

is

agencies

and

This

found

a number

not

of

led

and

feasible;

other

the

activities

development.

1. THE UNUSED HYDROPOWER

POTENTIAL
An international
worked

out,

commission
inter

alia,

established

by the

an objective

analysis

Energy

Conference

world

of the

in

hydraulic

1974,

resources.

- ITotal

Fig.

World

2,2OO,OOOl-%
Generating Capacity

2:

World Total
Installable

Installed
Capability

and

NRECA, Small hydroelectric

Source:

powerplants,

Washington

1980

Asia

South
America

Afh.3

North
America

U.S.S.R.

2
t

Eumpe
Ocea

The

results

17 % of
in

the

global

tential

same

studies

potential

in

amounts

these

runoff

struction

yearly

of

or
to

more

than

regions

of

planned,
2,2

production
amount

considered

is

various

of

show that

and the

mfllion
potential
electrical

MW and
of

hydropower

reasonably

developable

eight-fold).
the

world

amount
has
nearly

energy

Figure
and the

remaining.
-

at

thermal

so far

(the

amounts

plants

con-

capacity

- a theoretical

eiectrical

with

hydropo-

under

developable
factor

GWh of

around
energy

the

developed,

The total

is

theoretical

2 illustrates

a 50 % plant

10 miliion
in

developed

la

oil

energy.
as

fuel

The
would

14-

require

If

approximately

this

amounted
that

is

compared

to

around

hydropower

tries,

40 million

to

of

ing.

All

lent

per

resources

about

these

world

are

possess

countries

barrels

per

very

substantial

barrels

OF RESOURCEAVAILABILITl

The

graphical

presentation

not

show how distribution

two main

factors

determine

amount of water

the

be made to
or

that

fall

constant.

sity,

distribution

evaporation,
ticular
rivers

and duration

a part

evaporates

from
and

of

and the

the

returns

coune.g.

magnitude

fuels

is

of

(oil,

oil

the

strikequiva-

gas and coal)

into

is

to

at

the

ground,

which

the

also

by

(in

mm/year)

are

that

the
of

it

remains

of the

inten-

of

direct

of

land

overland

the

par-

Runoff

soil.

by the

to

can

situation

area

the

site:

water

a function

atmosphere

sea

There

specific

result

- powered

the

of

topographical

a direct

capacity
in

any

Once developed,

is

2 does

time.

height

but

field-moisture

fig.

and over

vertical

dams.

hand

cycle

in

in

sun - water
were

and

it

pre-

subterranean

Area-wise

distribution

cation

of

of

world.

the

11) Calculated
p 17

12)

Data

from

13)

From

World

developing

barrels

potential

rainfall,

back

the

due to the

sea and moves through

thence

day,

regions

and the

other

hydrologic

the

routes.

the

the

infiltration

basin,

becomes evident

potential,

potentials

means of

of

which

OVER TIME AND GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

unit

on the

it

For

million

generating

by

flow

transpiration,

is

time

art i ficially
Water

drainage

cipates,

per

per

(head) . Head may be. natural

may be created

fairly

flow

12)

1980,

carbonic

within

the

products,

installable

continent-wise
is

pertroleum

indeed.

2,54

from

2. DISTRIBUTION

course

in

oil

consumed

11)

day.

of

day

of

electricity

of

per

60 %* of the

together

produce

of oil

consumption

almost

24 million

day, to
13)
1980.

during

the

70 million

who together

equivalent

barrels

Calculated

of

river

geographical
It

appears

at an

Bank,
from

situation
that

oil-to-electricityt

Grainger,

Digest

Energy

fig.

runoff

in the

of

of

regions

around

conversion

. . . p 23,

hydro

World

. . . p 63,Washington

the

efficiency

Energy

1980

in

fig.

resources

in

aequator,
of

Conference,

3 gives
the

various

Central

approx.

38 %, see

Istanbul

an indi-

1977

America

parts
and

also NRECA,

~Rcnc

-7.

( ICE -COVERED

I OCEAN

600 - 1000 mm

200 - 600 mm

Fiq.

3:

World

Distribution

source:

AFIBIO,

parts

of

Vol.

3,

runoffs.

Central

Asia,

runoff

in

higher

runoff,

the

prime

interest.

It

water

to

slight

the

generate
to

as

the

those

flow

Runfoff
1974:

The

large

Global

parts

context

far

of

of

short-,
is
power

below

in

hydropower

regime,

already

mentioned.
the

These

to

that
time

seasons,

suitable

America

have

(Sahel,

Sahara),

as well

areas

are

For

long-term

Generally
most

Africa

America,

pattern

i.e.

North

potential.
and

relation

weather

are

northern

average.

local

Circulation

and

North

medium-

this

FreshMater

Europe

and western
is

variations

in mm/year

northern

Asia,
In

terest

such

3-4,

Australia

America,

subject

No.

South-East

average

and

of River

little
with

variations

speaking,

of

perennial

hydropower

no in-

flow

and

are

of

availability

Such

and a multitude

or

Africa

average

of
the

and duration.

for

of

than

Arabia,

as southern

areas

determines

higher

variations
other

rivers

development.

of
are
factors
with
High

runoff

variations,

tremes

such

technical

on the

as

only

other

seasonal

constraints

hand,

make harnessing

runoff

on possible

and

floods

moredifficult,

impose

and ex-

serious

economic

and

sites

are

utilisation.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROPOWER
RESOURCES
Perhaps

the

alike.

most

geological

unique.

It

tential

exists.

is

generating
eration
cent

tial

that

true

the

it

considerably

liable

developing

runoff

Unlike

th.e

data

simple,

technologies

and very

equipment

kW upto

reliable.

the

operation

hundreds

Hydro

plants

through

the

uses.

of MW for

turbine,
It

is

it

conventional

with

is

impacts.
very

thermal

is

high
power

period

with

the

po-

away

from

the

were

gen-

situated

adja-

power transmission
of

hydro

poten-

630

many

no heat

a single

characteristic

in

is

that

only

new and other

well

(as e.g.

plants

develop-

possible

rewith

years).

is

is

topographi-

on hydropower

capability

hydropower

hydropower

renewable

developed,

relatively

in combustion)

rare.

is

Experience

output

ranges

energy

involved,

is

from

considera-

less

than

one

unit.

generators

available

of

again

energy

efficiencies,

in
This

power.

(although

technology

From the

plants.

where

and to some extent

a specific

power

with

a non-polluting

environmental

technology

long

non-consuming

are

installation

electricity

value

constraint

and malfunctioning

of

far

Before

economic

data

It
firm

Because

life

the

a severe

associated

associated

has a long

with

place

a very

are

with

environments.

possible

over

equipment

sources,

that

countries.

of

be harnessed

mechanical

only

together

make each

on hydropower

hydrological

detail

that

considerable.

because

obvious

long-term

predictability

accurate

ble

in

is

potential

concerned,

consumers

relying

in different

accurate

mainly

are

site,

river

must

likely

activities

no two

variables

resources

costs

generating

maps of insufficient

ment,

hydro

that

of the

are

where

all

Therefore

of

site

situations

use,

is

and volume

the

transmission

near

varies

The lack

tive

also

came into
or

regime
of

site,

to

characteristic

condition

In

was possible.

other

flow

Topography,

the

cal

particular

is

Once
at

a lower

which,however,
conversion
most
due

to

the

has

of

more than
fact

that

passed

elevation)

may have
point

cases

water

for

some nega-

view,

it

is

double

that

of

a volume

of

water

that

can

which

can

more

generate

The

ly

easily

of

resource
smaller

than

during

the

time

of

thermal

which

are

largely

in

the

kinetic

rotary

power

energy
needed

to

energies.

in

hydropower

to

this

!and

low

and

inflation

has not

disadvantage

variable

relatively

to outside

development

Now

many instances

unsensitive

represents

mechanical

of cheap oil.

due

plants,

distance,

into

intensity

and outweighs

costs

a vertical

caloric

capital

high

fall

be converted

electricity,

fact

this

be made to

is

probably

stable

and other

favoured
relative-

rising)

fuel

operating

costs,

factors.

4. BIG OR SMALL HYDRO?

Definition*:

There

all

is

ernment,

plants

a capacity

generic
term for all
ty and specific
term

plant

all

capacity
plants

considerable

argument

in

and

industry

found

more easily,

Before

an answer

teristics

with

if
is

of each

with

about

among the

a second
attempted

and at basic

from

is

1000 kW (1 MW)

plants
with 1000 kW or less capac
for the range from 501 to 1000 kW:
101 to 500 kW

a capacity
this

of 100 kW or less

question

general

question
it

of more than

is

on different

public.
asked:

worthwhi!e

differences

levels

An answer
application

looking

between

gov-

can probably
in which

at

the

in

the

context?

specific

two groups

be

charac-

of plant

size.

a) Big Hydropower
Big

hydropower

such

as roads

long

high-tersion

a great

stations
(during

of

sive

large

industry.

Big

plants

are

The

prises.
* Definitions
per

however,

giving
the

systems

individual

usually

skill

of

a nature

construction)

grid

number

are

owned

several

different
between

requires

access

and an extensive
consumers

requirements

border-line

and

that

and
in

to

by

management,

power

big

infrastructure

market,

distribution

and supplies

operated

a big

a good

resulting

system.

It

in
serves

to electricity-inten-

companies

or

administration,

ranges
call be found
in literature.
In
big and small at 1 MW seems appropriate.

state

enter-

operation
the

context

of

and
this

pa-

18-

maintenance

are

and there
in

investment

load
big

mand;
during

of

that

Transmission

cost

ergy

in

transmission

investment

in

the

losses

is

generally

lower

region

but

to

less

about

costs

are

a function

of

tion

the

From

the

technology
risks

14)

in

capacity,

a decrease

is

of

peak de-

individual

demand

uncontrollable

such

peak

as standby

industry

installa-

e.g.

studies,
are

from

a country

density

the

an average

of

is

deqree

density

longer

on a small

view,

b,jg

of

hydro

electro-mechanical
and civil

Long-term

great,

flow

the

power

construction
are

tension

length

is

this

it

With
per

capita

and low

popula-

and higher

costs.

most economic

calls

ESCAP

and energy

line

lines

equipment,

data

length

consumption

is

the

High

consumption

transmission

investment

% in

urbanization.

high

low

area,

15,7

low

countries,
of

electrified,

and

while

length,

considerably

fully

share

line

of

total

relatively

Nepal. 16)

28 % in

en-

transmission

In developing

a function

and the

population

planning

between

used,

and more than

35 % of

OECD was for

relationship

is

30 % of gen-

7,5 % of generated

same year,

within

equipment

if

of

the

in transmission.

And,

point

and may exceed

In

further

manufacturing

involved

a largely

low

probability

A problem

1975 was more than

are

concentrated

engineering

feasibility

the

maximum

considerable

unit

high

result

in

in

a direct

transmission

a b i g load,

Thus,

of

that

density

is

higher,

population

required

supply

Indonesia

per

per capita.

reduce

in

of investment

25 % in

clear

results

are

sophisticated

consumption

becomes

their

relatively

due to

and

consumers.

and distribution.

level

losses

transmission

costs

electricity
15) 1 There

and a high

where

Thisis

size,

have

increased

The OECD average

distribution.

of

is

pumped-storage.

lost

and

number
to

generation

involved.
plant

which

and distribution

cost. 14)

energy

rising

tend

be met with

of

of scale

a larger

consumers

must

cost

with

same time-interval,

and high

erating

with

numbers

demand

tions

cost

factors

the

Unit

economies

pronounced

specific

higher

of

are

considerable.

supply.

sophisticated

for
and

to

high

activities,

standards
because

a necessity

and

the

gestation

In Uganda, where most of the power is generated

at the Owen Falls and where the transmission
is very extensive,
44 % of the total operating
costs
accrue
to transmission
and distribution, see also Amann, Energy Supply and . . . p 29

system

15) From OECD, The Electricity

Supply . . . p 12, 23, the figure

Canada.
16)

Data

from

ESCAP,

Electric

Power

in Asia . . . p 15

is an average

of

all

countries

except

19-

periods

are

specialised
that

the

possible

large

about

the

very

where

scale,

to apply

technology

96 % in

brings

of total

case

high

to

achieve

of

hydraulic

cost

is

design

very

which

cost,

equipment

computer

technology

high

performance

turbines.

Needless

however

and highly
efficiencies
to

say,

may be justified

generally

this

because

a relatively

small

of

fraction

cost.

Big-scale

stations

hydropower

Artificial
of

is

fabrication

may reach

process

It

long.

lakes

arable

tion

of

ous

that

other

may change

land.

Positive

the

benefits

negative

effect

recreation

that

should

not

in

in

by large

crea-

Lt is

obvi-

with

tropical

storage

areas

and the

although

proportion

be neglected

spreading

sizeable

capability

camping)

rise

considerations.

inundate

controlling

do not

diseases

and

fishing,

(boating,

for

environmental

landscape

are flood

sites

of water-borne

careful

entire

an

aspects

new recreational

possibility

require

size.

areas

An-

is

the

reservoirs.

b) Small Hydropower
Small
is

hydropower,

usually

sion
is

on the

supplied

to

distribution
The

to

problems

local

Small

hydro

This

is

is

very

an argument

ment:

"Traditional

hydro

plants

oil

which

cause

of

cost.

It

factory
fore

or
the

shared,

is

more

businesses

in

place

for

a number

to

the

the

rise

the
all

operate

the

apply

equally

in
to

the

very

rising
but

for

output,

running

price

of

also

be-

the

is

unit

a farm,

and therecosts

many small

power

small

It

smaller

costs

competition
small

state-

enterprise.

to the

theories,

successfully

of

the

and

cost.

following

hydropower,

running

fixed

economic

of

units,

and

themselves

administration.

by the

large

in proportion

more
the

of

way,

high unit-specific

of

very

number

lend

and

because

of

a planned

development

forms

how capital

produced,

which

all

the

do not

against

of

the

only

operation

larger

understand

reasons,

not

costs
in

proper

against

weaken,

relative

still

its

reasoning

station,

units

of

may be put

a low-ten-

of consumption
in

operation

produced

with

stations

with

to

can

Small

severe.

in connection

Nevertheless,

and

less

mostly

consumption

mentioned

that

a power

diversify

Energy

supervision

often

gained

easy

size,

ownership,

the

common proposition

of its

cooperative

which

experience

nearby,

or

beginning

affects

to

relatively

economic

is

Because

exists

are

individual

few consumers

only.

potential

decentralisation.

hand,implies

relatively

network

possible.

and peaking

other

with
stations.

can

be

factories
the

giants
As unit

.20-

size

falls,

and

the

therefore

nance.

is

from

usually

this

bility

cost .18)

high

for
It

nature

this.

If

is

of

clear

based

works

and

intimate,

better

may be higher

are often

mainte-

than

for

human

costs

are

kept

local

construction

all

efforts

usually

good

as necessary"

may very

well

look

quite

schemes

are

scarce

or

disprove

this
its

be acceptably

life,

High

even the

and money-wise

down.

This

the

risks

possible

with

a high

to

little

of

"as

standards

Even the most

local

a station

and

intelligent

in

construction

anyway

local

use mainly
of

through

hydrological

dam would

smaller

all

may be established

people

a small

degree

or

shows that

- which

are

project
idiom

anyhow.

local

of

Amer-

the

Generally,

safety

rupture

makes it

techniques,

of

Latin

and carried

Experience

advice

reliable,

necessary,

adopted

maximum output

the

measurements,

none

available

fact.

in

reduction.

different.
not

feasi-

- following

needs
is

and

and performance.

as 50 % of total

at cost

and

miniaturised

some projects

things

past
con-

pre-feasibility,

as high

a way of doing

the

powerhouse

reliability

in

in

elaborate

"luxury"

and costly
that

has

carefully

operational

were running

to

hydro

be seen are

all

by detailed

for

small

oversize

"as

minimum-flow

not

an

installations

cannot

few

issue;

What can often

safety,

contrary

of

studies

- will

threaten

firm

equipment,

such

hydro

hydro

relatively

estimates

hydro.

stages

- runs

on apparent

with

work becomes more

efficiency

a large

OLADE reports

that

things

of

their

a higher

concrete,

stages.

small

small

elaborate

another

preceded

an approach

for

still

of

preparatory

consistently,
data

for

big

standard

good as possible"

The

costs

electromechanical

was sometimes

costs

in

reinforced

and planning

ica,

is

like

in

optimised
a very

All

there

this,

works

highly

with

result

labour

been treated

struction

to

operators

17)

enterprise."

Apart

of

likely

Additionally,

small

with

involvement

not
if

usually
initial

materials

labour

and

participa-

tion.

On the

equipment

reliability
ings

17)

of

- without

excerpt

18) Personal

from

side,

standards

supply

can

reducing

Water

communication

Power

of

usually

overall

OLADE

be

benefits

and Dam construction,

with

voltage

and frequency

lowered
of

involving

a scheme

January

79,

p 25

in

fluctuations

and of

considerable
proportion.

sav-

A decrease

in

conversion

of

reduced

to

some extent

change

efficiency

generating

for

tions

acceptable

technical

installation

with

are

(smaller

small

available

standards

in

penstock.

diameter)

between

impacts

controllable

savings,

absolute
losses

penstock.

The

works

a great
the

aim

amount

The same is

of

such

should

in

ex-

capacity,

be a fairly
that

true

considera-

generating

and equipment

could

possible

ery.

This

end of the
supply

attributed
lation

to

sc.ale

of

power

size.

Often

the

1 barrel

of oil.*

where

to

overall
650

low-cost

has an accepta-

the

to conclude

this

small

While
capacity,

features

chapter

with

the
it

of

is

big

into

electricity

is

kinds

and if

its
very

it

and

to the

other

be suited
cost

can be
in

re-

saleable

equivalent

hydropower,

is

of machin-

small

the

of 38 %

time.

At the

represents

answer

end

generation

additional,

and small

that

may well

probably

upper

to

only.

is

all

the

hydro

short

provides

a summarised

at an efficiency

the

use thinkable.

nearby

input
still

at

or
At

small

stations

stations

c) Sumnary of Conclusions

is converted

sizes

electricity

power

before.

oil

to

to operate

supplied

of

non-existent.

was a few months

hydropower

one

negligible

in a relatively

hydropower
if

are

for

time

and low-cost

electricity

salient

only

operation

small

generally

be credited

sophistication

stations.

kWh of

at

the

grid-system

system

they

power directly

all

a big

a must

into

are

not

construction

sophistication,

power

can
is

economical

into

big

Each

possible

their

use mechanical

most

looking

of

can be put

away with

energy.

After

stations

attributable

the

to

hydro

be cited

to

does

constitutes

small

capability

and schemes

characteristic

often

to

Road accessibility

scale,

A last

due

controlling

extent.

Many examples

* If

the

may be accepted

required

The result

and cost.

while

terms.

Higher

potential,

construction

because

flood

same time,

to

remains

in the

simple

considerable

reliability.

Environmental

of

losses

a cheaper
a trade-off

about

capacity

for

is

ble

brings

it

question

of

is

now
asked

-22-

* large

centralised

power
national

e international,
l

big corporations
staff

o depends
periods

state

term assessment
sophisticated

it
can
on potential
energy requirements

its
share
developable

of total
potential.

decentralised,
enterprises,

low tension
tems

individual,
quirements

distribution

period

o depending
on potential,
rural
life,
which
is
plied.
l

or

with

demand;

long

90 96 based

small

urban

areas

and well

paid

and construction

on the

to

a nation's

known,

reasonably

individual

industry,

sub-regional

communal ownership
administration
materials

planning
contribution

and eventually

local

cities,

highly-skilled

a sizeable

perhaps

networks

co-operative
and co-operative

gestation

make

is

small
power
rural
communities

employing

of potential,
technology

depending
commercial

potential

industry,

grid-systems

enterprises

o short

large-scale

and regional

or

on long
involving

demand;

with

and skills

it can make a considerable

clearly
over-proportional
to

farms

and

micro-grid

semi-skilled

sys-

labour

re-

applicable
impact on the quality
of
the amount of energy sup-

its
share of the total
known potential
is on the order of 10 %. Since very
few hydrological
data exist
for small rivers
and watersheds,
there
are good
prospects
that additional
patentials
can be identified,
particularly
in developing countries.

C, SMALL HYDROPOWER
IN THE RURALSITUATION
1. PAST AND RECENT.HISTdRY
a) Switzerland:
At the
tion
of

beginning
lived

in

Switzerland.

had a size
up

99,2

* 1,36

of
rural

the

20th

areas,

century,
small

The statjstics
of

% of

HP = 1 kW

less
the

than
total

hydropower

of

20 HP*. All
number

when still

i914

was used

show that

stations

more than

of

and made up 31,7

the

65 % of the

extensively
majority

1000 HP and less

% of

the

total

in
of

popula-

all

parts

installations
together,
hydro

made

capacity

-23-

utilised.

The average

small
of

industry,

course

tion.

mills

not

of

a station

and other

even,

Nonetheless,

fig.

size

but

enterprises.

depended

on average

Mitteilung
f.

phie,

O-20

6005

21-100

523

01-1000

214

1914

By 1928 the
450

picture
HP in

29 % of total
(or

had changed
output,

450

units

Fig.

all

generating

water-wheel)

from

served

stations

was
situa-

and hydrological

on every

6 km'.

cumlated

% of total

% of total

output

(HP)

38'425

7t4

7,7

35'049

6,8

3,2

90'507

17,s

0,s

353'360

68,3

88,3

57

to

999

6799

somewhat.

stations

capacity.

below

was- as low

HP.

In

still

96 % of

1000 HP together

range

as 18,8

517'341

100

While

In the

size

up to

HP, while

some installations,

all

as many

stations

about

average

turbine

HP in

stations

was 245,5
as

were

contributed

450 HP the
it

100

10 individual

turbine

were installed.

5:

Hydropower
Installations
in Switzerland
1928

HPS
size
(HP)

no of
stations

no

of
turbines

no of
waterwheels

o-449

5'785

3'086

3'590

74

195

m-m

160

865

-se

500-999

Source:

Statistik

Schweiz,

Eerne

1000

der

shows,
eration
kept

47'864

2'392'321

1928

plants

continued

a major
of

125'218

and

over
total

Small

cumulated
output
capacity
(HP)

der

Wasserkraftanlagen

be

the

most

and

001

wer
total

below

of

topographical

number of
stations

the

der

LandeshydrograBerne

Distribution

was 1 plant

HPS
size
(HP)

Hydropower
Installations
in Switzerland
1914

Abt.

on the

there

4:

Source:

was 76 HP and by far

portion

electricity

down

and

to
of
for

the

supply

6'019

small

and

power was utilised

power

technology

transmission
applied

4'146

very
right

3'590

small

enterprises.

at the

was secondary.
was simple

2'565'403

and

As fig.

generation

site.

Thus,

costs

reliable.

6
Gen-

could

The table

shows
list

stations
of

in

different

areas

stations

successive

along

Zanton
(arca)

River

4argau
total
373
stations
r3ith av.
zapacity
of 21.7

Hallwiler
I,
II
II
II
II

Direct

used

of the
the

river

installed
capacity
Aa

lx
1 x

pin factory
textile
industry
electricity
cotton
weaving
electricity

160

65

1 x

140

use = 54 % of total

named.

45

25

power

an exemplary

use of power

1 x

use = 83 % of total

with

(HP)

lx

power

country

capacity

~~

Direct

Glarus
total
99
stations
nrith

Linth

av.

capacity
sf
69 IIP

Direct

power

Zurich
total
482
stations
with av.
capacity
39,s HP

1 x

40

11

lx

15

II

lx

11
II

lx

20

lx

70

II

1 x

80

II

1 x

120

uee

64 % of

T&s
'
,,

1 x

Direct

Fig.

100
35

II

lx

a0

II

1 x

125

1 x

117

use = 94 % of

lx

70

lx

42

II

button
factory
cloth
factory
workshop
cotton
weaving

total

6:

Examples
Source:

power

spinning
works
grain mill
carpentry
grain mill
electricity

09
60
20

lx

n
"
11

mech. work nhop

grain mill
cotton
printing,
heating,
lighting
weaving
textile
factory
lighting

total
3x
2x
lx

"
),

cotton
printing,
I lighting
woodworks

of Small

adapted

from:

HP-Stations
Statistik

der

Wasserkraftanlagen

der

Schweiz

1928

(incomplete)

-25

Between
while

total

the
of

1920

ment

1935

of

many

oil

of

these

for

and

petroleum

It

it

products

products

In

had been the

was clearly

by a factor
of
19)
This
by more than 31 %.

fell

Switzerland.

importance.

areas

developments

for

cheap

and less

in

imports

expenditure

advent
less

and

rose

consequence,
sole

small

small

basis

for

hydropower

5,9
was

hydropower

industrial

that

was

develop-

made large

scale

feasible.

b) China:
The

construction

plication
sides

of

of

the

side

in

The

first

1956.

large-scale

gained
two

of

10'000

years.

having

date.

22)

an average

size

industrial

from

Capacity

meaningful

past

was given

under

ap-

25 years.
to

the

Be-

small-scale

vast

country-

40'000

which

Data

Yearbook

20)

SATA/UMN,

Report

on Study

21)

See Smil,

China's

Energy,

22)

See

p 35

of

with

Cultural

the

a further
size

generating

stations

built

2,8

in

stations

of

added
campaign

now in operation

in

the
conwere

1800 MW with

an average

1100 MW were

added with

of

new

capacity
the

the

actually

MW capacity.

350 MW were

arqund

average

total

only

stations

1973 reached

in

and power genera-

Revolution

small

1975,

small

started

30 MW. The campaign

stations

Most

1'000
control

1957 and about

the

waterworks

period

installations

of

all

from

small
1975 to

to
plants
1979,

of 85 kW.

19)

SATA/UMN,

in

the

capability

Economic

in

of
flood

of

Up to

finally,

with

range

in the

small

construction

capacity

1969.

increasing

MW,

Although

a very

dotting

many

irrigation,

during

installation.

1979,

the

- fifth

so after

stations,
In

one

Revived

more

this

new

was 6300

legs"

stations

establish

a total

momentum again

36 kW per

110 kW.21)

been

much emphasis
90'000

combining

a mere

less,

after

size

for

far

and even

built

called

character,

program

tinued,

plan

to

reaching

following

on two

resources,

campaign

one year,

in

"walking

has

20)

1979.

achieved

dictum

stations

in an estimated

An ambitious

tion,

1,ydropower

of large

resulting

a multi-purpose

the

Chinese

the development

developments

The

small

permitted

small

of
Tour

hydropower

Switzerland,
. . . p 35,

p 85 ff,

construction
falls

in

1950
Kathmandu

New York

1976

1981

China

of

large

turbines,

was extended

to

and
12 MW,

this

indicates

of

that

miniature

suitable

The

for

scattered

perspective

activities

even

some major
uneven

skill

natural

rivers

are

ers

ratio

enormous

is

and

hydraulic

equipment,

difficult

than

and might

encourage

It

is

also

trend

is

in

fish

seem to

rally

to

takes,

approach

scope

for

small

Guidelines

to

at

all
construction

Labour

and materials

See Smil,

p 72

results

achieved

hydropower

areas

the

the
the

world.

of

flow

faces

is

Flow

activities

the

Huang

hydro

civil

make this
the
but

potential

these

other

tend

natufor

need not

such

in-

activity.

and sometimes
for

the

control,

costs

a single

there

stated,

Economics

to

more

countries.

Often,

possible

this

are

Flood

construction

and

perhaps

results

resources.

generation.

is

reservoirs

in other

listed.

riv-

many rivers

As earlier

be attributed

world,

the

very

variations

in

resources

Still,

are

in

storage

aspects:

power

not

silt

hydraulic

use of

be smaller,

The
impera-

a multidiscipli-

necessarily

reduce

the

in

China

are

low

costs

and

development.

development
country;

assistance

of

small

emphasis

Financing
with

for

China

resources

flood

life

development

seems to

loca' I re-

are from this

in

populated.

The

of

than

of the
to

of

thinly

recreation

need

on

development

distribution
are

multiple

priority

China

brigades
with

- and the

such an approach,since

time.

along

relying

some other

and even

hydropower

over

production

look

one of

likely

state,

23)

on such

governing

identical
short

is

entirely

on the

of

emphasis

in

In many other

nary

parts

resources.

load

utilisation

and canals

situation

tive.

or

ponds

hydropower

higher.

be much

the

12 kW was devel oped,

23) and in smaller

making

with

to

a range

minimum discharge,

effect

higher

be better

dams,

specific

have

the

a considerable

breeding

0,6

In fact,

were

that

than

to

cases

continued.

The maximum recorded

many other

most

small

regional

regions

larger

worthwhile

irrigation,
uses

in

The

in

likely

has

with

Also,

considerable.

was 88 times

from

field

impressive.

obstacles.

Ho river
this

this

units

outputs

and labour

and concentrated

many

small

villages

in

more

very

with

mountain

- materials,

sources

of

turbine-generators

development

in

construction

is

only
in

construction

on local

done with

small
design,

is

hydropower

amounts
equipment

are exclusively

resources,

funds
of

stations

accumulated

subsidies
and

provided

training

local,

by communes

only

of

by the

operators.

minimal

quan-

-27-

tities
is

of

made locally

Plans
the

for

in

taken

65 % in
processing.

mounts

to

coal

or

less

the
it

exist

flexibility

of

is

highest
in

ard.
small

In

about

on the

communes.
such

in

on the

considerable

1100 counties

in

use

is

pumping

domestic

lighting

done with
Water

situation.

rural

areas

and
awood,
is

one example

There

local

to

pumping

in

example.

had their

prov-

as water

tariff

a second

below

by the

Power

energy.

highest

design,

stations

is mainly

use of

has the

For the

approved

16 %, while

depending
is

the

purposes

purposes

of

equipment

for

are

households

use

tariffs,

plants

with

in rural

domestic

30 % out

decisions

for

depend

hydro-electricity

1974

help,and

consumes

industrial

fixing

hydroelectric

commune level.

bigger

sector

applied

for

Even the

from

usua?ly

20 %. Cooking

Tariffs

small-scale

is

industry

cheapest,and

while

while

agricultural

than

for

levei,

Small

biogas.

far

available

Ownership
the

used.

scheme originate

county

administration.

are

24)

workshops.

is

at

cereal

by

small

waterbureau

500 kW are

about

and timber

a new hydraulic

county

ince

steel

cement,

seems to
The role

by any stand-

electricity

mainly

from

25)

stations.

2. RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

With

the

exception

countries,

the

difficult
that

to
the

widely

of

degree
find

percentage

within

Generally

speaking,

electrification

sets.

e.g.

of

two

for

of

that

grid

isolated

grid-extensions

costs

but

It

is

varies

estimates

populations

were

supply

lines

in rural

and to
systems,

combined

only

concerned.

followed

systems,

is

no doubt

facilities

have been touched

transmission

developed

there

supra-regional

approaches

of

higher

satisfactory.

supply

magnitude

from

of

from

countries

7 are

extensions

installation
with

high

in fig.

been

far

electricity

and the

namely

Problems

B. The circumstance

24) See Smil,

have

programs,

individual

Numbers

number

is

who have

differences

autogeneration,
diesel

of

people

there

small

electrification

data

area,

regional

and a relatively

rural

of

a given

out

with

of

reliable

and point

extent

China

a lesser
typically

on in chapter
with

a small

p 86

25) The total number

ists only in the

of

counties

1100 counties

is

more
referred

than

2100,
to.

See

considerable

also SATA/UMN,

hydropower
p 4,

potential

34 ff.

however

ex-

demand

and

resulting

countries,

not

of the

was for

in

many

costs

reasons

of

If

oil

in this

returns,

such

of

the

manner

the

limited

second

generation

costs

are

recent

past.

and continue

Extent of Rural Electrification,

by Selected
Region

likely

in

scope.

While

A third

approach

conversion

further

steam

engines

or

woodgas,

used

technically

200

Asia

800

is

without

difficulty,

for

future

the

standpoint
is
for
is

used

energy
is

for

not

optimum

but
low
in

promise

on the

discussed
land-use

the

danger
by

here),
planning.

exists

of

try

is

to cope with
electrifica-

45

29

46

--

18

the

is

direct

accelerated
and wood lot

for

the
with

products

engines.
in

cost.

steam used

such

as biogas

long-term

right

option

due

for

the

involved

now obtainable

of view.

constraints

exist.

depletion

of

From the

needs
forests,

management programs.
of

food

and

biogas
must

(or

not

prospects

point

to

is

future

Nevertheless,

competition

the

of

The first

the

generation

crops

through

and generation

technical
serious

in

Tunisia

Technology

high

212

generation

development,

from

for

competes

plants

it
increase

152

scope

environment,
this

hand,

ten-fold

19

intermediary

relatively

afforestation

other

plants,

of rural

electricity

limited

at least

and

- was chosen

70

efficiencies.

still

majority

halt.

combustion

stage

generation,

and the

accompanied

crops

pilot

expansive

the

the

extensions

combustion

perhaps

and at

power

is

internal

conversion

the

ecology

origin

or by way of

has

by

Egypt, Morocco,

Algeria,

by direct

adapted

bear

of

cooking,
not

in

very

option

recent

turbines,

mature

generally

second

or

connect

on oil-fuelled

total

Africa*

either

to

in

Rural
population
(millions)

*excluding:

more

of biomass,

in

to

of

that,

many existing

/-:::..I
Source: Estimate based on: World
Bank, Rural Electrification,
Washington 1975

fact

- autogeneration

affected

have come to an a?most

7:

is

based

seriously

operation,

the

approach
is

Region

Fig.

and

grid-system

approach

that

operation

somehow,

tion

make this

these

that

financial

an extensive

instances.

obvious

Lusts

even

population,

It

in

low

ethanol,

be subject

If

wood

of

fuel
if

it

Growing
which
to

an

This

constraint

less"

naturally

materials

ings

such

as water

and a favourable

climate

conversion
"The

into

design

manure

useful

of

of

the

entire
all

lage."

This

statement

the

importance

Another

point

grade

is

energies

chanical
are

best

combustion.
ical
limiting

severely

limit

efficiency

esses

converting

Converse'lj,
grade

is
heat

electricity,

applications

used

into

for

low

efficient

grade

and such

fact,

in

rural

must

areas

already

by Reddy,

only

1 % of

biogas,
the

vil-

optimisation

may serve

here

to

show

only

such

relatively

low-

(as

compared

to

temperatures),

as

in the

are

meSuch

cooking,

e.g.

direct

conversion

into

mechan-

can be achieved.
which

The theoretical

applies

for

all

proc-

grade
for

energy,

productive

than

the

use of

all

and motor
energy

used

drive.
is

used

and

becomes

rather

"electrified",

best

uses

electricity

exception

lighting

is

the

for

high

lighting.

If

relatively

rule:

As a matter

electricity
In

the

contributed

in-

is,

Indian

very

village

by electricity.

consum tion
is small
in absolute
terms (e.g.
30 kWh/day for a popula27 P
360).
What this
amount of energy can achieve
on the other hand, is

considerable:

2F)

power

be the

studied

pending

of
in

and the

infinite

Carnot*

applications,

to

of

to

which

law of

as. motive

limited

tirjii

cattle

context.

applying

a high

is

speaking,

the

but

article;

using

households

study

for

work.

broadly

Thus,

plant

11 m3/day

the

the

applications

by the

thermal
uses

all

with

efficiency

which
such

of

of

hold-

materials"
in his

a biogas

a surplus

corresponds

principles

given

"raw

Reddy states
"...

and "use-

on livestock

such

medium temperatures

which

the

Depending

growth,

rural

wastes

such as wood and biogas

thermal

for

The thermodynamic

power

the

fuels

produce

agricultural

over-optimistic

in

energy

used

used.

needs

perhaps

Caloric
can

are

connection

biomass-energy

which

dung,

provide

energy

- made in

this:

if

vegetation

can

cooking

or electrical

fuels

for

- is

of

apply

hyacinths

village

a specific'situation

the

not

may be considerable.
26)
that:
centres",

energy

meeting

of

energy

rural

after

of

does

It

pumps water

on pumping

Excerpt

from

Reddy,

height
The

design

for
and
of

the

irrigation

crops

grown),

of 4 to 8 hectares
substitutes

for

about

of land

(de-

1000

1 of

. . . p 121

27) See Reddy, p 111 ff.

*

Carnot-Efficiency
temperature

T2 - Tl
E ~2,

in units

of

degree

Where:

T2 = temperature

Kelvin.

of

input

heat

and

Tl = ambient or coolant

-3o-

kerosene
mill

that

would

be required

occasionall.~.

people

served

Such

for

uses

lighting

have

by much more than

the

would

per

year,

potential

to

and runs
improve

be expected

from

the

situation

a small

the

flour-

life

such a small

of

the

electricity

input.

A study

and descriptive
281
continents

different
various
that

sources
if

such

power

is

minimal
the

potential,

substantial

For

from

in

the

form

depending

at

necessary
to

with

for

will

six

be modest

villages

corroborated
is

in

to

a local

size

on

also

possible

can be met with

This

the

level,

particularly

permits

but

by

state
hydro-

can

have

resulting

in

by

Such

analysing

power

capacity

living
of

should

given

of

situation

may be proof

standards

rudimentary

use may be added

a procedure
the

the

development

productive

used

an installed
of

- which

efficiently

requirement

improvements

agricultural

600 kgce/cy*
if

total

basic

capacity.

of

2 % of the

energy,

situation,

station

for

here
growth,
scale,

development,
smail

then

be the

projects,
basis

28) See Howe et al.,

Energy for

= kilogram

+i+ calculation:

is

one

of

small
to
along

for

bigger

bring

the
local

scale

to

course

and its

gaining

arrive
be sub-

scope

of

developments,

countries,

energy
small

development

development

national,

grade

initially

rural

coal equivalent
per capita
per year
8 kWh
600 --0,02
= 96 kWh/capita, year
kgce
96/8760h/0,4
load factor
= 27 W/capita
l

high

for

about

with

perhaps

developing

supplying

stations

and the

and more comprehensive,

kgce/cy

requirement

growth,

high-grade

on a large

and operating

energy

it

energy

subsistence

discussed

Community

gy use,

station

and is

conclusion,

grade

any existing

scope

multiplied

would

high

of

for

in detail.

approach

rate.

picture
In

a total

much refinement

development

needs

for

**

on

Subsequently,

The

needs

scope

of

nature.

jected

countries.

resulting

With

25 W/capita.

the

other

above

may be applied.

and,

energy

shows no different

approximation,

substantially

approx.

of

impact.

a first

vided

analysis

energy

at

experience
of

know-how

diversification
planning.

for

basic

demands

but

a sustained
in

executing
and skill,
of ener-

-31-

D, A PRACTICABLEAPPROACH
1. CONSTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS
A number

of

energy-related

relating

to

developing

identify

the

are

with

technology.

These

useful

,in

tool

of

hydropower

associated

have

countries,

relevance

small

cally,

issues

the
must

rural

rural

in

be overcome

of
if

to

the

areas.

development

development.

outlined

specifically

hydropower

for

been

rural

overall

A number
small

the

in

Summarised,

the

preceding

areas.

context
of

and more specifiand problems

stations,

resources
following

chapters

The aim was to

constraints

hydropower

potential

the

as with
should

points

all

become a

deserve

con-

sid&ation:
l

The lack of long-term

hydrolog i cal data has undermined
and prevented
many
ambitious
projects.
In the mid- and long-term,
theretore,
it is necessary
to
establish
a network
of gauging
stations
and other
hydrological
data collection.
For the immediate
future,
harnessing
of water
power is possible
with
relatively
simple
identification
surveys,
not based on criteria
for optimum
resource-utilisation
but on a-more modest scale of using minimum-flow
to determine
plant capacity.
.

The low load factor,

often
met in existing
stations
plant
utilis,ation,
is resulting
in insufficient
returns
ital.
A low load factor
may have several
reasons:
- maximum development
mand in the vicinity,
by itself.
- too

optimistic

- the lack
concerned,

of

of

the
with

assessment

associated
with
on the invested

existing
potential
regardless
the erroneous
assumption
that
of

anticipated

poor
cap-

of the energy deload would develop

load growth.

identifiying
the true
value of
and their
ability
and willingness

high-grade
to pay for

energy tc the
such services

people

Where the development

of all
forms of hydropower
is the responsibility
of a
single
government
agency,
small hydropower
is often
neglected
in the face of
large-scale
projects,
where often
all
manpower available
is required.
Also,
where the same procedures
in planning,
procurement
and licensing
are applied
as for big projects,
small hydro is at a disadvantage.
Administrative
efforts
required
are often
in no relation
to the size
of the project
and may lead
implementors
to keep their
hands from small scale developments.
An answer to
these
prdbiems
could' weli come about by a policy
decision
at high levels
of
specifically
tailored
for
small
for
procedures
that
provides
government,
and a separate
government
entity
that
deals
exclusively
hydro-development,
with small hydropower, but with all aspects of it.

The fundamental

issue

that
a small
power station
is most effctively
managed
(and perhaps
owned) by a small,
iocal
organisation,
is sometimes
forgotten.
Experience
shows that
if stations
are centrally
managed and staffed
by employees
of a central
government
agency,
such stations
tend to run up high
operating
costs
in terms of salaries,
per diem and hardship
allowances
for
operators
brought
in from outside.
The establishment
of a local
organisation

-JZ-

and the
theless,
chances

training
of its
it is a more
of success.

management and staff

promising
approach

is no doubt more difficult.

and a decisive
element
for

Nonebetter

High costs of equipment

and civil
works,
or, more generally,
the capital-intensive
nature
of hydropower
development,
has long been a major constraint.
Part of the problem
has been lower overall
costs
for other
sources
of energy, but this
applies
much less today.
However, in many situations
it is necessary not only to achieve
a better
relation
of costs compared to other energies,
but to reduce them in absolute
terms.
This is possible
to some degree by ktandardising
equipment, but the scope for
using
such standardised
equipment
remains
limited
since
no two sites
are
at cost reduction
through
indigenous
manufacture
exactly
the same. Efforts
largely
due to much lower
labour
costs.
To make this
are more promising,
standards
of design,
performance
and sometimes reliability
must be
possible,
lowered
and all
unnecessary
sophistication
avoided.
The same is true in civil
construction
work, where local
materials
and techniques
should be used to the
largest
possible
extent.
A problem
here
is that
engineers
involved
are very often
trained
abroad,
where little
of direct
relevance
to rural
situations
is taught.
Such people
are very often
unaware of local
possibilities
and skills,
a situation
that
can only be changed "on the job" in active
project
implementation
with local
participation.
It must be added here that
local
know-how in the field
of hydropower
technology
does not exist
per se in many countries,
but needs to be
built
up. This,
as substantial
experience
shows in a number of countries,
is
possible
directly
in the execution
of small projects.

2. TECHNOLOGY
A discussion
ical

as

scope
al

of
long

for

as

tial

mainly

of these
turbine

facture

power

somer years,

in

terms

of

output

ously

a number

of

interest

turbines,
of

other

projects,

and
adopting

countries
notably

the

conclusion

capacity

and

began
Thailand,

to

Cooperation
in

and

performance

Consequently,
ease

of

This

started

Pakistan

ini-

a more versatik

combined

on the

In the

the

situations.

concentrate

joint

manufactured

of

principle.

has

pro-

their

(BYS).

head range.

workshops

Indonesia,

Industri-

Nepal

that

that

different

Cross-Flow

the

were

to the

other

that

Shala

turbines

theoret-

developed

turbines

An assessement

to

remains

Technical

Yantra

was developed

a few

this,

Swiss

Balaju

led

is

made water

drives.

adaptability

numbers

small

direct

the

(low-head)

considerable

small

for

workshop,

turbine

a growing

technology

locally

(Michell-Banki)

with

with

of

questions

Realising

with

Propeller

of

after

was needed

a Cross-Flow

together

metal

for

machines

a workable

development

a number

installed,

met

the

a medium-sized
stage,

of

and self-reliance.

Corporation,

undertook,

venture,

and operation-specific

no approach

cost-reduction

Development

gram,

bine

implementation

manu-

turbine

manufacturing

Almost

simultane-

Cross-Flow

tur-

and Peru.

Basic

-33 principles

and

state

of

components

that

are

required

tional

the

- shall

technology

art

of

the

- as well

technology

as how it

be discussed

involved
compares

including

to

other

existing

conven-

here.

a) Water Turbines
In

water

into

mechanical

ned
to

turbines

by

rotary

kinetic

energy

motion.

As noted

head and mass flow

friction

ployed

the

of

must also

flow

in

rate.

P(kW)

Hn

For

small

Net head = Gross head - losses

Flow

The oldest
ference

form

of

Overall

efficiency

outputs

water

tional

form

the

water-wheel

vanes

round

the

periphery,

to rotate.

level

of

gravity

formula

liters

per

of 51 9 in

of

due

machines

em-

following:

(103W)
(ml

water

is

Q 1000 kg/ml)
=q,1*q2...*0n

here,

second

implied.

and as.3

and

first

an overall

The "rule

of thumb"

on the conservative

the
is

made of

The water

m/s2

can be simplified:

therefore

a stream
is

Watts

e 9.81

interest

the

is

losses

in m3/second

(for

turbine"

in

in kilo

Density

Q IS in

"water

power

I-J =

calculat!.on

the

determi-

= Hn*Q.ntot*S.Bl

Specific

efficiency

is

of

converted

is

head

efficiency

Output

aF,proximation,

where

thus,

is

power
power,

conversion

IJtot

water

theoretical

Q =
4

falling

available

The formula,

or

earlier,

and the

= Hn*Q'g*P-rltot

where:

flowing

To calculate

conduits

be considered.

of

water-wheel.
utilised
wood and

thrusts

side.

The natural

to

drive

is

provided

against

these,

it.

In
with

causing

head - difits

conven-

buckets
the

.or

wheel

-34-

The

principle

of

which

consists

phery

(fig.

on the

of
8).

by the

means of

a needle

wheel

rotates

at

denly

decreases,

flow
in

the

arrangement

the

the

wheel

the
jet

jet

needle

closed

suddenly,the

causing

harmful

the

control

of

the

used in cases

hammer"

deflector

is

large

in

linked

heads

water;

If

the

reduced

the

flow

would

the

sudden

water

to an electric

impinges

Jet

load

is

wheel

Ifig.

load

sud-

from

the

10).

This

decrease

the

be reduced
system.

by

when the

issuing

generator.

too

abrupt-

In most cases
A Pelton

wheel

30)

available.

9:

peri-

controlled

on the

jet

water

full

is

the

of

Fig.

it

load

of

are

the

a nozzle

divert

in

wheel:

most efficiently

event

of water

round

from

the

phenomena

Pelton

The speed of rotation

operates
jet).

flow

"water

where

the

the

modern

buckets

9).

of

partially

if

were

ly,

(fig.

appropriately

because

the

emerging

turbine

deflectors
has

water

velocity

of

in

spoon-shaped

motion

(the

necessary

needle

in

velocity

the

of

and the

nozzle

embodied

with
jet

is

jet

is

provided

rate

half

is

water-wheel

a wheel

and sets

determined

until

old

A high-velocity

buckets

nozzle

the

Impinging

partial
tion of

on Bucket

deflecjet

needle

re-

duces

water

flow

Fig.

Fig.

8: Pelton

10:

Wheel

Operation
of Jet
and Needle

Deflector

.*

There

are

water-wheels

impingement-type
30) Section
arrangement

on Pelton

with

working

of

on different

principles.

The

statement

abotle

applies

only

to the

water-wheel.

turbines:

From

Bibliographisches

How Things

Institut

Work,

The

Universal

AG, Mannheim

Encyclopedia

of Machines,

by

-35-

Pelton

turbines

where

the

sure.

Power

the

available

cups

range

of

(>40

flow

belong

extracted

the

rotor.

higher

output

the

rotor,

materials

Fig.
~--

the

type

high

turbine

kinetic

type

is

of view,

,turbines

can

be equipped

fig.

11).

being

jet

or

steel.

two,

casting

This

in

is

strikes

the

high

for

different

exists

one,

pres-

when it

applied

with

turbines,

atmospheric

water

adaptability

In manufacture,

brass

at

of

normally

point

free-jet)

energy

velocity

design

(see

of 2 Nozzl,n
9, :!I.

head

or more nozzles
commonly

necessitates

used

for

an appropriate

great

majority

of

turbine

difference

in

relation

bines

of

the

are

water,

ing
water
ally

curved

the

vanes
the

consumed
The guide
to

energy

The guide

direction

of

of

the

vanes

usually

vanes

are

in the

in

the

flow.

It

water

water

and other

volute,

is

undesirable
adjustable

water

Francis

flow

runner

which
the

the

enters

rate

turbine

guide

converted

into

and in

provide
the

the

load

elements

from

channel

and flows

that

the
radiwith

so arranged

motion

and is

energy

a degree
of the

give

provided

are

causing

to

surround-

runner

is

in

inlet

which

rotary

tur-

submerged

vanes,

vanes

phenomena

so as to

are

the

the

Kaplan)

decrease

The runner

The

flow

(and

completely

guide

centre.

and heads)
The significant

an annular

fixed

then

Francis

water

is

rates

turbine.

is

of

impinges.

largely

flow

that

velocity

towards

the

is

the

between

i.e.,

by eddies

variations

the

flows

which

wheel

where

water

radialflow

or

and the

then

upon

Francis

type,

latter,

and small

Pelton

enters

and

optimum

through

the

pressure

first

p 49

(large

the

to

the

runner,

the

is

reaction

The water
the

Work,

cases

employed

and both

outlet.

Pelton-Wheel

11) How Things

of

ity

to

(or

11:

Source: (Fig.

that

the

impulse

the

infrastructure

Schematic

In

of

converted

This

Pelton

for

is

group

from

From the

and head.

the

head

is

m).

industrial

to

not

losses.

of adaptabil-

turbine.

direct

the

flow

-36-

of

the

water,

charged
runner

just

through
is

shown

in

in

fig.

direction

of

entry

the

nozzle

an outlet

matically

through

as the

from
12.

fig.

the

the

Pelton

centre

The volute,

13 and the
is

of

does.

wheel

of

the

guide

turbine.

vanes

is

A typical

Francis

and runner

diversion

of

the

water

indicated

in

fig.

14,

clearly

The water

at

are

shown sche-

right-angles

which

is

to

turbine.

Fig.

12:

Francis

Fig.
--

Runner

of Flow

in Francis

Turbine

14:

design

Francis

a specific

efficiency.
housings,

designs,

Francis

manufacture,

requiring

optimum
welded

through

and

turbines,

of

idol

13:

Schematic

Cross Section
Turbine

In

its

a cross-section

watw

Fig.

dis-

Runner
or

a large

cast

turbines

design
and

in

for

housing

concrete

head range

from

at
about

are
each

much more complex

head/flow

are

usually

site,

are

than

Pelton

condition

to

obtain

on

large

units

cast,
common. With

30 m up to 700 m of

a big

variety

head can be cov-

ered.

For

very

low

heads

and high

ent

type

of

turbine,

the

the

Kaplan

in

rotation.

turbine

the

The water

flow

Kaplan

water
enters

rates

or

flows
the

- e.g.

at barrages

Propeller
through

turbine

turbine
the

laterally

in rivers
is

propeller
(fig.

usually

employed.

and sets
15),

- a differ-

is

the

In

latter

deflected

by

the

guide

these

machines

water

through

guide

vanes;

adjusted
setting

Fia.

35:

the

(fig.

Things

Work,

the

propeller

propeller

of the

blades

15~16)

smaller

common to

guide

in order

limited
larger

output.

reduce

either

heads

also

from

vanes

flow

also

reason,

rate

distance

then

of

the

between

the

be appropriately

corresponds

to obtain

to one particu31)
efficiency.

high

16:
of

Kaplan

is

vane adjustment
but

this

Turbine

to

about
high

therefore

are

possible

in

or runner

affects

come in a variety

1 m to

as compared

turbines

only

sophistication

turbines

to

turbines

casting

must

Propeller

units,

flow

These

Propeller

the

this

How

and Propeller
is

The

by varying
blades

For

51

in

is

load

of designs.

30 m. Under

head turbines

comparatively
welded

part

blade

adjust-

efficiency.

Their

applica-

such conditions,
is

a rela-

required

larger,

for

a given

Manufacture

construction

without

of small

the

need

for

well-known

than

the

facilities.

The concept
big

of

the

Cross-Flow

names Pelton,
named Niche11

engineer
ently,

of

propeller.

turbines.

can be controlled

(schematic)
14,

the

axial-flow

as

Each setting

16).

13,

Specially

three

to

through

Fiq.

Source:

tively

axially

referred

pitch

of the

Turbine

Kaplan

flows

turbine

the

Kaplan

tion

are

(fig.

lar

ment

and

vanes,

a Hungarian

31) Section
publishers

on Francis

turbine

Francis

and Kaplan

who obtained

professor

with

and Kaplan turbines

- although
- is

a patent
the

: From

much less
not
for

new.
it

name Donat Banki,

How Things

Work

in

It

was invented

1903.

Quite

re-invented

. . . . by arrangement

by an

independthe

with

turbine

the

-38-

again

at

the

through

a series

turbine

since

such

The

gular
the

of

are

water

flows

(refer

to
the

the

Ossberger

the

worldwide,

of

exit

on the
from

that

from

17:

Flow

in Cross-Flow

The machine
correct

Model

and the

at the

and is

probably

based

runner,
designs

runner

periphery.
size

gate

opening',

ween

blades

are

usually
With

this

smaller.

the

it

is

built

7'000

two

a very

- arranged

rotor

the

first

runner,
upon in-

strikes

stages
and

The
centre

the

when water

effective

at

shaft.

inside

twice;

working

rectan-

of

towards

place

the

provides

simple

no

moans of

Museum, Munich

fact

that

the

large

entered

the

with

a nozzle

turbine.

gap was left

runner

without

that

flow

designs

work

as impulse

does

inside

the

not

is

runner

strictly

design

was a true

between

the

nozzle

a bigger

arc of the

permitting

turbines

therefore

not

pressure,

increased,

completely

is

any static

covers

unit

flow

This

original

measure,

reduced

pressure

of

the

space

and then

as an impulse
on the

jet

These

when the
and

the

open

takes

use

A sufficiently

so that

the

jet

blades

to

periphery

entry,

Technical

classified

turbine.

this

runner.

normally

Modern

turbine

the

is

constant-pressure

conversion

The

the

Europe,

More than

water

rotor

the

crossing

runner.

discharging

Fia.

from

the
except

water

after

the

the

- perpendicular

upon

advantage

Germany.

is

through

blades

particular

known in

company who produces

Bavaria,

turbine

first

Energy

well

most of them made by Ossberger.

rotor

and then,

was quite

one single
in

twice

blading

outwards.

is

Cross-Flow

passes

the

water

upon

the

cylindrical

17),

inside

firm

of

through
fig.

pingement
blades

There

which

of

By 1920 it

publications.

characteristic

periphery

Budapest.

installed

cross-section

from

of

decades,

turbines

main

ity

univers

fill

only
the

is

to keep
with

passages

atmospheric.

small
betWith

-39-

increased

flow

a slight

pas.-.itive

Cross-Flow
than

completely
pressure;

turbines

of flow

rates

inlet

and runner

duce

the

need

for

tios

of

bending.

Fig.

18: Cross-Flow

Photo

by:

the

from

a constant

fig.

18).

0.2

shaft

in

to

4.5

at

equal

Fig.

Runner

makes

2 m to more

runner,

it

va-

by var-

possible

to

re-

considerably.

been made.

For wide

prevent

intervals

is

25ii m). A large

manufacture

have

than

diameter

This

there

machine.

less

heads up to

with

and fixtures

from
to

in

blades,

Rarotors,

the

blades

Schemat i C

19: Cross-Flow

II. Meier

A valuable
curve,

that

(x

for

the

as a reaction

a head range

turbines

jigs

welded

from

means

tooling,

width/diameter,

discs

over

width

between

now works

may be accommodated

the

supporting

passages

turbine

has supplied

ying

rotor

the

the

may be applied

100 m (Ossberger

riety

filling

feature

which
that

at

of

the

Cross-Flow

Ossberger

are

reduced

flow,

may be more

important

turbine

further

improving

efficiency
than

is

is

a higher

its

relatively

by

using

still

efficiency

a divided

quite

optimum-point

flat

high,

gate.

This

a consideration

efficiency

of other

tur-

bines.

It

is

easy

to

understand

other

types,

by looking

Fig.

20 is

a graphical

conventional
bines

is

designs.
shown

a smal' 1 turbine.

in

why Cross-Flow
at fig.

relation

are

much easier

to make than

18 and 19.

presentation
The usual

turbines

range

(dotted

of
for
line).

a general

turbine

commercially
In the

overall

application

available
picture,

range

Cross-Flow
it

is

of
tur-

clearly

-4o-

ilicat

ion

Range

&+ALL q LARGE

ICRO

Head

100
/

50

Co. USA

Leffel

\
\,..

Fig.

21 shows efficiencies

lation

to

bines
of

gate

opening,

(including

more

the

than

a wide

range

of

ciency

of

the

around

10 % at

reduced
cases

unit

the

flow
where

(e.g.

turbine

the

this

which

Cross-Flow

and

not

Cross-Flow

built

compared

to

conventional

has around
in Nepal

conventional

of

be smaller

Francis
turbine

achieve

or
is

over

in effiwould

condition,
5 kW*.

or

tur-

80 % for

type

around

even

Propeller)
installed

re-

efficiencies

maximum difference

turbine
to

in

optimised

same head and flow

likely

types

achieve

Cross-Flow

an imported

the

is

shown)

the

the

turbine

and highly

turbines

Given

Cross-Flow

is

kW capacity,

difference

a standardised

Conventional

point.

for

more important

The Ossberger

of,say,40

optimal

the

rate.

Cross-Flow,

output

type,

flow

units.

and

Nepal

a reduced

on turbine

large

flow,

some of

e.g.
Pelton

90 % in

70 %. On a small

gives

of

morELLEa

be
this

Depending

reversed
and

in

also

at
in

non-optimal

conditions.

For
Flow

more

specific

turbines

a range

of

* Calculation:
Cross-Flow

Tl

reference,

the

+ T3 built

standardised

application

by BYS in

convectional

Nepal
machines

range
are

of the
shown

(fig.

of

BELL. in

P = Q-H-g-2; conventional
type: 0,12*40~3.81*0,85
Nepal: 0,;2*40*9,81*0,75
= 35.3 kW

= 40 kW

two designs
22)

in

Switzerland.

of Crossrelation
Locally

to

-4190 %
80
70
I4YS
Nc.1t.1 1
Cross-Flow

80

40
30
PO
10
i
:

Fig.

21:

Efficiency

Curves

Source:

Adapted

built

Cross-Flow

Where

need

flow

from

0,h

of some Turbine
James

Leffel

turbines

arises,

and output.

Ii

it
In

I/

0,3

0,4

0,5

0,6

0,8

QIQ m8x
-- i-0,9

Types

Co.

in
is

0,2

-L---0.7

other

possible

Indonesia,for

developing
to

countries

extend

instance,

the
the

cover

application
output

range

a similar

range

as regards

head,

has been extended

to 400 kW.

Fig.

22:

Application
Range of Nepal
Cross-Flow
Turbines
and
Small, Conventional
Types
Source:

Adapted

from

BELL,

Switzerland

.05

.1

.5

Flow

10

20

(n&S)

-42-

There

are

a number

offer

equipment

Propeller
not

of

specifically

for

and Cross-Flow

shown in

the

mostly

manufacturers,

to

diagram.

outputs

Francis

in

below

For
are

though,

countries,
types

100 kM. Turbine

and Pelton.

Addresses,

industrialised

greater

given

range

clarity,

in the

who
from

these

annexe

for

are

refer-

ence.

Turbine

Tl,

fically

designed

welded

construction.

sites,

special

porters.
in

position

Fia.

manufacturing
Due to

the

by

taper

of

pins.

lack

the

motorable

be given

to

This

is

roads

of operation

to

bolted
to

of fully-

installation

on the
together

the

site

an advantage,

to repair

most

transportation

carried

also

has been speci-

at BYS, and is

are therefore

a turbine

Thus,

in Nepal

available

of

turbine

be assembled.
some years

was built

facilities

had to

parts

that

if

or replace

of

and kept

in
it

back

individual

should

one of the

become
parts.

23:

Source:

of Turbine

Tl

BYS, Nepal

inlet

(1)
to

welded

width
(3)

rotor

of

turbine

consideration

after

Schematic

five

Cross-flow

for

can readily

necessary

The

first

Individual

parts,

The

the

inch
400

consists

two plane
of

of
side

the

inlet

consists

of

pipe

of

mm diameter,

two

curved

panels

to

is

denoted

28 blade

5 mm wall
where

form

a rectangular

x in

fig.

segments

are

that

form

thickness,
they

sheets

(2)
which

welded

a logarithmical
inlet

23 and in
that
fit
in.

are
into
The

cut

spiral,

section

the
from
slots

central

table

and nozzle.
fig.

31.

standard
of

two

shaft

The

diameter
side

(3)

discs
is

also

-43-

welded

to

the

including

the

welding.
the

the

rotor

bine,

blade

and

is

be used

for

spherical

nozzle

In

is

to the

required

to

complete

the

for

stand

In all
stock

cases,
with

square
stock

inlet,
pipe

base

the

bearing

the

regulator

shaft

with

the

neatly

in-

the

closed

which

is

(8)

of

to

and fits
condition

either

and a nut

cylinder

part

self-aligning

parallel

in

hydraulic

end may

is

gate

pushrod

other

of the

as the

(5)

tur-

of

and the

within

connected

in the

handwheel

a speed
rear

to

governor.

part

(91,

all

(7).

thin

sheet,

turbine

stuffing

and rubber

The photograph

housing.

assembly

boxes

on a foundation

of

gaskets

fig.

24 shows

frame

that

also

accommodates

inlet

that

connects

alternator.

is

turbine.
and of

sides

on the
the

the

acts

a pushrod

the

of

up the

an adaptor

the

by

with

turbine

a small

connecting

the

of

two machines

the

shaft

disc

sides

of

machining

Its

both

to drive

are

accurate

(4).

the

to

panels

seal

an almost

at

operation,

side

makes

from

on one side,
used

completed

supporting

application

pulleys

Bearings

a thread

frame

with

diameter,

done after

extends

on the

connected

The latter

operated

foundation

a central

regulator

leaks

completed

two

addition,

are

is

with

parts

top.

keep

automatic

housing

flow

- requiring

(6)

for

bolted

to

the

the

provided

governor.
which

outside

is

is

U-channel

at

device

a hand,wheel

The

two

tongue

The

or,

by

with

rectangular

a generator

rotor

diameter,

can be provided

type,

shaft,

limits.

ends

if

the

shaft

Depending

symmetric.

double-roller

controlled

also

of

x> 220 mm. The shaft

a speed

Flow

the

of

machining

as the

is

operating

unnecessary.

side

sizes

shaft

supports

is

rotor

or,

final

as well

usually

both

belt-drive,

and

tips

for

blades,

either

rotor

discs

The drum-like

for

via

rotor

provided

This

part

circular

at the
is

cross

of

turbine

square

section

shape

at the

at one end,

other

the

to fit

end to fit

pen-

to the

to the

pen-

a drafttube

of

used.
,

Depending

on

the

setting

square

shape

is

welded

to the

foundation

To cover

the

head

also

above

tailwater

provided.
frame,

and flow

For

this,

so that

ranges

in

the

as given

an installation,

a flange

made from

drafttube

can be bolted

in

the

table

fig.

sheet

strips

is

on.

31 at

the

end of

Fig.

24:

Turbine

Tl Assemb 1Y at BYS

Photo

by:

u.

this

section,

table

in

sponding

Meier

the

turbine

fig.

25 shows

other

variable

is
the

manufactured
standard

in

sizes

dimensions.

10 different

of

x in

The diagrams

nozzle

millimeters

widths
and also

show measurements

that

x. The
correremain

constant.*

In

conclusion

it

may be noted

a non-specialised
- Turning

metal
lathe

- ,Drilling
- Milling

uorkshop.

with

machine
machine

- Acetylene

Manufacturing
trained

* A detailed

Tl

tools

height>200

a capacity

is

suitable

required

for

manufacture

are standard,

in

such as:

mm

up to 0 25 mm and boring

attachment

or shaper
torch,

plate

shear

(optional)

equipment

- a number of jigs
- general

turbine

Machine

a centre
with

cutting

- arc welding

that

and fixtures

made for

the

purpose

hand tools
can

mechanic,

construction

he carried

out

a skilled

worker

manual

of turbine

by

;! team of

trained

Tl

is

three

on the

available

job,

from

or

four,

consisting

and semi-skilled

SKAT upon

request.

of
helpers.

-45-

~,

Hand rqufatw IWChdnlsm r laced by hydrauk cy7 order for exce

cution with governor

Fig.

25:
Shaft length and
/I diameter as oer

General Dimensions
of
BYS Cross-Flow
Turbine
Tl
Source: BYS, Nepal

General dimqsions (in mm)

approx.
-wei
ht of
J tur 1.ine(k$

Table of variable dimePturbine .type I A 1 B ,

694
x 50
1 352 1 462
714
482
744
tuz I 512

Photographs
is

all

In its
outputs

of

required

generally

below

and the
to

27 show some stages

of

manufacture

at

i.60
280
310

22r)
330
245
---

BYS. Material

used

steel.

application,

incorporated
ribs).

26,

common mild

on head
is

fig.

iii
70
100

speaking,

25 kW, giving
width
decide

(such

as

of

the

whether
bigger

it

a long

rotor
or

the

(shaft
not

shaft

machine
life.

For

bending

parts
diameter,

that

is

overdesigned

clearly

higher

output

load),

engineering

give

greater

supporting

and depending

strength
disc,

for

know-how
must

strengthening

be

-46-

Fig.

Fig.

26:

Welding

Photos

of Rotor

by:

Turbine

I!.

Meier

a more

with

Engineering

Tl,

Works,

bine

manufacturers

ters

relating

sense.

type

out
(HTL)

of

an output
Brugg.

water

with
of

the

the

on the

its
design

although

Nepal

fed

frame

of

30 kW under

turbine

student
Photograph
a head of

they

are

student

fig.

work

at

tur-

technical

mat-

in

Switzerland,

a commercial
T3 was devel-

making

The test

program

installed

Swiss
the

a protoa laboratory
was carried

Engineering

prototype
in the

on

Cross-Flow

design,

the

28 shows

70 meters

in

based

BEW (Butwal

SKAT, and subsequently

possible.

thesis

two major

competitors
in

is

205 of

cooperate

of different

configuration

type

the

in through

a number of rotors
runner

of

and development

Interestingly,

of an engineering
from

design

BYS and BEW, closely

turbines,

Brugg/Windisch.
of

history:

Nepal).

Nepal,

initiative

was built

within

Butwal,

information

optimisation

recent

and also

in

to

On the

oped with

Tl Assembly Work with Rotor,

FlowRegulator
and Square Inlet
(top)
visible

Tl

T3 has

experience

27:

turbine

laboratory

College
with
at HTL

Fia.

28:
on the

T3 Prototype
Test Bed
Photo

U. Meier

by:

Lastly,

with

ardisation
ing,

the

results

and a final

several

Turbine
Tl.

test

design

turbines

is

purposes.

not

diameter

necessary

runner

be an advantage

for

high-speed

the

other

for

low-head

ly

desirable,

T3 would

pared

to

rotor

diameter.

pensated
and
the

Tl,

due to

for

limits

The
at

of

done

of

material

several

gives

it

double

more

specific
of
width

strength

the

design,

At the

therefore

in

such

applications,where

advantage

of

Nepal.

housing

applications

lower

a certain

by BYS in

200 mm and is

diameter

necessitate

its

adaptations

stand-

time

of writ-

been built.*

to make the

The smaller

hand,

were

T3 have already

T3 has a runner

It

and some minor

parts
the

for

discharge

speed runner
the

which

inlet

results

dimensions

of

turbine,

so that

the

factors

to

determining

is

width
from

general

become

may

generation.

smaller
the

transportation

as electricity

double

than

speed of Tl which

a higher
than

much smaller

is

On
usual-

as com-

the

smaller

therefore

com-

required

speed

choose

between

two designs.

The schematical
ence

as compared

* A set
request.

of

workshop

presentation
to
drawings

Tl,

of

the

except

for

T3 and other

T3 design
the

technical

flow
information

(fig.

29)

regulator
is

shows

no basic

arrangemc::t.
available

from

differFor

SKAT upon

T3,

Fiq.

29:
of Turbine

Schematic
Source:

Adaoted

wicket-gate
inlet.

from

desisn

(or

butterfly)

The flow

obvious

smaller

advantage

if

at

the

place

divided

of

is
simpler

are

of

course

required.
70,

approximately

on head)

strength.

2.5

160,
in

in

Bearings

220,

fig.

the
used

are

that

are bolted

to the

turbine

Fig.

30 shows

a layout

of

base

frame

gasket

both

and stuffing

with
box

been

For

large

widths,

of

standard

to

with

strips

the

with
jigs

an accessthe

turbine

Fabrica-

runner

blades.

and fixtures

inlet

the

is

Tl.

blades
ball-type

is

widths

of

(denoted

cover

up to 4 supportjng

self-aligning

an

a hand-hydraulic

920 mm, to

give

is

The turbine
than

for

into

no

rotor.

parts

of

This
is

manufacture.

690,

of

con-

Tl.

gate

of the

standardised

required

is

balanced,

new feature

set

520,

of

of the

sheet

390,

are

regulator

same, except

290,

22.
rotor

flow

a different

T3 has

which

the

material-intensive

and has fewer

steel

in

mass and hydraulically

regarding

the

directly

design,

'less

inspection

more compact

parts?

this

removal

a degree

mm thick

all

120,

shown

to

situated

Another

permits

essentially

Turbine

90,

the

applied.

This

is

are

welding

is

in

small

than

is

permits

and partial

make,

from

For

pending

inlet.

used

but

forces

which

sections

relatively

governor

stamped

press.

50,

of

optimised

to

two

performance,

the

also

was chosen

into

installation,

techniques

These

in

a hydraulic

in the

somewhat
tion

type

operating

top

The design

bo)

is

Arter

The wicket-gate

requires

in

A.

consequence

StrUCtiOn.

hole

T3

the
discs

the

range
(de-

necessary

with

flanges

pipe

adaptor,

housing.

turbine

rubber

T3 with:

gaskets

and bearing

block

(from

and

left

nuts/bolts

in front,

to

right,

- turbine
the

rotor,

housing
wicket-gate

with
with

Fia.

30:

Layout
Photo

of BYS Produced
by:

B.

Antener,

operating
of the

For

that
T3.
for

and bushing,
gate

operating

a comparison

view,

the
the

in

a step-up

low-speed

place,

the

and finally
mechanism

two

at

this,

the

speed

direct

specially

mechanical

range

for

been

access
front

the

is

to
and

more

in

heads

power transmission.

head

below

range

19 meters

with

of the

for

Parts

base frame.

fig.

a gain

is

gasket.

and application

in

suitable

an alternator
the

hole-lid

design

tabulated

has resulted

coupling

transmission

in

from

have

optimisation

the
are

turbines

specifications

attempt

some cases

has its

of

main

Besides

T3

BVS

lever
manual

Turbine

31.
of

It

point

may be noted

5 % efficiency

electricity

possible

covered
and for

is

for

generation

without
greater.
very

of

the
Tl

low heads,

need
still
for

Blades:

Fig.

31:

Technical
Features
of CrossFlow Turbines
Tl and T3
Compiled

Source:

from

**Discharge

limits

(l/s)

low:
high:

BYS-data

Output (kW)
Efficiency

b) Other

For

to

installations
the

tudinally.

together

used.

used.
that

where:

Q in

at full
See

half

second

Example:

32)

the

nearly
the

in

it

at:H=16m

x=rloomm
Q = 560
Pmax = 60
rl=70%

(max)

is

its

provided

thereby

ring

with

a groove
This

protrudes.
compressing

x or

bo in

the
H in

mm and

flat

circular

then
32)

seal.

is

metres
= 131 l/s

opening

Scheurer

et al.,

Small

Waler

Turbine,

p 44,

gate,

Eschborn

the
longican be

gaskets

are

developed

by

cross-section)

bolted
It

sections

method

in which

is

welded

rubber

a sealing

with

deliver

sheet

penstock

flanges,
use

- which

steel

so that

to

rubber

pipes

rolled

between

possible

section

second,

required

sealing

standard

flanges

per

made from

are

also

peilstock

the

T3 : H = 30 m, bo = 160 mm; Q = 0,15*160*30

gate
also

liters

is
(a

flange,

end
For

place.

of

Nepal,

usually

each

an o-ring

One of

of

- are
at

Alternatively,

BEW, where

in

turbine

Flanges

bolted

Q = 20
at:H=22 m
bo=690mm
Q = 480
Pmax = 70
/)=75%

equipment

turbine

water

Q = 24

1980

the

ring

to the
reported

rests,

is
so

flat

face

that

this

-!31-

kind

of

seal

Another

iq

vrry

technique

available,

is

nates

effective

that

to

should

weld

be

penstock

bolts

flanges,

and is

and

cheaper

to make than

promising

sections

where

together

gaskets,

much

flat

rubber

portable

at the

welding

site.

sets

While

naturally

depends

gaskets.

on

this
the

are

elimlskill

of

welders.

For

a safe

design

water

by

appropriate

with

the

take

the

been

satisfactory.
it

case

nearest

for

formance

of

fold

It

flanges

operating

should

stresses
tion,

bending

and

collapsing

As

stresses

combined-stress
cient

of

one at

32.

packing-type

The

section
and
type

of

overlaps
of

for

packing

* Hoop-stress

pipe inside
r.

the

formula:
radius

the

pipe

which

not

are

a pipe

may be considered

that

the

in

case

of

higher

to

than

to

For

one,

water
closure

measures

dimension

the

is

end between

two anchor

larger

in
of

diameter

(mm)

is

, where

= permissible

stress

also

very

the

per-

the

three-

with

the

such

other

elonga-

of

supports,

the

penstock.

such

additional

for

based

provide

on a

a suffi-

expansion

joints

as shown in

section

which

p = pressure
N/cm2

due to

fig.

made by making

diameter.

and in

thickness,
units

top

up by

simply

the

other

between

easy to

quite

consider

thickness

blocks)

ac%s as a seal

s = sheet

pipe

sheet

twice

not

avoiding

be taken

so that

approximately
that

provided,

joint

testing-

withstands

the

relatively

should

expansion

at

take

it

have

In such

is

stresses

and the

Elongation

of

and bperm

of

is

and then

determining

does

notably

to;

valve

economical

degree

S = L
Xperm

described

may be subjected
weight

it

safe.

procedure

the

This

of

1,

pressure

bolted.

tests

it

than

known.

a water

such

in

less

this

is

re-

considerations

procedure

using
lids

the

with

stress

end

control

value

Results

permissible

under

calculated

If

a length
is

the

applies.

calculate

of

and gaskets.

supports.

(usually

factor

2 mm to

thickness.

to

calculation.

number

For

and for

more

a great

formula.*

leaks

strength

to

to

a welding

to

- is

sufficient

tiny

due to

is

1.5

however,

a penstock

it

usually

practice

gate

seams for

stress

a rule,

turbine

welding

noted,

that

the

hoop-stress

sheet

pressure,

be

add

penstock

checking

is

engineering

to make a pressure-test

be sound
of

of

and for

standard

pump on a section
suitable

the

to

Often,

would

it

life-time

common BYS practice

general

closure

design,

thickness

during

strength,

sudden

governor

sheet

corrosion
the

penstock

hammer - due to

If

quired

of

fits

one

inside

A stuffing-box
the

inner

in the

pipe,

p andbperm.

and

pipe

r =
mm for

-52-

ion.

may move in case of e lonqat

Fig.

32:

Expansion
Photos

Joint

by:

air

penstock

latter

is

still

used

to

to

Nepal,

so far

only

mainly

because

of

PVC = Rigid

is

in

also

Polyvinyl-Chloride,

33) See SATR/UMN, p 44 ff.

and

and

the

than

the

the

The former
water

rushes

while

the

slowly,
fig.

made and of

pipe

II? to

200 mm cost
are

limited

availability.
33)
from China.

PE = High

is
It

suitability.

installations

reported

valve.

shown in

sheet-metal

diameters

very

main

height

at

33,
welded

the

penstock

head water

admits

air

out
main

main

to

and the
valve

valve

construction,

is

being
as can

photograph.

to

a few

penstock

locally

side

costs

closed

are

may be incorporated
greater

the

is

empty

also

material

PE* pipes

pipe

valve

components

type,

compare

slightly

across

the

left-hand

and/or

fill

common gate

worthwhile

cement

(Thailand)

parts

of

valve

main

three

alternative

simple

inlet-pipe

the

All

be seen on the

Where

two

bypass

when

closed.
the

at Nam Dang,

stresses,

and a small

the

of

other

A vertical

level

Penstock

U. Meier

To avoid
top.

in

Density

available,
may often

much less

provided
The

Polyethylene

with
use

it

be found
than
PVC or

of

is

steel

of

course

that

PVC

pine.

PE penstocks,

locally-made

ferro-

In

Fig.

33:

Air

Inlet-Pipe,

Photos

by:

Main

- due to

able

consideration

friction

of

a generally
and costs

of

loss,

latter

that

the

flow

34 shows the

used

and the

rolled

steel
a plastic

pipe

rule.
are

head-loss

pipe

Values

has smaller

that

solution

the

pipe

meters)
for

cost

factors

relationship
(in

penstock

Thailand

is
of

must

should

is

the

It

is

head

1oss of head
d ifficult

and flow

be investigated

flow

below
rate,

section

cost

rule

often

4 m/s.
the

due to a smoother

diameter

are also
surface.

avail-

and head
applied

The diagram

of 10 m length,
pipe

to

in each case.

between

A general

be well

a QI 200 PE (plastic)
losses

pipe.

a trade-off

energy.

a pipe

the

required,

between
in

diameter

of

Power output

a loss
in

typical

the

- versus

an economic

velocity

sheet.

chasing

flolti

representing

fig.

that

water

the

on these,

the

in

applicable

Depending

is

(Nam Dang,

U. Meier

An important

state

and Bypass-Va lve

Gate Valve

given,

of pipe
made from
showing

-54-

Friction in 10 m pipe

--Fig. 34:
Typical
Head Loss in
Source:

BYS Cross-Flow

Pipe

turbine,

Adams 1974

I- O.Lrnrn
K-O.lmm

Because
its

of

use for

speed

line

shaft

give

the

again

one

belt

providing
three

a big

should
is

with

technique
and

use

of

a constant-diameter

range

transmission.

machines

and

the

of

In

the

done

using

sha."t

speed.

belts

with

a set

of

that

machine
is

tension

machines

used
is

guard-rails

shaft

correct
- are

are operated

flat
Two,

pulleys%
itself.

everywhere.

the

power

It

and without
taken.

Fig.

by flat

belts.

belts
three

one for
is

is

fairly

use,

it

step

from

each machine

problems
35 shows

turbine

to

with

pulleys

that

line

shaft

and conventional
if

is

measures

a typical

may be operated

efficient
safety

several

the

on the

simple

and

a step-up

may be that

more machines

a very

turbines

to provide

vee-belts

or
or

This

Cross-Flow

necessary

transmission

either

line

in

usually

of mechanical

desired

on the

is

A first

be operated.
then

it

heads,
case

runner

shaft

turbine-mill,

alignment
- such

as

where

Fig.

35:

Sundar

Bazaar

Photo

by:

With

the

U. Meier

heads

cases

for

a single

in

under

where

the

multiple

largest

for

than

latter
most

are

of

installations.

sprocket

and

cost-effective
required

was later

fig.

m with

speed

36).

made from

even

required

A step-up

vee-belt

somewhat

expensive.

or,

of
This

of 1500 RPM,
this

belt-manufacturer's
a two-step

all

ratio

drives.

Tl and a generator

Tl,

in

power,

instructions
transmission

This

alternatively,

would

may be a reason
another

step-up

or gearbox.

pieces

Nepal,

Duplex

equipment.
standard

using

it

is

25 kW. To transmit

T3-turbine

drive

drive,

over

turbine

of

no gear

on the
or

were made locally

solution
(see

9,5

with

making

In

Using
pinion

with

about

heads

transmission

simple

sophisticated

A chain

reason.

standard

required,

as a chain

alternatives.

this

using

is

lower

quite

step-up

generate

faster

such

used,

would

vee-belts,
the

for

This

For

selecting

arrangement,

The

a head of

arranqement

with

is

relatively

size

design.

be required

is

for

belt

Tl

generation

step

be needed

the

which

electricity

would

for

'Mill

Turbine-

though

Initially,
case-hardened

equipment

boxes

other
Triplex

hand,

been

used

mild

a housing

steel.

It

with

oil-bath

was wear

steel.

of

on the

costlier

so far

mainly

in

a number

has been applied

roller-chains

from

there

have

and therefore

standard

pitch,

may be considered

mild

lubrication
steel

sprocket.

a
is

-56-

Fig.

36:

20 kW Chain Drive with

Step-Up Ratio of 4,8 at
BYS Test-Site
Photo

by:

Except
and

U. Meier

in

a few

multiple-groove

relatively
care
Latin

For

turbine

the

generator.

America

it

Due to

a quite
the

ters

without

* personal

head

on the

may prove

standardised
a properly

efficient

to be the

best

solution.

and

mass-produced,

designed

vee-belt

This

and durable.

view

is

Belts

making
drive

also

them

requires

corroborated

by OLADE.*

is

At

ideal

bine,

are

addition,

quite

T3 it

making

losses

In

and is

for

drives

pulleys

cheap.

little

vee-belt

cases,

for
flat
range

losinq
order

communication

possible

a head

of

direct

with

58

m,for

the

direct

efficiency,
of

some cases

coupling

peak of
for

in

3 to

OLADE

to

to

instance,
standard

efficiency/speed
coupling
since

couple

turbine

4 %. Speed of

the

turbine
speed

directly
is

1500 RPM (4 pole)

curve

may be extended
a step-up

the

of

above

transmission
turbine

the

1500

RPM,

qenerators.

Cross-Flow
and below
would

to

also

may be increased

tur58 meincur
or de-

creased
this

to match

will

$n that

result
case

cy remains

Fiq.

in

a lower

no transmission

the

the

range

turbine
is

from

41 to

efficiency

required,

costs

78 m head.

'by

about

are

saved

As fig.

three

37 shows,

percent.

and overall

Since

efficien-

same.

37:

Turbine
Source:

1500 RPM in

T3: Efficiency/Speed
adapted

from

Diploma

work

Curve
HTL Brugg

-i,: * :,,, . .
) ,,,, I,, I.,
t ::
!+k:?.!:!::*
: ,!
I

Fiq.

38:

Discharge/Speed

Curves

. ,,:,:.,::I

ili!:!I::.:l

: :I.

I
:,I

.,!:.
, t,

.I
:
.,, -f .-I
::.: . : .,
H--t

-58-

The

discharge

of

water

if

speed

is

20 %. This

means

that

38 shows
about

that

be increased

creased
This,

by 20 % to

on the
for

fig.

Generators
is

of

this

variation
loop.

field

magnetic

field

the

or,

magnetic

move past

the

and

40).

In

from

the

ducing

the

of
in

ends

flux

of

the

In

the

latter

revolve
mounted

case

the

current

The relatively
magnetic

at

fig.

induction
lines

to

loop

can

be

kept

the

stator

(schematic)

of

short

distance

from

the

rotor

current

GENERATING

armatun

winding

(atotor)

is

through

the

stationary,
an iron

ring

on the

rotor

them

(fig.

taken

needed

by means of

SET

the

and

is

a very

rotating magnetic field (chongm of

magnotlc flux in tha atotor cclum
electric induction)

39:
Generator

armature

generator

of

a constant

stationary

poles

direct

Their

a periodic

in

magnetic

of

stotsonory

rotate

the

ouptput

shown

passing

inside;

Fig. 2

Alternating-Current

whereby

consists

the

de-

amount.

energy.

force

loop

Fig.

of

the

to

is

as a result

cause

fed

speed

curves

electrical

conductor

by

is

has to

37.

electrical

the

If

by

width

discharge

of

produced
low

field

in

1.

fig.

falls

by a much smaller

The two

arrangement

on the
coils

(rotor)
coilr
h

but

of

production

instead;

these

magnat whrl
with induction

discharge

magnetic

the

of

rotating

inlet

turbine

a loop-type

alternatively,

coils

stator.

principle

one can either

poles

this

the

the

rotated.

induction

with

of

condition,

conditions

for

The diagram

discharge

increases,

to the

affected.

1500 RPM, relative

a relative

produced

To do this,

magnetic

and

is

this

also

may be neglected.

used

on the

is

to

discharge

hand,

electricity

periodic

achieve

machines

turbine

under

purposes,

based

the

increased

38 correspond

are

operation
flow

other

partical

in diagram

through

39

direct
for

pro-

slip-rings

and carbon
which

or

copper-mesh

likewise

field,

operates

stationary

form

brushes
on

the

armature

of a two-part

(fig.

40).

Fig.

principle
In

winding).

40 shows

described
this

a smaller

above

case

the

generator

(rotating

magnet

magnetic

wheel

is

in

the

34)

T-rotor.

dirut

currant

gnetic field

Fig.

40:

Details
(internal

of a Generator
pole machine

(fig. 39 + 401, How

Things Work, p 65
Source:

thmephasm

There

are

special

generators

applications

tion

they

ators

producing

are

of

on standard)

limited

sizes

phase,
not

supplying

three

exceeding

outfwt

current

only.

(DC)

In the

(AC)

are

a voltage

phase.

these

of rural

not

discussed

very
of

Single

but

context

and are therefore

current

more often,

commonly

outputs

interest

alternating

or

direct

produce

and low

may be single

They

in

that

olirrnatingtumnt

often
200 to

phdse

12 kW and may well

are

here.

Gener-

alternators.

240 Volts

alternators
in

for

electrifica-

called

be used

used

(depending

are available
small

installa-

tions.

Three-phase
Units

in

and of

the

The

on the

34) Section

on

are

micro-range

200 to

applied.
load

alternators

240 Volts

Electricity

phases

versatile

produce
between

"four-wire-system"

three

more

a voltage

is

: From

relation

of

any phase

380 to

to

electricity

440 Volts

and neutral,depending

required

must be balanced

Generators

in

on the

within

How Things

Work

. . . . b/

between
on the

distribution

prescribed

end-use.

side

phases
standard
and

limits.

arrangement

with

the

publishers

the

-6O-

For

isolated

the

self-excited,

the

induction

through

sma 11 hydropower

stations

synchronous

3-phase

generator

batteries.

need

for

which

Du to

speed

it

in

certain

most

convenient

alternator.

requires

this,

governing

the

The

excitation

is

of

cases,

other

from

limited

machine
type

an

interest,

and

is

to

is

available

existing

is

grid

although

cheaper

use

it

than

or

has no

synchronous

alternators.

Two types

of

The

cheap.

exitation

more
is

system.
be

synchronous

provided

rotating

can

be directly

and

brushes.

difficult

to

A brushless

sophisticated
it

standing

is

the

rotor

machines

are

therefore

select

one

the

two

of

requires
to

be

piece

of

equipment

in

this,

most

the

replaced

cases

reason

to

of

without

the

select

other

slip-rings
It

technical

the

any

alternator
is

a more

repair

be re-

alternator.
is

is

criteria.

former

Should

type

current

alternators.

a slip-ring

on a slip-ring

one or the

need for

than
Yet

provided

Excitation

of

latter.

may therefore
is

basis

periodically.

to'work

and it

brushless

on the

which

excitation

alternator

shaft.

maintenance

the

type

main

called

than

easier

on the

types

less

need

type

windings

Such

brushes

quired,

to

mounted

trough

static

this

A newer

relatively

and brushes

produce

market.

directly

alternator

slip-rings

has

countries

regional

supplied

and therefore

a booster-transformer/rectifier,

developing

rectifiers

are mass produced

type

from

on the

with

where

conventional

Many bigger

available

alternators

Notwlth-

probably

its

price

and availability.

Fig.

of
poles

No

41:

Speed of Standard
Alternators

Speed (RPM)
at
at
50 HZ
60 HZ
3000

3600

1500

1800

1000

1200

750

900

10

600

720

12

500

output
UW
4

alternator

Wee
2 pole

"
12

(kg)

weight

a2
X

600

4 pole

04
135

150
C

20

Fio.

40

42:

Brushless

(2-pole

Leroy-Somer,

180
320

400

& 4-pole)
56

Source:

II

Alternators

165

II

France

160

390
X

460

735

920

-61-

There

is

number

still

poles

of

varies.

For

speed

needs

technical

to

speed

frequency,
More

be.

of

aspect

rotor,

on the

a given

lationship
fig.

another

the

poles

parameters

alternators

in

at

shown

Depending

are

number

weight

in

at:

alternators

the

a greater

is

1ooking

needs

which

higher

imply

these

that

of

to

po:;~-

an exemplary

table

be operated

:'z

and a la~;!-'a

on the

lower

the

the

re-

size;
in

fig.

41 and

42.

Lower
are

speed
obtainable

nators

are

Several

not

available

alternators

in

These

investigating.

Fig.

for

in

43.

range

up to

many manufacturers

manufacturers

low-speed
fig.

from

the

are

outputs

the

above

is

with

built

or

for

given

in

of

only,

China

without

less

while

offer

oIften,

2 po le

a large

brushes,

use with

the

produced

and

alter-

60 kW.

Republic

execution

An address

upon request

People's

specially

160 kW are

water

such

turbines

range

of

as shown in
and are

worth

annexe.

43:

Low Speed Synchronous

Alternator
Source: CMEC, Beijng,

Worldwide,

by far

1500 RPM for

usually

to

speed
this

turbines

is
in

speed

a plant
not

easily

of

that

50 HZ. These

is

typically

in

the

engine

rated

speed

80 % to
load

prime

is

case of failure,

are

for

instance

under

turbine

speed

running
types

diesel

than
off

at
- are

sets

for

speed as compared
may have

load.

switched

other

e.g.

run-away

in

100 % higher

suddenly

4 pole,

- as most

movers,

difference

a combustion
its

alternators
machines

thermal

with

than

in operation
react

available

a fundamental

40 % higher

run-away

does

most

operation

There

20 to

now in
ernor

for

sizes.

water

the

a frequency

built

small

China

a runaway

For

water

turbines,

the

rated

speed.

and the

and thus

If

speed gov-

generator

speed

go up to
sible

run-away

run-away

speed

forces

- which

on the

rotor

would

speed

tor.

The

on the

way out

permissible

runaway

is

Nepal,

most

manufacturers

often

at the

same price

When

selecting

an

standard
on the
is

safe

to

side,

not

users

C ambient

by multiplying

specific

output,

vary

with

Fig.

44:

Output

should

The

different

in

table

fig.

the

the

meet

deserve

happen-

the

alternafor

experience

such

a
of

requirements,

what

relative

humidity

elevation

the
affect

values,
rated

For

output

to

typical

To be

an alternator

above sea level

and to max.

derating

for
arrive

factors

of

maximum-output.

1000 m elevation
factors

one,

climate.

alternator

to max.

shows

attention.
(humid)

at
which

must

the

be

situation

may of

course

products.

Elevation
of machine

Derating

In

not

result

guarantee

tropical

relate

44

of
to

loop

the

is

for

Both

these

them with

stator,

lifetime

to

points

temperature.

Above

the

turbine.

concerns

data

centrifugal

machine.

suitable

point

output

the

a position

more

specify

permis-

of speed - and a coil

Even where this

the

standard

always

temperature.

applied,

be in

the

The other

manufacturer's

of

a lower

higher

ask manufacturers

two

and ambient

an installation

40'

is

be installed,

Usually,

as for

for

the

touches

shorten

that

alternator,

insulation

will

seem to

it

machine.

specifically
above

square

If

the

built

withstand

the

outwards.

bearings

s,peed

to

with

wreck

to

An alternator

be able

increase

and would

load

only

not

be deflected

be disastrous
increased

seconds.

may then

incidentally
could

ing,

within

Factors

1000

fl

factor

1500
m

1.

2000
lr.

2500
m

0.91

0.01

0.96

3000

m
0.83

Source:

Leroy-Somer,

Ambient
temp. 'C

France

1 factor

Electricity
tions

generators
prior

to

are

complex

procurement,

Manufacturers

are

ard

or when specifically

tant
to
could

brochures
to

specify

arrive
look

at

usually

to

all
a

relevant

satisfactory

as follows:

quite

f2

machines

make
ready

asked
requirements
solution.

that

supply
about

I45

I50

require

numerous

a suitable

type

information
the

and
A typical

155

1.07 1 0.96 1 0.93 1

that

sure
to

25

various

ask

the

and

detailed
_.

0.88

selected.

It

relevant

considera-

with

aspects.

all

0.91

is

either

I60

is

standimpor-

questions

enquiry

then,

-63-

3-phase
bine

0 Specifications:

Alternator

for

use with

Type:

self-excited,
synchronous,
tation
and voltage
regulation

Speed:

1500 RPM at 50 cycles

run-away
speed of 1.8

Voltage:

380/220

Ouput:

40 kW at
operation

Operating
Mounting

situation

Volts,
power

connectors

Wiring:

0 Manufacturers'information
required
on:

for

foot

4-wire

- Mounting

plan

- Derating

factors

- Execution

with

number

many potential

.gf enquiries,

considerably

but

at
delivery

least
time

mounted,

machine

or without

brushes

curve

imbalance

starting
of

in phase

loading

capacity

voltage

regulation

- Possibility
generators

of

- Maintenance

requirements

parallel

from

operation

no-load
with

to

other

period
time
& FOB 1

(CIF

it

suppliers,
initially.

splash-

with

of the

- Permissible

- Guarantee

are

temperature,

node

- Limits
full-load

there

C ambient

weight

overload

- Price

50 KVA continous

system

- Permissible

- Delivery

e.g.

applicable

- Efficiency/load

- Motor

exci-

with
a permissible
speed

and total

dimensions

- Cooling

Since

0.8
30"

- Mass of intertia
- General

(Hz)
rated

factor

horizontal
shaft,
water protection

mode:

bui' It-in

with

tur-

3 phase

1200 m elevation,
high humidity

hydraulic

Prices

and after-sales

is

well

worthwhile

and product
services

quality

may also

to

send aut
may differ

be important.

-64-

In

summary,

easy

but

the

long

at

In

run.

one

necessary
lating

point.

market

this,

it

and

material

exist

yet.

The same applies

to

large

varieties

panel

or

man is

box is

fuses,

are

for

very

on

(one

be discussed

specially

or

the

transmission

practical

written

multi-stage

and whether

depends

switching,

with

switch

are

of

but

detail

context

here.

on the
of

a very

rural

of

basic

appropriate

between

different

strictly

necessary

drop

expansive

subject.

a skilled

a frequency-meter.

not

is

remade

only

relay

Electricity

There

exist

again

Usually

voltage

applied.
is

no production

a locally

a set

on

alternators

Provided

relay,

of

and insu-

types
in

and finally

convenient

governing

available
the

right

an under-voltage/over-voltage

sufficient

literature

the

check

was

Such components

and wiring

with

tur-

Based

of

where

no problem.

to

wire

reasons.

practice.

each phase)

and distribution
in

for

for

not

is

for

on a relatively

the

countries

Assembly

as

The lack

manufacture

To find

switch

factor

kind

local

an

possibility

suppliers

instruments.

there

as a main

this

copper

were

not

as a new venture

sheets,

engineer's

job,

- negative.

outside

available.

his

of

is

a satisfactory

time

in those

to electrical

such

that

that

market.

for

manufacture

personnel,

and control

kW, kWh and power

permanently,
quired,

conclude

local

ampere-meters

three

Meters

to

knows

required

a volt-meter

phases,

trained

necessary

an evaluation

with

of

projects

some countries

as transformer

easily

the

according
who

Nepal,

was - at

switchgear

of

in

a new venture

and are

available

components

hardly

for

investigation

is

Local

competition

lack

be a priority

facilities

of

such

may be acceptable

not

quires

case

conclusion

the

hydro-electric

an effort

possibility

and mainly

materials,

small

and .performance.

the
The

component

small

in

and

may seem an attractive

done

for

task

costs

regarding

bines

need

alternators

a time-consuming

solution

in

procuring

of

and

and can

specific

Some handbooks

electrification

re-

generation,
subject

a lot

is

have

these

and
been

are

35)
commended.

35)

1. Lausselet,

Low-Tension

Installations

2. VITA, Rural Electrification

3. Jackson
E Evans in NRECA, Small Hydroelectric
index
for full
bibliographical
details)

Powerplants,

p 214

ff.

(Refer

to

alphabetical

re-

-65-

Electric

motors

and

electric

generator,

oniy

if

it

speed

at

a given

ing

the

which

in

duced.

gate

opening
switching

turn

cause

variations

keep

such

where
therefore

is

part

of

the

load

not

thus

keeping

the

total

achieved

flow-control,

where

systems

keep

turn,

results

in

ally
of

costly

If

imported
more

situation.

early

stage

procured
well

in

at

by
side.

overloading

the

speed

from

look

one

stage

for
for

phase

at

in

of

performance

financial
another

viability

were
that

there
not

properly
a 1 ready

the

turbine

is

ad-

which,

in

the

a specified

question

While
it

is

they

was a problem
balanced,

an appro-

exist

tend

to

it

was decided
load-controller

with
it

highest

one

be very

be required

While

virtu-

a non-specialised

really

mind,

unit.

range.

easy to copy

not

suppliers,
would

of

there

for

the

circuit,

limits

within

An electronic

had

any

constant.

manufacture

a 20 kl d three-phase

switch

a ballast

tolerable

in

solution.

limits.

set.

stage.

than

constant

tolerable

through

Nepal,

major

to

control,

kept

that

set

governors,

the

pro-

necessary

is

into

remains

an early

to

is

controllers

within

in

difficult

application,

When phases
the

turbines

one

within

circuit

that

flow-control
and

constant

flowing

turbine

and frequency

for

turbine

turbine-generator

the

was raised

Keeping

water

on the

of

regular

variations

To achieve

the

turbine-alternator

of

Cross-Flow

accurate

to

on the

load

through

electronic

by the

volume

complex

single-phase

figuration.

load

water

with

consumed

designs
are

rural

has to be kept

device

of

and

may be applied:

load

of

Most

workshop.

that

the

a voltage

governing

them.

called

Chang-

electricity

it

a governor.

also

speed

of the

limits,

constant

constant.

in

An

and frequency
such

kept

results

acceptable

of

the

development

dozens

within

mainly

is

and frequency

flow

on the

Both

priate

voltage

voltage
delivers

shaft

off,

frequency.

and

stable

turbine

on its

on and

power
in

A water

load

voltage

such

the

today

depending

the

the

controller,

This

In

if

two possibilities

load-control,

justed

speed..

variations

a turbine

are chiefly

hand,produces

constant

at

e.g.

and where

run

stable

require

other

load,

incorporate

on the

is

To

there

appliances

this
the

type

load,

at

an
was

performed

three-phase

aggravated

in

the

on the

conproblem
ballast

-66-

Fig.

45:
fe- Assemb ly of

Prototyp
Electron
troller
Photo

ic

II . Meier

by:

This

experience

on the
the

Load- Con-

principle

first

Technology

in

Nepal.

and to

Based

assemble

nology
for

At

efforts

locally
help

the

same

turbine
tute

of

purposes

type

Tl

the

veloped

and

water

working

in

schematical

* More
SKAT.

was

work.

the

was

Centre

for

board

Swiss

for

India.

shows

that

later

from

45

information

To

the

was used

Federal

simplifying
This

work

is

full

tested
device

being

Design

prototype

on

Institute

the

Electronics

including

based

successfully

full

done
Tech-

assembly

wiring

the

on the

simple
in

fig.

electronic

control

device
46

the

head

water

shows

load controller

purpose

laboratory

device
the

the

this

where

the

under

Since

really

the

water-hydraulic,

a simple,

For

in

keep

through

diagram

on

(ETHZ),

press*lre,

fluid.

work

installed

Zurich

continuously

resulting

on a plane

was undertaken.

Technology,
out

charged

the

Fig.

development

time,

carried

of

India.

at

underway

components

an expert

Bangalore,

out

now

load-controller

voltage-sensing

a prototype

are

using

of

governor
of

and

of

with

fuses

switches.*

flow-control

as

on

this,

a new type

was carried

(EPFL)

demonstrating

of
versus

work

Lausanne

the

and overload

development

current-sensing

it

(CEDT),

the

Research

at

BEW with

to

of

device.

of

by

led

is

Swiss
for

a proportional

of

installation,

can

from

the

there
be

developed

at

of

will

Insti-

Technology
type

was de-

was to

be used

no need

manufactured

EPFL

Federai

penstock
is,

components

Cross-Flow

Fluid

simple,

valve,

the

the

Institute

drawn

which

a full-scale

of

the

mechanical

and

is

dis-

for

a pump,

locally.

The

the

governor.

Its

become

available

through

-67-

working

principle

ple

a centrifugal

of

is

a constant-area
a variable

the

orifice

area

of

a piston

other

hand,

the

by

turbine

throttle
the

valve),

bine

the

turbine.
is

by a spring,

gate position

sponds

to

to

an4 appropriate

pilot'

a certain

load,

a certain

throttles,

pendulum

now the

flyweight

via

a lever

to

piston

pressure

connected

subjected

to

the

by speed.
of

the

can

to

the

variable
Since

turbine

create
on the

may be varied

by

(or

on

flyweight)
on speed,
is

of

if

mounted

the

on

variable

be made proportional
turbine

gate

pressure
a certain

is

area,

depending

the

with

depending
area

position

princi-

first

discharge

If

A piston,

speed

the

line,

The discharge

variable

determined

is

in

spring.

connected
the

two

The centrifugal

a pushrod

and is

of

balanced

direction.

shaft,
(or

speed

axial

and on the

a variable

the

throttle.

system

mounted

with

between

variable

moves

counterbalanced

second

line

the

the

in

Two throttles

and the
in

on a two-throttle

based

pendulum:

pressure

discharge
moving

chiefly

and countera tur-

and thus,
gate

opening

now determining

to

corre-

its

loading

condition.

1. Flyball

assembly

2. Thrattle
/ pllot
3. Lever linkage
4. Servo cylinder

Fig.

5. Turblne flow
6. Water supply

46:

3. Rotatlnu

Schematic of Generating-set
with
Mechanical
!JaterPressure
Governor
I
Source:

Meier,

Manual

for

Design

of

the

Mechanical

a Simple

(centrifugal
valve
with

closing

regulator
line with

pHaad 'a~'""'..
_-.-- - - -_-------z-c-I --

_
-

- --. ------I-Tgg--.5---

spring

(gate)
filter

masses (flvwheel

Alternator
I

pendulum)

system

tv--q-

.
f

etc.1

wc
ll!r

Governor

H = Head
0 - Flow vo!umc
pO= Pressure before thrattlc
PI= Prrssure otttr thre!!!r
Nm Turbine speed
0 I No load
F m Fuii load

If

load

weight
lower

is

switched

pushrod.
pressure

off,

This
on the

in

speed increases,which

results

turn

valve

moves the

servo-cylinder

pilot
piston.

The

in a movement
piston,
turbine

which
gate

in

of the

fly-

results

in

turn

closes

-68-

until

piston

turbine

force

gate

to

the

and in

happens,

and closing

closes

completely

The

system

was

After

testing

stable

enough

ter

than

The

photograph

to

and shuts

regulation

meter

Fia.

the

switching

supply

pipe,

adjusting

load

on,

the

gate

the

the

reverse

of the

tur-

down.*

speed-deviation

a maximum

Nepal

thus

it

was found

within

that

of

the

+ 5 %, a value

+ 10 %.

governor

that

was

seems bet-

fig.

47 on the

turbine

shows the
left.

left

shows the

shaft.

The connecting

to

pilot-piston

the

turbine

Connection

with

rotating

lever

with

on the

right.

the

governor

between

cylinder

unit

fly-weight
flyweight-spring
The picture

in front

and

mounted

pilot

and the
valve

is

on
on the
servoby dia-

47:

by:

* A more
quest

of

again,

50 mm PE pipe.

Prototype
Photo

balance

in most situations.

and connection

the

for

speed

the

to

designed

permit

on the

cylinder

plant

in

of

side

in

prototype

acceptable

right-hand

the

in

case

loss

the

directly
left

In

pressure

of

initially
of

are

new situation.

case

bine

spring

of Mechanical

Governor

Installed

at BYS Test-Site

U. Meier

complete description

of

this

governor

and

design

manual

is

available

from

SKAT upon

re-

-69-

There

are

and the

now two

question

swer

- as is

tems,

though

to

date.

often

governor

the

from

water

from

device

An electronic

a breakdown

it

modules
cheaper

of

technology

the

of

the

the

local

is

clearer.

umented

turbine.

ity

must

are

where

load

tion

small

still

iii

prototype

controller

the

to

purposes,though,
are possible
dynamic

possible

simple

possibility

is

to

on duty

method

is

to

an imported

would
changes

quite

the

been

be doc-

another

of

state

situation

done for

for

In

use on
design

testing-facilif

comprehen-

is to be avoided.

problem

where

on the

more easily

adapt

might

possible.

empirically,

of

changes

relatively

as soon as load

use

the

it

governors.

.though,

some sort
only

e.g.

still

to

behaviour

output,and

An' operator

This

easy

with

where two tur-

principle

has

of

and if

addition,

governor,

design

be relatively

total

in

mechanical

an

piece

personnel,

on a station

is

than

parts,

of two mechanical

actual

can be limited,

relation

In

simple r and can therefore

is

A mechanical

a sophisticated

much depends,
the

may be important

and wearing

controller

described

For

of the

on a hand-wheel,

ment readings.

The second

load

solutions

may be acceptable.

adjustments

devices

required

by far.

routine.

Refinements

other

moving

instead

a single

and maintenance

is

sys-

records

strictly

irrigation.

are fewer

hand,

Both

with

not

a prescribed
load

testing

modelling

used for

without

simple.

This

adjustments

other

both

will

is

by semi-skilled

Although

fluctuations
in

to

involved

is

The an-

performance

be attempted

industry.

design,

maz::ematical

canal

state,

could

electronic

be available.

There

are

for

Technology

For

turbine.

work in parallel,

and transferred.

of

sive

solid

electronics

Tl-turbine

the

required

use one electronic

Transfer

through

skills

according

sets

that

frequent

not

installations

water

application

situation.

no substantial
for

for

what

- is

keeping

on the

repair

and

to

bine-alternator

of

the

is

occurs,

have

head-race

much more

although

Still,

case

the

load-controller,

equipment.

plug-in

running

for

a choice

seems suitable
of

available

be used

is

stage,

governor

systems

should

when there

advantage

may require

electronic

the

case

governing

which

prototype

generation

excess

prove

the

has

cheap

as to

the

past

It

power

where

arises

The mechanical

turbine.
for

relatively

governing:
in

load

this

case

make necessary

become evident

widely

governor.

on a plant

hand-regula-

infrequent,
in

In cases

from

used on small

Usually,

these

instru-

plants.

are pro-

,70-

hibitively
in

costly

the

People's

various

types

At the
only

time

there

is

Republic

of
of

of

of

what

be of

available

The

prices

of this

agency

is

offering

such

as shown

in

fig.

available

kind

governor-manufacturing

Export

governors

were not

a governor

of

National

mechanical

firm

writing,

information
China.

oil-hydraulic,

a fraction

mav therefore

Fig.

but

but costs

from

the

48.

are reportedly

West would

cost.

This,

interest.

48:

Mechanical
Oil-Hydraulic,
Governor from PR China
Source:

Speed

CMEC Brochure

A Cross-Flow
chanical

turbine

with

governor

alternator,

with

the

terminals,

comprise

what

equipment,

necessary

for

items

set

in

discussed
governor

are

turn

bolted

is
so far,

action

is

a coupling,

alternator
called

a rural

to

bolted

and penstock,

flywheel,

and finally

All

adapter

electrification

a solid

may be considered
in

case

of

with

complete

a load

for

a part
change

the

of
does

follow

the

generating
fig.

ease of alignment

not

to

and connecting

(refer

a flow-control

a me-

flywheel

electro-mechanical

The flywheel,

foundation,

transmission,

switchboard

project

a common base-frame

onto

connecting

itself,
the

a step-up

which

49).

and the whole

has not been

governor.
instantly,

Because
but occurs

-71-

at

a definite

up or

loses

so slows
the

speed

rotating

other

down the

rate

masses

speed.

transitory

state

on the

takes

job,

while

serves

process

In the

to

of

keeping

load

together

changes,

and

to main-

deviations

within

all

speed,

trying

and gives

speed deviations

with

turbine

thereby
speed

speeds

accelerated

being

case of falling

"smooth-out"

following

Generating

Set Using

a BYS Cross-Flow

1. Turbine

in

the

the

governor

limits.

Turbine

2. Chain-Drive

3. Alternator,

is

20 kW 3 phase, 1500 RPM

easy

governor

the

the

A flywheel,

turbine

by: U. Meier

Photo

size

in

the

49:

Typical

It

change.

which

due to deceleration,

energy

immediately

to do its

load

up energy

a flywheel

during

occurs,

of speed increase.

deliver

Thus,
period

more time

Fig.

depending

masses,

rotating

tain

a transitory

speed,

of

to

understand

characteristic,
other

biggest

by the

rotating
effect

that

if

4.

the

necessary

(not

on the

incorporated
fastest

visible)

with Fly-Wheel

size

is determined

flywheel

maximum permissible

masses already
mounted

Governor

Transmission

turning

speed-deviation
in

the

shaft

set.

by the

and by the
A flywheel

available.

This

has
will

,
i

-72-

usually
mean mounting
view 3 it
is important
saf@

limits.

speQd.

For

As

it

all

strj

imm@diately,

components,

speed

of

Other

to

rotating

betain

and wooden

sticks

strong

between

to admit

runner

sufficient

For

shutting

the

turbine

inlet,

on both

The

arrangement

to

the

of
the

system

This

inlet.

For

it

usually
while

run-away

steel

of

plates.

a flywheel

is not

parts

speed transmission

- acts

and alter-

situated

in

to keep floating
easy

spacing

slightly
the

within

diameter

moving

it

water

of rods
smaller

total

flow

is

incorporated

the

fore-

particles

cleaning,

can withstand

same time,

of

stability.

serves

entering.
so

that

A trashrack

are:

safe

up from mild

- without

turbine,

shown

(e.g.

a gate-valve

plant,

and another

simple
sides

trashrack

direction

of

at, the

is

such

removable.

pressure

even

must be small
spacing

than

must

be large

area

flush

bottom

out

canal.

A simple

work.

At

e.g.

canal

to form

electro-mechanical

the

penstock

the

if

enough
the

disenough

of

the

needed to

on the

situa-

intake,

to keep

may also

permit

to empty

the

is

same can

planks

barrier

require

is

above

canal

wooden

equipment

and will

forebay

though,

a temporary

penstock

Depending

gate

expense,

a number

the

of

near

lifting

less

in the

sediment.

may be required

stop-logs,
of the

of

valve

work and to

sto%
from entering
the
the Canal for maintenance

'lots

device

remain

withstand

a max.

was found

point

flow.

down the

with

it

masses

blades),

must

welded

design

forces

flywheel

flywheels

At the

emptY it for maintenance

tion ., another
(coarse)

chieved

the

for

from

parts

centrifugal

instance,

construction

by leaves.

floating

to

RPM,for

not

penstock

covered

due

From the

2800

to give

of the

be of

alternator.

an electronic

parts

must

tance

Because

steel-fabricated

as leaves

the

load-controller,

large

front

fu11Y

Nepal

sufficiently

baY in

It

in

existing

rid'Lbr. are

stresses

electronic

necessary.

Ctly

with

other

750 mm was determined

the

line

that

a maximum

When using

in

that

across

usually

fairly

fit

be ainto

it.

perpendicular

little

space.

AS in-

50, a 20 kW set would usually

require
less than
dicated
in the schematic
fig.
5 m* of area. A power house with a floor
area of 20 m2 could in fact accommodate

Not
in

two sets

0nlY

the

Operation,

conveniently,

turbine
e.g.

but
their

with

also

sufficient

all

efficiency

other
is

access

space

components
smaller

than

of

on all

the

sides.

system

incur

1 due to hydraulic

losses
losses,

-73-

mechanical
described
tically

Fig.

and

friction,
and

specific

to

electromagnetic
each

losses.

Based

efficiencies

situation,

the

on

and losses

technology
may realis-

be assumed as follows:

50:

Schematic
Layout of a 20 kW
tiydro-Electric
Generating
Set
Source:

BYS,

Nepal

Flmhrrl

I 600, SOIq

TA 1602 M7 2SKVA
1500 RPM l~htl!w 3ao122ov

L
l

Efficiencies:
- Turbine
- Step-up

transmission

- Alternator
overall

2000
Ovrroll width

Additional
these
in

efficiency:

0.65

to

0.75

0.94

to

0.98

0.78

to

0.92

0.48

to

0.68

losses:
occur

in

all

transmission

on the

length

meters,

they

hydraulic

conduits,

and distribution
of

transmission

may constitute

of

in
power.

the

Depending

and distribution
between

operation

10 to 25 %.

of

a governor

on conduit-length

networks

as the

main

and
and
para-

Power

available

ting-potential,
(imported)
which

the

is

therefore

turbine

would

ical

to

might

supply

expressed

user,

in

the

achieve

useful

as a percentage
from

range

36 to

an efficiency

power

amounting

of

to

of

theoretical

genera-

61 %. A highly

88 % under

a maximum of

optimised

ideal

conditions,

71 % of the

theoret-

value.

c) Survey and Civil

Engineering

In

field-surveys

the

that

context

the

ture.

of

first

problem

Instead

of

site

that

looks

tact

with

the

be

local

of

sider

is

bills.
further

not

and

it

village

of

after

people

Only

activities

should

it

would

project,

is

a question

need

a social

na-

as soon

as a

to get
leaders.

project

might

cost

them in
the

in conIt

their

during

terms

of

implications,

more detailed

should

affect

of participation

have understood

their

directly,

and community

be stressed

of

be a priority

them in terms

what

must

but

survey

hydropower

from

and also

it

a technical

elders

how a small

be expected

of

precise

identified,

detail,

would

is

a detailed

a project,

electricity

be solved

population,

in

and what

stages

doing
feasible

made clear

lives

to

site-identification,

and

all

monthly
and con-

investigation

work

be done.

an optimal

To locate
the

expected

power

In cases

of

easy

to

and

to

arrive

from

the

at

the

This

the

site

mechanical

power

since

likely

best

most

as for

instance

choice

of

site

serves

superficially

surveyed

that

is

away from

in

two

will

case

may be to

for

the

envisaged,

the

most

may

to

it

a question

is

also

be sup-

milling.
first

the

a purely

Other
best

potential

to

consumers

from

reference.

related

have to be transported

evaluate

look

the

of'grain

promising

that

potential

how easily

some goods

looks

one or

available
of

use is

site

as a basis

and the

the

sites

are

A method
parameters
visual

in-

then

sur-

in a comparison

are then

in detail.

The type
to

of

development

will

an installation
house

the

of

and, further,

how far

site,

of

vestigation.

ferred

where

accessability

approximately

veyed

requirements

and also

be developed,
plied.

site

that

built

the

range

of

be run-of-river,

normally
where

is

in

water
near

the

is

in

supplied
river

interest

bank.

the

through

and with

the

equipment

low to medium head-range,

a canal

On rivers

with

and penstock
steep

re-

e.g.

to a power

gradients,

only

a short

canal

conditions
practice

is

required

usually

permit

adopted

in

intake-structure
the

water

to

go upstream

of

from

would

give

hill

slope

towards

tour

line

one,

to

and

also

sary

slope

intake

point

is

of

canal

slope.

the

mind the

kind

Experience

of

in

by a team of
eration.
knowledge
As

a rule,

team
areas
it

may be found

head

is

then

will

is

permit

less

have

canal
possible

method

of

head up to

establishment
Also,

sonnel

who were trained

The
plant

flow

available

that

often
ture

not
the

is

produces

measurements
will

people

in

give
case

sources

the

the

energy
dry

that
suggest

other
all

season

a meaningful

year
are

on the

round

long
the

which

although

for

job

for

point.

term
nearest

are

In

Leveling

by using

of

staffs,
in

fig.

within

51.

an error
per-

a day or so.

desirable

minimal

canals,

to them.

determines
is

the

speed.

irrigation

explained

gen-

where

greater

theoretical
and

A few measurements

regarding

from

enough,

briefly

done

than

be managed by semi-skilled

that

crucial.

i n the
data

at

30 to 40 meters

easily

factor

result

variations
that

can quite

is

is

of hydropower

be built

instrument,

simple

to keep in

a survey

projects

be left

a surveying

inclusion

important

constructing

can entirely

of a few centimenters.
or local

in

head

The neces-

permit

small

may be justified

without

it

be good

lower

and a suitable

use if

a tradition

This

pdint

of

best

con-

the

alignment.

fact

should

the

and whether

to be used.

for

along

to

know nothing

is

up to a point

parallel

is

little

relation

sighted

to

of

One method

are going

will

alignment

in

that

important

components

it

a sort

horizontal

up-stream,

who otherwise

a theodolite

level.

the

in

engineering-level

that

also

is

far

structural

people

and a spirit

tape,
It

local

it

canal

surveying,

The

this

at this

further
of

is

along

of

low cost.

site,

is possible,

view

Such

only

inflow.

a line

be considered

stages

surveyors

many projects,

where

of

still

shows that

a simple

does

also

all

walk

river.

enough

line

of a canal

and equipment

accuracy

what

low

sufficient

along

point

for

During

competent

of

must

structures

Utmost

the

looked

Nepal

dams but

installation

elevation,

construction

canal

then

guarantee

in the

at relatively

a canal-intake

A team must then

from

fall

permanent

identified

a higher

whether

the

build

to

an abrupt

head when a horizontal

site.

be increased
of

river

is

development

to

previously

the
at

to

water

a sufficient

determine

could

the

the

also

better

not

is

diverts

level

that

still

a medium-head

Nepal

that

to

but

flow,

flow-

therefore
alone

because

considerable.

gauging

power.

stations,

of course
it

is

very

Many literapercipita-

--

tion,

size

of

with

the

this

seems

lacking

drainage

few

data

not

for

available

to

small

area

bear

and other

climatological

from

site

the

promise

streams

in

most

of

data

interest.

For

situations.

or be insufficiently

should

Data

be correlated

practical
will

purposes

definitely

be

reliable.

1. Drive

Fig.

51:

Method
without
Source:

of leveling
instrument
BYS,

Better

the

doing
site

extensively
cially

how the

considerable

that

and to
less.

are

unlikely

to

a site,

This
less

will

"their"
also

over

the.

such

it

is

relates

by flow

to

last

few

limits
less

and

question
term

is

in

to

is

a good

practice

If

the

the

couldn't

to

wishful
have been

that

failures

seriously.
develop

possible

conservatively

Spe-

case - have
from

followed

to

people

experience.

shows,

procedure

perhaps
local

refrain
it

Nepal

equipment

is

often

whether

voluminous

variations.

office,

- as is

estimate
years

the

long

The point

lowest

within

their

irrigation

a pragmatic

use of

in

spot-measurements

river.

the

if

make the
affected

flow

of

question

occur

do

work

used to gravity

Experience

investigating

be

are

theoretical

times,

present

knowledge

still

will

specialised

several

people

thinking

head

Nepal

than

visit

head.

in pegs approximately
in intervals
of the length of the
measuring rod used (e.g. 3 metres) in a straight
line,
according
to the planned course of the penstock. All pegs should stand out
of the ground in equal heights,
if possible.
2. Put on measuring rod an keep it horizontal
with the help of a
spirit
level or plastic
pipe filled
with water. Now measure the
distance
from the peg to the measuring rod vertically.
Enter values
found into the tabie. Pay attention
to signs (+ or -).
3. Measure horizontal
distance
between pegs while the measuring rod
is still
kept horizontal.
Enter values found (1,. 12, 13 . ..)
into the table.
4. Gross head H = Sum of all values H of plus sign (+) minus sum of
all values with negative
sign (-).

In

maximum

and output
assumed

flow

-77-

in

the

next

quite

simply

second

few years
possible

turbine

variations

of

part

the

it

year

ready
of

work
affected

medium
with

For

flow

both

with

elsewhere

'for

there

of

less

turbine
working,

opening

and near

various

with
More

value.

than

or

1 m 3/s

is

operation,
last

output.

next

travel-speed

described
of

a float

area

of

easily

briefly

at

high flow
36)

are

and relatively

al-

efficiency

at

cross-sectional

such

- ideally

the

that

weir-method

the

size

maximum plant

accurate

may

is

optimum

and the

the

unit

potential

three

even

greater

optimum,

unequal

in

the

turbine
the

possibilities

current-meters
multiplied

section,

of

be much

consumption

during

than

provide

turbine

are

Using

lower

to

the

when generating

fact

small

from

a single

Two turbines
in

where flow

the
done

described

in

52.

Besides

all

important

the
to

a damaging
to

flow,
37)

gate

is

a time

the

bigger

an approximate

a discharge

fig.

the

river

yields

at

only

at optimum

detail.

on a straight

efficiency

be

flow.

likely

available

provide,

will

initially,

If,

more power
would

1 : 2 - would

only

river

in

have

larger

is

average-discharge.
to

with

already

minimum-discharge

by low discharge.

flow

turbines

measuring

river,

low

and by using

interest

and

efficient

of

one at

occur

part-load

least

an output-ratio

points:

turbine

the minimum-flow

Since

would
badly

another

desirable

than

project-expansion

be more favourable,

period,than

is

be inappropriate.
a plant

to

a short

view,

of

by adding

certain

during

point

to

may be of considerable

are

smaller

appears

investigate
effect

know the

the

water

above

will

the

the

of

reach,
In

in
the

as far

in:

order

to

help.

It

by Gladwell

- Alward et al.,

high

to

or

of
is

it

even

flood-flow,

It

in this

is

know the-highest

be able

absence

back in history

in more detail

minimum-discharge,

and equipment.

b,ut rather

who can be of

37) For instance

danger

on structures

level.

occurrences

36) Explained

concerning

discharge-rate

this

habitants

worries

to

place

statistical
necessary

is

finally
which

the

equipment

data,

it

to question

may have

case not
possible

is

necessary
level

floor

again

Powerplants,

p 53

Measurement at Gaging Stations,

1969

Micro-Hydropower,

- Buchanan E Somers, Discharge

1979

- Mother Earth News, Cross -Flow Turbine

. . . p 2 ff.

that
safely

local

them as regards

as possible.

in NRECA, Small Hydroelectric

also

inflood

-78-

Fia.

In case of small streams or channels a temporary measuring weir can be

easily erected as indicated.
It may be made of -,trong timber or metal
sheet, with the bottom and sides of the rectangular
notch bevelled.
to a width of about 2 rma. The distance
from the bottom of the notch to
the downstream water level should be at least 75 IIIII (3 inches) and
sufficient
to allow for complete aeration.
This weir is let into the
stream and n-mde watertight
with clay or plastic
sheet so that all the
water will pass through the rectangular
notch. For accurate measurments
a stake should be driven into the stream bed about 2 metres upstream,
the top of the stake being level with the crest of the weir. The depth
of water flowing
over the weir can be obtained by measuring the height
(h) from the water surface to the top of the stake. The flow may then
be calculated
from the table below.

52:

Flow Measurement with

Rectangular
Weir
Source:

BYS,

Nepal
WEIR

MEASURING

scone

1h~C

DEPTH h

in cm
2
3
4
i
1
8
9
10
11
12

works

hydropower

project,

unique.

While

projects,

but

and what
in

fig.

to

divert

gate
off

is
53)

(3)
water

where
minimal.

the

since

still

the

needs

For

obvious

actually

needed

- usually

partial

from

the

groove? J to

inflow
amount

Lining

for
of
will

avoid

1.5
a.4

fi

9.4

28

2t

the
of

the

be site

to

reasons,

and of

maintenance.
and the
such

danger

problems

of

and it

cm

47.4
49
50.5
52.1
53.1

55.3
56.9
58.5
60.2
61.8
63.5
65.1
66.8
68.5

3:
52
53
54
5:

component
tends

of

as 5011 ows:

different

be kept

canal

.(2).

- is

may be.an

slides

in

will

give

point

unlined
unstable
the

dam (1
required

lifting

A simple

at this

canal

ef-

simple

A diversion

construction

to be quite
in

should

is provided

The canal

L
l/WE

to make them cost

structures

head-race

stop-logs

::.4
29.8
31.2
32.6
34
35.4
36.9
3e.3
39.e
41.3
42.0
44.3
45.9

site

specific

43
44
45
46
47
48
49

same principle

semi-permanent
the

in

variable

a particular

of

DEPTH h

l/mm

if
-39
39
40
41
42

greatest

may be summarised

accommodate

seepage

15.8
17
18.1
19.4
20.6
21.9
23.1
24.4
25.7

width

(ldml

31
32
33
34
35

14.7

may be of

rive ?r into

canal

22
23
24

cm

DEPTH h
in cm

10.4
11.4
12.4
13.5

i!

4.9
2::

situation

design

safe.

18
1.9

probably

components

actual

water
or

are

structural

their

fective,

required

1.4
3.t
5.4
4.1

::

Structural

1.0

15
16
17

0.2
0.5

10

l/IOC

DEPTH h
in cln

to block

earth
terrain

canal
are

a greater

-79-

capacity.

Flow

canal,

a thin

cement

mud bricks,
sible.

but

Lining

may be a problem.
mortar.

there

with

in

a lined
Lining

can

Of much interest

is

no experience

plastic

sheets,

canal

as compared

be done with

would

cheap,

stone

be hydraulically

available-that

while

to an earth

would

has

not

met

slabs

or

stabilised
prove

with

this

pos-

success

53:

Structural

Components

Source: Adapted

from

Nepal.

Cattle

badly.

A rather

EYS,

use to

damage.
Guerrero,

This

is
Turbines

of a Small

Run-of-River

Project

Nepal

walk

interesting

used by Las Gaviotas

38)

may be higher

where erosion

with

Fig.

velocity

in

the

technique

in Colombia.

described

canals

in fig.

It
54.

. . . . VITA, Mt. Rainier

and this
is

is

would

reported

to cover

puncture

by Guerrero

canals

plastic
38)

sheets

and is also
up to prevent
them from

in

80-

Except

where

should

be included.

velocity

is

water

is

This

reduced

matter),

iment

can

be flushed

or it

can otherwise

contour

danger
of

minimise

bly,

it

(4)

situated

that

has again

the

excess

water

to

one in

the

technique.

take

style

In

care

will

all

of

with

imported

canal

of

the

penstock

along

and supports,

39)

next

Sed-

provided

the
This

considera-

such

as driving

the

inst$llation.

a sandtrap

similar
for

in

and mainte-

is

requires
a suitable

the electro-mechan-

Good foundations
here.

construction

turbine,

stone-masonry
accomodates

in opera-

to discharge

cleaning
the

needs

in air

serves

with

essential

basin

a small

necessary

drawing

(61,

which

are

component.

The penstock-inlet

forebay

which

structural

section

forebay

for

completes

and

a lined

Otherwise,

the

pit
local

in most cases.

a solid

be retained,

the

use of

- is

wire,
Complete

a method

which
river

be based
normal

the
the

powerhouse,

stones

be cut-in

and if

canal

emptying

water

of

to follow

and comprises

A gate

connects

tail-race

the

to avoid

last

head constant.

which

slope.

"shortcuts".

protection

inlet,

surface

the

permits

nature

is

be taken

has to

sand and sediment.

where

large

local.

head-race

structures

galvanized

be entirely

the

the

be acceptable

has to

of

item,

the

hydraulic

pressure
filled

(71,

The last

equipment,

to

intake,

anchor-blocks

appropriate

is

(5)

the

flow

methods.

concrete,

the

on the

excessive

slope

at

or

80 cm below

the

avoid

Where a slope

of retaining

and keeps

The penstock

nance.

front

job

to

make measures

masonry

spillway
the

and

where

discharge-sluice

should

chamber

intake

and reducing

much care

canal

the

(depending

a bottom

bio-engineering

end

60 to

A lateral

to

the
in

be submerged

ical

the

necessary.

stone

at

a trash-rack

tion.

exists,

better,

in

with

to

land-slides

near

50 cm/s.

if

manually.

with

canal

cross-section

be removed

may be important

A forebay

the

a sedimentation

particles,
of

than

periodically

excavation

or still

is

much less

out

hill

in-stakes,

It

suspended

may be a section

to

of

the

will

from

by widening

suspended

Where the

free

on gabion-technology,
39)
conditions,

See also Stern

et al.,
in Appropriate
Calculation
of Check Dams, p 55

is

foundation

gabions
that

- wire

deserves

commonly
training

and their

is

used,
and small

life

Technology,Vol.

required

or where water

mesh baskets
attention.

all

Except

material

7, No. 4, p 6 ff.

and

for

and labour

dam projects

may well-exceed

which

are

the
can

known to

60 years

Hiller,

are

El.,

under

Manual

-8l-

A long thim walled polyethylene

bag is filled
with water to form a
flexible
sausage. This is done with the plastic
already
in place in
a large enough excavation
on a bed of very lean soil and stone-cement
mixture
(about 6:l).
The pipe is then covered with the same mixture
while adding water pressure by raising
the ends of the "sausage".
The
mixture
is "vibrated"
by treading
on the pipe near the place of
filling.
After completion
of one section , and a short while of setting.
the water is drained from the pipe and the plastic
sheet pulled out
while twisting
it. An adjacent
section may then be started and an
inspection
shaft be made between two sections.
Thus, a "concrete-pipe"
is cast in place.

Fip.

54:

"In-site"

Casting

Source:

to

hydraulic

in

total

cost

reduction

in

than

any other
small

bearable
for

Pipe

local

civil

risks.

cost

is

measure.
- there

is

the

micro-range

technology

to

application
this

sense,

development,

not

will

have

of

are

a very

with

impact

front
to

hydropower
a scope

of

today

and,

are
projects

for

they

civil

en-

effective

- in

the

cost
field

and to use too

innovation.

often,

training

suitable

if

on overall

over-design,

experience

new technologies

small

share

50 % and therefore,

development

a lack

the

a greater

a tendency

of

be standardised

situations,

somewhat above

still

due

In

most

On the

concrete

the

In

engineering

single

in
and

can by definition

low-cost.

project

and

projects

experiments

and

hydropower

much cement
Small

structures

be effective

gineering

of

Conduit

Guerrero,

Appropriate
are

of Head-Race

ground,

possible

without

can

serve

up-scaling

to

where
un-

as a basis
larger

pro-

-82-

jects.

In

all

structures

and

basins,

design,

spill-ways
which

cannot

ity

ogy apply.

contact

require

be exnlained

and foundations,

Bureau

in

Some titles

the

worth

of reclamation,

the

here.

where

with

water,

knowledge

The same is
theory

basic

of

true

soil

of

for

to are from:
40)
and Mata.

intakes,

hydraulic

principles

of soil

questions

mechanics

referring

Peck*

as conduits,

such

stabil-

and foundation

Jagdish

Lal,

technol-

Grummann,

U.S.

and to

help

E, PROJECTEXAMPLES
To give
in

the

understanding

the

final

scribed

situation-specific.

different

region

involved

and are
while

projects

building

small

- have
It

are

surely

still

of

not

being

great

up institutional

in

will

a strict

similar

been,

and will

be,

possible

that

among the

functional

all

first

in

the
of the

regarding

and hopefully
terms

of

lead

cost

since

all

solutions
in

future

projects

de-

kind

the

for

and technical

economically

gaining

to

be de-

sense,

that

optimised

and individual

stations

no doubt

are

importance

that

hydropower

be noted

fully

criteria

is

should
They

solutions

and the

"typical"

there

a pilot-character.

of

Rather,

these

project

actual

circumstances.

concerned

details.

each

Still,

technology

are

of

a few

technological

into

None of them can be called

as regards

scribed

uniqueness

the

here.

under

some more insight

configuration,

very

are
-

reader

viable,

experience

and in

skills.

1. SALLERI-CHIALSA MICRO HYDEL PROJECT, NEPAL

Salleri

is

a small

Khumbu district
Tibetans
in

people

from

at

higher

wool

used

Sallerie
Chialsa

for

lively

Eastern

who settled

people

the

in

but

in
are

town

Nepal.
Nepal

derive
of

carpet

making

Refer

to

Alphabetical

Index

40)

Mata,

in

NRECA, p 145

ff.

of

the

district

there

early

livelihood

Chialsa,
has to
Bibliography,

only

is

marginal

be dyed

prior
I

of

the

Solu

inhabited

by

Uhile

the

and trade,

the

a new village,
named Chialsa.

posts,
mainly

annexe

headquarters

sixties,

in government

their

elevation

Nearby

in

occupied

and the

agriculture
from

carpet

making,

agriculture

is

to

This

weaving.

because

possible.
ir;

done

The
in

-83

large

where

vats,

gy source
tice

used

for

resulted

use

of

in

this

in

of

Solu

4 km' south

of

Salleri.

Even in

almost

no bed load;

An almost

the

a rare

would

be the

the

exists,

monsoon

necessary.
exists

Another

500 kg for

large

During

feasibility

the

items

study,

lower

flow,

give

then

transmission.
would

have

include

solved

other

tial

housing,

vide

electricity

section,
have

very

with

satisfied.
third,

to

supply

the

three

Chialsa,
mountain

of this

size.

450 m length
feasibility

part.

This

be dealt

needed
it

was proved

to

and major

re-

is

the

by small

has

stage

with

the

site

of

fact

from

aircraft

The maximum load

than

of

in the

The river

12 days to reach

less

is

the

the
pos-

aircraft

50 kg and a maximum load

schemes

the

such

25

happy

with

between

,the

local
the

solution

two,

rejected

of

the

was then

worked

villages

with

to

around

the

people.

village,

firewood.

out

detai':.

electricity

of

people
of

it

did

not

and dyeing
Chialsa

area

strongly
envisaged
a

would

of Salleri

the

The project
in

viable,

and residen-

center

and instead

generated

in

scheme was to pro-

People

leaders

scheme

for

center

naturally,

with

operation

Since

A second

was

but

economically

handicraft

second

electricity,

costs

and

40 kW output.

used

dyeing

handicraft

political

in

avoid

The first

been

The

use of

but,

plus

have

easy

for

unit

this

site

excessive

e.g.

turbine

would

technically

by the

investigated:

kW output.

the

as lighting

Chialsa,

were

same site

about

of

was rejected

They
which

of

while

problem

a single

village

the

scheme,

to

been quite

another

to

benefits
it

to

lies

occurred

transportation

have been moved to

This

had

requires

several

which

would

that

investigate

site

the

for

had to be considered.

scheme in

and

in

to the

2 m3/s.

of

land-slides

5 km distant.

loads

canal

Already

1980,

only

a minimum cost
head

of

A porter

Porter

required

most difficult

problem

about

540 kg.

the

to

snow-fed

river

prac-

used daily

south-west

exceeds

a Himalayan

slope.

and otherwise

a landing-strip
is

but

season

no road.

roadhead

Chialsa

for

this

addition

point

a beautiful

minimum runoff

this

there

available

is

exception

in

A good project

Khola

The ener-

15 years,

starting

Solu

the

hours.

5C0 kg of wood were

kilometers

hill

that

because

three

The

season

area,

about

steep

In

to

Khola,

for

last

station.

a very

were

sible

hydropower

boiled

Over the

was the

along

be correct.

nearest

situation

is

the

about

intake

was realised

that

dry

of

natural

be cut

pairs

firewood.

is

cooking,

a small

the

valey

solution

deforestation

precarious

river.

to

purpose

of

steep

and water

domestic

This

construction

and

wool-dye

partial

firewood

wool-dyeing.
the

the

small

were

and
not

supported
finally
hydropower

station

with

an output

of 80 kW (electrical).

a) Scheme Details

- Installed
capacity:
(2 turbines)
(t. 1 turbine)

stage

100 kVA

2nd stage

150 kVa

- Design

1st

1st

discharge:

0.9 m3/s

stage

1.35 m3/s

2nd stage

15.5 m

- Net head:

450 m

length:

- Canal:
cross-section,

2.0 m2

trapezoidal

1 %,

gradient:
800/600

diameter:

- Penstock:

40 m

length:
sheet
- Turbines:
2, Cross-Flow
made by BYS, Nepal
- Step-up transmission:
drive
belt,
UNIROYAL

3 mm

thickness:

Tl-X400

47 kW/unit

postitive

1 : 3.75

ratio:

- Alternator:
1, 3-phase,
1500 RPM (50 Hz) self excited,
synchronous,brushless,
with 2
shaft extensions

115 kVA
3801220

voltage:
french-made:
Electronic
- Speed control:
load-controller,
EPFL
Ballast:
Hot water heater
- H.T.

transmission:

mm

Leroy

Somer

3-phase

7 km

length:
A.C.S.R.
voltage

section

25 mm2
6kV

The

layout

tural

in

35 shows the

fig.

components

proved

The canal

nature.

(31,

and incorporates
lies.

Photographs

canal

800 mm in

the

two

branches

bines

in

in

The

discharge

the

intake

gabions

and,

leads

(61,

(5)

and

(8).

in

Water

is
that

difficult
that

as the

branching

site

(1)

with

way is

of
(as

of

to
the

to

the

into

two pipes

gate

valve

discharged

and was im-

mentioned
steep

difficulties
and

(7)

of diameter

turbines

before)
side

gul-

in

canal

a spillway

penstock

each and lead

by the

struc-

a semi-permanent

cross

a trashrack

inlet

several

natural

needed

an idea

the

almost

terrain
are

give

one cast-iron

powerhouse

the

incorporates

serves

section,

incorporate

(2,4)

56 might

fig.

forebay

upper

through

aqueducts

two

construction.

of

at

The

schematically.

by an arrangement

situation

of

with

diameter

600 mm. These

to the

exits

two tur-

through

in-

SALLERD P CHIALSA
SMALL

Fiq.

HYrPEL PROJECT

55:

Situation
Source:

Plan
Litscher,

dividual

'outlets

quarter
side
mission

(10)
the

power
line.

of

Powerplant

Sma 11 Hyde1

and

Development

flows

completes
house

the
is

back
list

required

Board

to
of
to

Nepal

the

river

structures.
transport

in

the

A step-up
electricity

tail-race

(9).

transformer
via

the

A staff
(11)

out-

6 kV trans-

Fig.

56:

Construct ;i on of He Id-R ace

Canal Sal 1er i/Chia
sa,
Nepal
Photos

. 1.itscher

by:

All

hydraulic

make

later

set.

Towards

in

the

sible

conduits

were

addition
this

of
end,

power-house

another
an extra

section

above

another

branching

part.

limited

to 2 meters

Bearing

in

construction
tance.

the

great

material

to

Specific

turbine

outlet

pit

of

the

of

the

technologies

- semi-permanent

intake

has also

penstock

have

to

- other
These

house
slate

supporting

measures

made it

is

made posstage,

be exchanged
is,

of transportation,

possible
appropriate

with

extent

the

was of

to the

one
with

incidentally,

use of local

paramount

situation,

impor-

were:

gabions

and staff
roofing

quarter

structures

and retaining

walls

to

quantity

possible

been included

second

section

- canal
lining
in mud mortar
implying
a large
canal
slope for low flow-velocities
(only the most difficult
were done in stone lining
with cement mortar
pointing)
- the power
with local

will

generating

branch

will
penstock

which

another

the

each

n? /s

possible.

greatest

built

adding

For

and cost

applied,

1,35

penstock.

branch

length

problems

with

a third

to make transportation

the

of

by

existing

The

a discharge

40 kW possible,

execut?on

penstock

for

Connecting

structure.

by flanged/bolted

mind

designed

limit

were

the

done

in

section
parts

and a small
of the canal

mud mortar-stone
were done with
of

cement

masonry
gabions.

to

700 bags.

-87Costs

involved

at
305.-*
41)

are

the

still
This

site.

since

considerable,
includes

one

a transportation

bag

of

charge

cement
of

costs

NRs.

NRs.

250.-

per

(BE,

Tl)

bag.
The

generating

that

are

through

installed

under

a speed

step-up

coupling,to

a single

mission
the

equipment

used

a net head of
transmission
with

alternator,

equipment

two

comprises

a positive-drive

is

schematical

used

15.5

meters.

and

a flywheel,

a shaft

belt

locally

that

extending

made turbines
Both

turbines
shaft

needed to be imported.

layout.

80 KW INSTALLATION
) TIIDRINF

IlNltC

CINGI

AI

TFPNATnR

ZFT

POWER HOUSE FLOOR AREA : 32 mz

WEIGHT OF MACHINERY : APPROX ,2000 Kg

Fig.

Source:

57:

Generating

NRs.

BYS,

12.-

41) Information

Equipment

Layout

SalleriKhialsa,

Nepal

Nepal

= U.S:$

l.-

used

from

and

on both

Litscher,

Salleri/Chialsa

... p 3

are connected

semi-flexible

ends.
Fig.

The trans57 shows

-8%

The single-generator

lel

operation

40 kW each,

with
cost

the

site

the

alternator.

units.

more than

1800 m above

be capable

of

on a continuous
to

facturers

branches

import

with

factor

producing
For

to

avoid

another

had to
of

reasons

of

0.9,
of

2 generators

of

80 kW. The elevation

of

the

from

to a slip-ring

for

the

selected

80 kW (at

a minimal

alternator

since

be considered

about

an output

compared

of

of paral-

sophistication

factor,

a rating

sea level)

a brushless

250 kg lighter

in

Photograph

basis.

were

one piece

a derating

more than

way chosen
Costs

With

was necessary
is

two

(approx.

115 kVA will

0.8)

configuration

size

of

machine

of

factor

of

weight

it

a power

transportation
Europe.

The one selected

alternator

offered

by manu-

India.

fig.
looks

58,

gives

like.

an

idea

The picture

of

what

was taken

the

equipment

during

with

the

trial-assembly

in

penstock
the

yard

of BYS, Kathmandu.

Fia.

58:

Trial-Assembly
of
Generating
Equipment
for Salleri/Chialsa
at
BYS, Nepal
Photo

by:

A. Arter,

BYS

b) Power Transmission
To bring

the

electrical

quires

a high-tension

chosen

is

of

and Use

energy

from

transmission

kV, with

one

step-up

the

line

generation
due to

transformer

site

distances
outside

to

the

consumers

involved.
the

re-

The system

powerhouse

and

-89-

several

smaller

tension

line

step-down
is

about

every

50 meters,

cross

section.

restors,
required.

a branch
eral

main

villages

In

sets

position
to

the

north

distribution
have
which

Tic fig.

of

approximately
is

very

close

the

The line
the

two

3-phase,
equal
to

centers.

of over

H.T.

and

top-cap
of

goes straight

villages

of

380 Volt

are

transformer

Source: Meier et al.,

Project
Proposal,
Kathmandu 1976

.TRANSFORMER
SCHO,ot
SALLERI

TRANSFOR TORPHU

/
NAYA f3AiAAR

Puk~No BAZAAR

ar-

pole,

lines

are

and the

up to Chialsa

with

and Torphu.

Sev-

Chialsa

Handi-

load

by far

APPROX 3300M

each

mm2

for

LOWER
I
SET TLEdNT

25

in

-_

Schematic
of 2-T.
TranMssion
SallerlKhialsa,
Nepal

fJf

required

because

59:

length

lightning

H.T.

Salleri

except

of high-

meters

cable

for

UPPER
SETTLEMENT.<:

Fig.
--e

ten

fuses,

arrangement

length,

the

The 1ength

aluminium

insulators,

cross-arm

transformers.

lines

load

steel-reinforced

59 shows

connecting

the

wooden poles

some 500

6.-d a metal

of

in

local

20 km of

addition,

The diagrarrl

that

craft-center

7 km, using

and over

earthing

approximate

transformers

the
its

the

various

is

SFORMER
LLSA/HANDICRAT
*-cCENTRE

-9o-

the

largest.

In

about

all,

8000

meters

needed

for

3-phase

(4-wire

system)

meters

of

insulated

2-core

cable

consumers

are connected.

individual

The

largest

single

Chialsa

Handicraft

heating

elements

hours

daily.

lighting

For

in

an average
for

the

load

of

at least

schools,

amount

to

64 kW. Lighting,
so that

even

tory
relation

to

to promote

cl

a good losd

utilisation
since

power

and

the

triate

and Present

for
ment
small
the

of

the

hydropower

An initial

body

would

activities

of

HMG** created

hydro

survey

electric

SalleriKliialsa

would

assist

gain
in

BYS.

**

Small Hyde1 Development Board

to about

the

day,

average

an unsatisfac-

be relatively

Assistance

out

the

small

in

important

task

met with

quite

of

done the

a capable

and train
the
the

and SATA chose

SATA*
local

job with

in executing

later,

of

expa-

institution-building

made local

organisation

provided

by personnel

absence
have

named SHDB***, with

and also

Government of Nepal

have

Some time

project,

His Majestys

not

field.

development,

In

experience

this

for Technical

is

Salleri/Chialsa

SATA could

a local

power

Swiss Association

at

relevant

an agency

installed

every

section,

be a very

was carried

company

this

was to

future

project

the'project,

However,

therefore

2 kW each

total
only

With

State

manufacturing

The idea

will

will

phase of operation.

to.implement

this

energy

initial

experts.

so that

saleable

of

installed

for

exist.

the

as 20 %. This

use in the

turbine

possible.

dyeing

It

problems.

organisation

the

costs.

The implementation
of

a few hours

12

use but

lighting,

for
of

the

electric

and 1 to

be required
part

of

10 to

will

the

may be as low

amount

streets,

and street

250

with

electricity

consumer

about

during

40 kW, bringing

on the

factor
the

houses

4000

be equipped

and main

individual

and over

section

be required

investment

the

Implementation

a number

will

naturally,

situation

public

approximately

with

plant

overall

other

each

are

which

dyeing

no other

offices

for

to

will

initially,

households,

120 W installed

various

will

the

with

the

are

conductors
lines

lines,

be

pots

24 kW, which

to

individual

will

dyeing

amounting
rest,

distribution

single-phase

consumer
:&here

Center,

steel-reinforced

overhead
for

electricity

of

task
this

an expatriate

the

their

own personnel

Electricity
of

project,

taking

partner
engineer,

Departcare

of

to work on
assigned

-91-

to

the

execute

the

tually

cement

at the

tioned,

that

repairs

generating

as of

this

writing

solved.

may succeed

ficult

one

technical
ning,

if

start

avoided

in

evidently,

more very

is

if

Avoidance
of
paid, resulting

its

attention

in

to

pilot

station

some of
42)
has to be paid:

the

to energy
side.

list

requirements
to achieve

over-stdffing
by outside
in high operation
costs.

who

to

be

- while

- is

points

load
are

in

a dif-

plancan

be

to which,

technical
factor,

relatively

the

ano

the

problems

and also

a higher

personnel

project

used
the

to

remain

remoteness,

fully

Obtaining
more participation
of the local
people during
riod and possibly
in ownership
and administration/operation.

the

now,

ownership,

open questions

is

canal,

only

as regards

character,

gained

of the

progress

-that

men-

The installation

many of

useful

The need for effective

load promotion
avoiding
load peaks of short duration.

state

new projects,

perhaps

careful

of

season.

hydropower

example,

As earlier

section

problems

paid

experience
of

e Size of the plant

in relation
ibility
on the construction
l

the

is

reascns

executing

It

future.

of

of

one

at

site.

yet.

are

vir-

away site

but

at the

rainy

one may perhaps

for

Still,
and

last

a number

far

To cite

operational

itself,

new projects,

and the

equipment

due attention

with,

difficulties.
designing,.

the

and electrical

remark,

finally,

to

during

establish

of

to arrive

not

administration

As a concluding

design

on the most difficult

(may 19811,
and

SHDB to

logistics.

is

necessary

equipment

the

one year

project

for

inescapable

of

took

the

are

operation

staffing,

it

is

with

were

problems

project,

job

busy

Delays

was damaged by land-slides

the

and

today

the

difficult

and get

same time.

for

major

which

a very

additional

ordered

state

was
project,

caused

Salleri

of

first

all

The

It

project.

feaswhile
highly

construction

pe-

dl Investment Costs
The total

investment

including
This

H.T.

is

ficult
4 years

has

for

high

construction.
also

42) Material

used from

adjusted

for

u+

estimate

inflation

the
low

transmission,

relatively
canal

cost

project
tension

and due largely

Inflation

played
Krayenbrihl

is expected

a role.

For

E Ledergerber,

in the last

Construction

distribution
to

during

to reag:h NRs. 2.9 million*

high
the

transportation

construction

transportation
SHOE: Program
phase

and house

alone
Evaluation

connections.

costs
period

ard

dif-

of more than

some NRs. 400'000**

...

-92-

spent

once

more than

13 % of total

cost.

The rough

breakdown

will

is

have

been

as per fig.

construction

is

itemised

of costs,

for

finished.

the

This

various

components

amount

of the

to

system,

60:

Fia.

would

0 of

I tern:

U.S.

total

60:

Cost Breakdown of Salleri/

Chialsa
Project,
Nepal

25

60'400

45900 1

19
Source:

Updated

- Litscher

from:

Supervision
Miscellaneous

E Meier

and

Total

9'700

100

Cost w/o H.T.

241700

E L.T.

164Q.--/kW

network

Cost all

inclusive

$ 3021.--/kW

2. BHORLETARTURBINE IRRIGATION PROJECT, NEPAL

This

project,

for

Development
of

a feasibility

Nepal

Bank,

quite

a different

projects.
package

which

It
of

(ADB/W)
nature

was financed

study
and the

As an introduction,

turbine

as compared

passages

from

located

at

jointly
the

by the

manufacturing
"standard"

to

by ADB/N on commercial

and executed

measures,

was done jointly

by the
project

company

rural

terms

Agricultural
BYS, is

electrification

as one component

local

people,

proposal

report

in

ADB/N and BYS.

43)
are printed

here:

The

project

Lamjung

area

district

in

separates

the

head e.g.

only

43)

AIM/N,

Lift

is

two

Western

Irrigation

The

Project

on foot
for

the

and

The Midim

Nepal.

villages.

accessible

Bhorletar

area
in

is

Development

Khola,

roughly

a 4 to

Aarikosi

walk.

panchayat

perennial

20 km from

5 hours
...

with

village

the

This,

water
nearest
for

Nepal,

in
flow,
road
is

-93-

a very

favourable

irrigation

At present
ting

access

situation.

facilities

two or more crops

has no access

is

in

these

productivity

Paddy

is

to

areas

are

the

some areas

part

under

in Karaputar

of the

land

As such,

facilities.

paddy

very

to

a major

irrigation

i.e.,

presently

and maize

limited

a year,whereas

Bhatbeshi
grown

are

the

coverage

at Bhorletar

hardly

of

permitand

a single

crop

rains.

Crop

monsoon

low.

principal

crops

in

the

area

followed

by wheat,

mustard

and potato.

An increase
provision

in
of

crop

production

irrigation

and productivity

of

supporting

and other

land

services

is

envisaged

under

the

with

proposed

the
proj-

ect.

Out

of

a total

population

households

directly

a complete

technological

farming

based

system.

Other

rated

in

credit

lighting

The first
l

the

project

Development

include:

stage

electric

.of about

phase comprises

shitar

areas.

50 hectares
This

will

involve

of

l?ft

land,
the

irrigation
25 hectares
following

to

a small

integrated

the

development,

arrangements

irrigation

the

incorpofacilities,

for

farm

nearby

cottage

pro-

bazaar

industry.

activities:

facilities
each

to

and therefore

supply

100

provide

support

agro-processing

rr..jnning

following

to

an effective

feasible

elect ricity
for

about

aims

agrimltural

and marketing

the
of

of

intensive

identified

supply

benefit

and institutional

crop-production,

power

to

The project

installation

envisages

and installation

area

fzr

distribution

project
and

are

envisages

services

and

which

project
600 people.

area

development

proposal

A second

of

Bhorletar

activities

this

500 to

package

and agri-inputs,

duce.
for

on

of

the

3000,

comprising

community

mainly

of

to cover

at Bhorletar

a command
and Bhatbe-

components:

- The water of Midim' Khola will

be diverted
to a 4000 meter long 1.2 m x 0.5
m headrace canal to channel
570 to 630 l/s flew to two sets of water turbines via a 40 cm diameter
penstock
pipe.
- Two sets of water turbines
capable
of generating
? total
of about 70 to 80
kilowatts
of power output
(35 to 40 kW output
each) will
be installed
under
Both
the
water
turbines
will
be
purely
the roof of a permanent
power-house.
which will
be used to lift
water up to
mechanical-power
generating
units,
the head of 22 meters at Bhorletar
and 42 meters at Bhatbeshitar.

-94-

The first
turbine
will
be used to drive
two units
of water pumps (1' 1/s
capacity
and consuming
about 13 kW power each) which will
lift
up about
30 l/s of water to Bhatbeshitar
area through
a conveying
canal,
to irrigate
about 25 hectares.
Similarly,
the second turbine
will
be used to drive
another
two units
of
pumps in order to supply 30 l/s flow of water to Bhorletar
to irrigate
another
25 ha of land.
The water supply pipes will
be carried
across from the
power house to the newly constructed
suspension
bridge
over Midim Khola to
a height
of 22 meters at Bhorletar
irrigation
command area.
Field channels
will'
of main supply
to
Bhatbeshitar
area.
*The

establishment

and

of

processing

'expected
unit

in

and a small
power

units

operated

*A

storage

at

site

such

struction

area.

signed

by the

management
provide

provide

area

in

huller,

within

10 kW when all
power

milling

view

a flour

the

required
through

point
and

of

the

grinding

power

house.

three

processing

for

running

either

of

The

these
the

two

drives.

having

a capacity

nearby

the

of

t:,rb?ne

and river

100 metric

and mill.

boulders

society

would

A technical

officer

with

Bank as a manager

tons

house.

will

will

be constructed

Locally

be used for

agricultural

available

most

of

ma-

the

for

operating
of

cottage

agricultural

To execute

project,

the

area.

the

During

will

Co-operative
this

period,

all

con-

be assigned

of the

will
from

will

ADB/N would

is

be done
help

would

provide

would

also

and other

credit

re-

will

also

ar-

farmers.

proposed

to

be set

by the

Bank and the

farmers

to

up in the

Board of Direc-

management

by ADB/N up to the
the

be as-

It

co-operative

be governed
the

in the

would

activities.
credit

The

Society

Society

Society

project

industries.
production

Agriculture

The cooperative

production

a Co-operative

The Co-operative

The manager

to

and established

in

society.

including

inputs,

be registered
a degree

Gf the

guidance

and Management

loan.

to

project

supplied

co-operative

marketing

of

proposed

A paddy

The mechanical

belt

a) Organisation

sion

the

be about

be directly

and operational

quirements

tors.

of

water from the

in the Bhorletar

works.

project

project

is

be installed

will

via

as stones

@A Bank-guided

range

will

shall

unit

production.

a time.

turbines

a suitable

terials

at

building

farmers

agricultural

units

of water

the

consumption

agro-processing
sets

to

oil-expeller

estimated

to convey irrigation
fields
located
both

an agro-processing

facilities

increase

are

be constructed
the farmers

build

supervi-

period
up their

of the
own

-95-

management
tion

of

the

project

project

to the

Besides

the

Board

to

farmers

Balaju

ty.

Yantra

the

as an advisory

cf

the

the

irrigation

operational

level

optimum

utilization

of

will

to

the

of

the

is envi saged.

committee
the

Board

on operations

consist

be elected

of

system.

BYS will
the

to the

Society

farmers.

and

manufacture

complete

system

Co-operative

and pump/turbine

Co-operative

the

fabricating

install

hand-over

re-

3 progressive

by/among

manufacturing,

and will

basin

an effective
irrigation

house

Socie-

will

and the

equitable

Their
supply

water-distribution

water.

specific

be organized,

be established.

To ensure
farmers.

of

management

be com-

farmers

under

of BYS and ADS/N.

On the

groups

the

will

for

and then

forebay

effort

supervision

will

equipment

unit

canais,

joint

to

and agro-processing

and generating

of

unit

be responsible

agro-processing

by the

groups

opera-

and effective

hand-over

implementation

The latter

leaders.

(BYS) will

turbine

technical

ers

recovered

The committee

implementation.

Sala

Construction

pleted

fully

Bank will

function

and 2 group

including

the

ensured,

is

a project

project

water

amount

of Directors,

will

installation
the

is

loan

farmers.

The committee
lating

When the

skill.

For this

water-users

function

and

distribution
of water
d To arrange
schedule worked out in consultation

purpose,

will

distribution

groups

system

would

within

the

comprising

ensure

two farm-

several

sub-

be:
of

irrigation

water

to its
members as per
with all farmers within

to

member

water
distribution
the group.

To initiate
the member farmers
to level
and improve their
land structure
and
construction
of water distribution
channels
so as to have optimum water utilization
and minimize
water losses.

To promote cooperation
and to encourage
the

a To help the
water charge
l

Co-operative
Society
realise
from the member farmers.

To settle
disputes
of irrigation
water.

e To promote
ment withfn

The main canal

whereas

among members sharing

irrigation
water
farmers
for the adoption
of improved

among member farmers

other
activities
the groups.

will

sub-channels

related

be constructed
will

be

with

through

constructed

its
in

loan
the

irrigation

joint
by

instaliments
utilization

and irrigation
and distribution

'and agricultural

efforts
the

and other inputs

farming
methods.

of

participating

the

develop-

farmers
farmers

groups
them-

-96-

Proper

selves.
process!
tion

ng machinery

of the

and

operation

maintenance

and pumps etc.

Co-operative

will

aided

Society,

of

the

turbine,

be carried
by staff

out

from

main
by the

BYS where

canal,

agro-

mechanical

sec-

necessary.

b) Benefits
The project

benefits

The project
by irrigating

@ It will
tional
project.
.

envisaged

would benefit
50 hectares

may be summarised

as follows:

about 100 farm families

of "tar"*
areas.

provide
permanent employment
employment
to about 100 farm

of Bhorletar

for 11 persons and would generate

add?families
at the full
development
of the

It would provide
easy access to processing
of
essing
facilities
to the farmers
of Bhorletar,
other nearby villages.

. The project
will
power to render
e Provision
minimize

e The crop production

to 752 metric
tons
e

would
marketing

improve
of farm

OF Hidim Khola to generate

to adjoining
areas.
distribution
outputs.

would increase
from the existing
at the full
development
stage (5th

of

levei
year

agri-inputs,

of 456 metric
onwards).

Expected
implementation
of the project
activities
set for phase 2 would
fit
the local
community from the.proposed
supply of electric
power to
putar
Bazaar
and the extension
of irrigagon
facilities
to Bhorletar
Kainbote
areas.

So far

project

proposal

! What one may note

projects,

are the

following

the

hydropower
e

foodgrains
by providing
procBhatbesitar,
Karaputar
and

he;p to utilise
the water resource
irrigation
and processing
facilities

of storage
facilities
losses
and facilitate

and Bhatbesitar

Rather than
ria,
namely

0 The development
e.g. integrated

of hydropower
is
.rural development.

o Local participation
is in fact a decisive

has not
factor

o The project
loans from

be viable

had to
a bank.

is

different

project

is

based

only

a means to achieve

been included
as a theoretical
requirement
in the implementation
of the project.
from

of a hydropower
Q By the development
a second project
stage that
provides
not be economically
self-supporting,
= high

plateau

on other

a much broader

its

inception

in

terms

e The bank involved,

on the other
hand, realised
after
studying
uation,
what additional
inputs
would be required
from their
quently
included
these in the proposal.

* tar

from

beneKaraand

other

points:
per se, the
production.

rural
electrification
increased
agricultural

that

tons

of

qualifying

critegoal,
but
for

the local
sitside and conse-

resource
for a specific
productive
for the amenity of electric
light
but can be done as a social
measure.

use,
must

-97-

c) Project
During

Execution

project

elsewhere

execution

did

not

it

exist,

became

largely

clear

that

many of

integrated

due to the

goal

of

from

its

inception.

A farmer

naturally

through

the

means in

an area

where even

In

it

all
fails

the

when

year

due to

the

all

along;

project

lack

technical

strong.
care

of

and
one point,

all

material
parts,

the

were

the

agricultural
ments

delays

was the

project

is

production

of loan

Some remarks

on the

The original

idea

in

with

head of about

water

canal

there

are

turbine.
bring

structure

static

still
This

that

all

sometimes

who pushed
for

the

a while,

participation

without

were

water

crop

courage

Local

they

was

would

much fuss.

carried

take

Cement,

on womens'back

would

have
the

finally
a separate
fewer

pumping

the

head to

This

project

was taken

though,

in the

with

require-

may be of interest.

was to generate

water

would

scale

all

period.

studies
operate

construc-

that,for

phase

grace

pumps with

have resulted

up to Bhorletar.

Also,

on the

electri-

electricity
in a geodetic

an additional

river

bank,

civil

with

intake

to be pumped.

adopted,

water

,sedimentation

a separate

to be pumped is taken
arrangement

particles

pump water

an early

long

the

fact

on this

was anticipated

been- necessary

with

the

This

of

side.

water

suspended

pump sets

in

prefeasibility

river

due to

still

and to

and power-house

a project

configuration

turbines

for

that

a sufficiently

necessitates
to

time

to pump water

tank

with

water

did

people

irrigation

people

declared

largely

developing.

at the

configuration

race

up.

ultimate

by local

to

lost

excavation

operation;

project

53 meters

and sedimentation

In the

with

during
the

in

technical

a pumping station

engineering

pipes

on canal

first

slowly

repayment

Details

power

area

And so they

and difficulties

it

d) Technical

cal

they

occurring

and the

rainfed

local

came

the

and irrigation

were working

involved,

Today,

of

access

a single

stages

problems

transportation.

what

was the

at several

womenfolk

approach

and supported

knows

fact,

problems

site.

There

up.

though

penstock

project

parties

rain.

was understood

administrative

The men, meanwhile,

tion.

of

even

At

equipment
to the

The scheme

project.

the

as compared
supply

positive
up to

pipe

pressure.
Bhorletar

in

the

to

water

parallel

to

With this
amounts

from
forebay

the

so that

supplied
the

to the

penstock,to

arrangement,
to

head-

22 meters

the
only,

-98-

as can

be seen

relatively

long

from

the

(about

schematical
1 km) delivery

derable

friction

losses.

amounts

to

49 m as compared

only

profile

Still,

pipe

is

dynamic

the
to

61.

On the

necessary,

which

in

fig.

head with

58 m with

the

other
involves

existing

a pumping

hand,

con-

arrangement

station

on the

river

bank.

TUTAL

PUMPING

HEAD

FOR BHATBESITAR

42.0 M. HEAD + 3.0 M. PIPELOSSES

= 45 M.

TOTAL

PUMPING

HEAD

FOR BHORLETAR

26.4M.

HtAD+22,6M.

PIPELOSSES

= 49M.

OUTLET

LOWER

HIGHTS

BE PROVIDED

AT BHORLETAR

CANAL

WATER

FOR BHABESITAR

AT LOWER

WILL

(MAXIMUM)

IRRIGATION
ii

, PIPE FOR BHATBESITAR

IRRIGATION
CANAL

HEADRACE

CANAL

TURBINE

FOR BHORLETAR

LEVEL

+ PUMP

--_- -----_-

HOUSE

IRRIGATION

----

I
I

SUSPENSION

BRIDGE

W
MIDIM

5OOm _ !_

Fig.

Source:

BYS,

There

Profile

power

Irrigation

that

cost

both

drive

must

and sedimentation

it

System

a loruler

in deciding

and overall

and the

in the
delivery

original
pipe,

feasible'

an advantage

technology

was a comparison

which

system

to

system-efficiency.

technically

be considered

transmission
basin

helped

considered

sophisticated

side,

ment, including

section,

cost,

were

less

siderably
On the

criteria

feasibility,

studied

nical

of Bhorletar

Nepal

were three

technical

canal

580 i

120m
/

61:

Schematical

ties

KHOLA

of

cost

but

to

the

of

configuration,
cost

a con-

generation.

generating

a pump-house

of bringing

possibili-

involves

electricity

versus

namely:

use of a mecha-

it

of electricity

construction

and the

The two

because

as compared

adopt,

a larger
the

equip-

with

intake

head-race
pipe

across

-9s-

the

in

river,

the

final

suspension

foot-bridge

this

item

cost

showed
major

but

The mechanical

all

this

all

some elsboration:

In

system,

while

the

electrical

transmission,
is

equal,

pumped,
ciencies
water

in electric
and what

e.g.

if

the

is
input

irrigation

may be presented

Turbines,

additional

system

and divided
at

are:

energy
by the

in
is

outlet.

in

friction.

terms

head,

output

A numerical

by

all

the

will

comparison

Input

Comparison

be crossed

long
depending

cross
also.

electricity

in both

systems

amount of water

very

effirate

simple

of
and

gullies.
This

canal

of

on terrain.
Another

Electrical
I System

92

92
0,06

low tension
transmission
efficien-:

0,90

motor

0102

Water

made to

only,

efficiency

efficienq

dynamic

necessary,

friction

Mechanical
System

Energy

Generator

relatively

pumps.

equipment

thus

Net energy

The

and water

be mass flow

is

need

as follows:

62:

System-Efficiency
Bhorletar,
Nepal

energy

over-

systems,

in

additional

result

Parameters

--Fig.

pipe

is

an

system,

of the

both

generator,

of

the

in

Input

of

pipe.

from

the

Really

electric

In a comparison

transmission,

multipled

dynamic

to the

si :)-up

them,

showed roughly

delivery

accrue

and

efficiencies:

of

building

required

losses

system.

comparison

1' -ually

and pipe

interest

second

longer

losses

involves

motors
of

z:;!

be attached

up and comparing

of 2 as compared

perhaps

that

the

turbine

600 meters

These

mechanical

the

a more than

not be considered.
the

for

to use an existing

could

cost

was the

pumps in

components

pipe

all

advantages
surprising,

the

possible

delivery

Adding

by a factor

requires

efficiency,

was here

water

minimal.

first

with

involves

the

decisive

was better

it

To explain

not

system

that

even though

which

and at

importance,

efficiency

to

was therefore

a slight

It

configuration.

pumping

49 m

50 m

rivulet
the

Nl

lr9

made a number

At two places,

was done by coverin,g

58,4

output

400 meters

seasonal

head

92

of

different

sections

rectangular

wooden flumes

with

a broad

canal

quite
with

stone-slabs

were

bed had to

to prevent

loo-

the

bed-load

being

impression

of

lined

execution.

Fig.

63:

Canal
Photo

in

water

through

The

two

independently

intermediary
vee-belts.

the

power

each

other.

shaft

from

which

to operate

envisaged

for

2nd project

house

Fig.

64 shows the

- in local

done

in

manually

two

fig.

63 gives

and mostly

mud-mortar

in front

agro-processing
will

masonry

sets

- under

power

of the

an

in

un-

with

progress.

Tl to which

the

turbines.

20 m may be operated
by

chain-drive

4 pumps)

from

to

are driven

an

with

may be connected

turbines

machinery.

be operated

installed,

two,above

more than

totally

of type

sets
in

supplies

pumps (e.g.

stage,

turbine

head of

set

shaft
the

two turbine
branching

a net
Each

intermediary

turbine,
the

was all

comprises

under

of

A third

The photograph

Nepal

house

to either

tively.

that

a common penstock,

working

turbines,

canal.

BYS

The equipment
fed

the

at Bhorletar,

M. Eisenring,

is

in

construction

canal

Construction
by:

deposited

A 10 kW alternator,
this

construction

shaft

alterna-

of the

power

Fig.

64:

Equipment
Photos

at Bhorletar

by:

M. Eisenring

A speed

governor

is

pumps constitutes
anism
the

for

the

turbine

gate

to

to

develop

of the

Because

without
is

full

dynamic

be read

vents

any water

The pumps used

of

positive

from

pipes

hammer in the

are

of

this,

valves

are

pumping

flow.
on the
system

spiral-casing

a mech-

simple

opened

with

the

turbine

side,

the

inlet

level

run

at

of

delivery

the

reduced

thereafter

The optimal

from

with

quite

on the

Only

equipped

of water

is

uo .to the

completely.

the operation

are
it

pumps are

gauge

centrifugal

With

ollmps

head and full

a pressure

turbines

pressure

and the

because

system,

Instead,

pump inlet

opened

delivery

the

gate.

operatina . the

fill

simply

for

load.

the

To start,

fills

ficient

required

operation

a standstill.

oipe

not

a constant

manual

pumps.

at

Installation

under

is
turbine

pipe.

to operate
still
delivery

head race.

Then

speed

just

suf-

speed

increased

speed can quite

This

procedure

the

concept

pre-

developing.

type.

With

to

use

-102-

local

technology

were

made first

comparing

to the
in

imported

actual

flow/head

pumps were

imported

the

regional

march more water

due

to

better

higher

although

it

not

produce

market

with

could

matching

generally

Europe,

does

any.

By

those

of

be pumped with

of

the

latter

efficiencies.

was clear

pumps

that

ma-

with

the

Consequently,
getting

spare

parts

Costs

investment

sively,

due

costs

costs

to

eration.

It

not

but

of

power

piping,

construction
Also,

possible

is

accounted
cost

of

uation,

50

amounts

to

rigation

estimate

side,

is

as given

costs
low
of

From the

at

of

land

level

of

1979,

the

cost

systems

are not

involvement

power
of

not

and tail

2 NRs.

= U.S.$

for

overall

the

inte-

to hydropower
hydropower

gen-

develop-

seems reasonable.

components.

equipment

such

fully
of

Since

as water

the

pumps,

area

partly

include
race

l.-

it

is

basis,since
cost

of

such
water.

representative.
voluntary

expert

end use,

irrigated,

does

amount

for

ADB/N and an expatriate

of

the

of NRs. 530'000.the

Succes-

included.

here

to

are

overflow

actual

into

also

on a unit

head race

cost

due

side

$ 886.. This,however,

from

is

is

in addition

auxiliary

that

lift-irrigation
hectares

with

difficulties,

This

the

cost

this

personnel
for.

of

be NRs. 540'000.-,

technical

an amount

machinery,

relatively

supervising

been

higher

to

activities

to separate

breakdown

be noted

foreseen

otner

a rough

and milling

should

several

only

estimated

NRs. 700'000.-*.

possible

on the

65 gives

use

about

including
is

ment alone
Fig;

and not

reached

project

initially

were

inflation

finally

grated

that

and

from

frcm

itself

for

be more difficult.

Total

conditions

Nepal

pumps

overseas,

a number of enquiries

extent,

since

region,

was found

from

e) Investment

the

possible

of

it

Europe,

chines

It

the

characteristics

pumps from

would

largest

of

of

development
additionally

labour.

BYS have

interest

in the

Canal

to

existing
per

not
note
sit-

hectare

possible

ir-

-103-

Turbines
of 60 kW output under a head of
20 m incl.
penstock
IL
drive
components

Fig.

65:

Cost Breakdown
Source:

of Bhorletar

ADB/N+BYS

estimate

based

Project

Project

proposal,

on project

progress

and own
report

7100

16

4 pumping sets with

a rating
of 60 l/s
total

16

mllllng
equipment:
Rice huller,
flour
mfll,oilexpeller

7100

goo

1979

irrigation
pipe:
0 160 mm, HDPE 300 m,
PVC 800 m, steel
6",
30 m, incl.
installation
'

36

15900

100

Total
Total per
mechanical

0 44300

kilo Watt
power output

730

IS

3. NAM DANG HYDRD-ELECTRIC PROJECT, THAILAND

The Nam Dang project,
Division

of

the

The turbines
of

NEA's*

in

the

the

recently

Forestry

used

northern

entire

of

installation

Nam Dang is

a very
Mai.

area

and has a negligible

stock

are

and

* National

Energy

to

in

Cross-Flow

type,

Mai.

scheme

NE/) was also

situated

on the

66,

will

inhabited

right

environment,

of

Thailand

be supplying
by

basis

for

during

resettled

in the

design

the

section
workshop

planning

of

construction.

about
heart

since

technology.

by a small

m altitude,

The 100 kW power plant,

fig,

local

by the

incharge

supervision

at 1'400

using

designed

on ccntract

technicail

is

impact

a village

Administration

another

station,

The station

program.

visible

stations

hill

owned by t,xe Water Shed Management

is

and built

Chieng

remote

of Chieng

reforestation

the

and for

west

the

of

division,

city

and also

Department,

are

technical

built

it

of which
electricity
hilltribes.

120 km north-

of the
is

integrated

powerhouse
to

water

three

shed
into

and penforestry

A high-tension

104-

transmission
supply

Fig.

line

of

11 kV will

villages

to other

be necessary

for

this

purpose

and will

also

make

possible.

66:
-

and Power
Penstock
House of Nam Dang
Thailand
Project,
Photo

U. Meier

by:

There

is

power

schemes

reduces

a fundamental
Nepal,

transportation

was done
in the

in

by bulldozer

construction

a) Technical

- Installed
- Design

difference
in
and

the

in

project,

existence

of

costs

considerably.

at marginal

cost,

since

and maintenance

of a service

this
road

road.

to

most

This,

Earthwork,for
machine
for

instance,

was engaged

reforestation.

120 kVA

capacity:

130 l/s

discharge:
gross:

79 m

net:

70 m

open, trapezoidal,
cementmortar lined,
length:

1'400
diameter:
length:

450/200 mm
224 m

2, Cross-Flow
type
NEA design,
runner

0:
output:

hydro-

naturally,

Details

- Penstock:

- Turbines:

as compared

an access

other

- Head:

- Canal:

this

400 mm
62 kw/unit

nearby

- Step-up transmission:
chain drive
(triplex,
- Alternator:
(50 Hz),
brushless,
voltage:

5/8")

2, 3-phase,
self-excited,
italian-made:

1 :2

ratio:

1500 PRM
synchronous,
ANSOLDO

380/220

- Speed control:
Oil-pressure,
mechanical
governor,
JAHNS, AA2
(2 sets)
speed:

900 RPM

45 mkg

capacity:
- H.T.

The

transmission:

civil

engineering

material

used,

cement

is

situation

e.g.

easily
in

structures
mostly

18 km

voltage:

11 kV

are

cement

available

length:

of

a conventional

concrete

structures,

and transportation

SalleriKhialsa,

cement

type

is

costs

about

the

in

terms

reason

being

no problem.

Compared

seven

less

times

of

in

the
that

to

the

the

Nam

Dang project.

Fig.

67:

Intake Weir at Nam

Dang, Thailand
Photo

by:

U. Meier

The intake
river
let

is

at the
visible

crete
closed

were

built
site

of

on the
used.

conduits

with

a weir&type

a natural

right

in

The canal
made from

pool,
fig.

is

67.
fully

concrete

barrage
with
For
lined
pipe,

of

about

a box-type
this

1 meter

sedimentation

structure,

about

and comprises
to

prevent

height,across

side

several
gullies

the

tank and in200 m3 of consections

'from

with
filling

106-

those
is

sections

again

overflow

68).

sediment.

a concrete

structure,

The trashrack,

merged part

supports

wi,th

perhaps

into

two

sheet/welded

a number of anchor
of

the

is

level.

the

out

with

canal

(refer

vertically

that

are larger

power-house,

which

is

neatly,

is

fig.

above ground
than

a piece

to fig.

in the

As may be seen from

is

ends,

a perpendicular

sediment

arranged

construction,

blocks

head-race

oversized,

flushing

parts,

above the water

steel

same may be said

a bit

p for

flush-gat-

divided

and sloping
in rolled

penstock,
The

and a bottom

weir

at which

The forebay,

with

strictly
of

66,

subthe

on concrete
necessary.

architecture

in

more elaborate

than

itself.

Fig.

68:

Forebay with Spill-Way

Dang, Thailand
Photo

by:

All

civil

at Nam

U. Meier

construction

strictly

necessary,

work

done

perhaps

due to

turbines

used

the

very
pilot

somewhat

character

of

the

project

and easy

accessibility.

The two
with

Cross-Flow

a runner

diameter

of

are

actually

400 mm and a nozzle

the
width

prototypes

of

the

NEA design

of 50 mm. The material

used

-107-

for
by

the

runner

BYS in

blades

links

The

Nepal.

transmission.

is

For

optimal

as compared

steel,

turbine

speed

a chain-drive

this,

Sprocket

configuration.

Fig.

stainless

is

and pinion

of

to common mild

steel

750 RPM necessitates

used

of

Triplex,

5/8"

are made locally

from

used

a step-up
pitch

steel

and 118

plate.

69:

View of Ge!neratir
Equipment during
Trial-Run
at Nam
Dang
Photo

by:

For

U. Meier

speed

a flow-control

control,

governor,

connected

is

of

oil-pressure,

is

rather

the

costly

penstock).

As is

steel

in

the

1'500

RPM.

Fig.

70 is

part

with

ble.

The two

switched
kV.

with

belt

flyweight

usual,

country

the
and

of the

gate-operating
sets
parallel

of

into

the

installation

also

of

a common network

(refer

from

40 % of total

turbine,

are

type

shaft

and imported

requires

and a part

conventional

turbine

about

a diameter

Cross-Flow

lever,
the

near

governor
has

to

of

variety,

and constitutes

a detail

in

a flat

governor

is

used.

This

fig.

691,

This

item

to

Europe.

equipment

a flywheel

cost

that

was cast

in

speed

of

750 mm and an operating

with

one main bearing,

of the

governor

identical

in

with

the

connecting-rod
all

details

a transmission

(excl.

inlet
visi-

and will
voltage

of

be
11

-108-

Fig.

70:

Detai 1 of NEA Crossat Nam

Flow Turbine
Dang
Photo

by:

U. Meier

b) Investment

Costs

For a comparison
that

the

develop
tation

main

have

included

examples,

per

lower

costs

construction.
since
design

with

difference

on a cost

elaborate
not

of costs

other

is
unit
in

in

a higher

basis.

Further,

Thailand,

Also,
this

installations

in

the

and engineering

studies

head

which

is

construction

perhaps
case

was done by the

described,

of

Nam Dang,the

were not

should

generally

materials

compensated

Forest

it

Department
accounted

to

cheaper

to

and transpora degree

cost

by more

of earthwork

itself.
for

be noted

In all
fully.

is
three

-109-

% of total

Item:

civil

Construction

including

Penstock

52

U.S. $
.-74'000.--

10'000.--

24

34'000.--

Power House

F$g. 71:

Generating

Cost Breakdown of Nam

Dang Project,
Thailand
Source:

All

taining
tesy

information

Power Transformer

160 kVA

H.T.

Line

Transmission

4'0CO.--

14

20'000.--

per-

to Nam Dang by courof

Equipment

Total

100

l42'800.--

NEA

Cost W/o H.T.

Transmission

Cost inclusive

of H.T.

.$ l'lCiO/kW
Transmission

$ 1'420/kW

F ECONOMICCONSIDERATIONS
I*
The expert-group
renewable
know-how

on hydropower

energy-sources,
as well

rated

on here

plied

on

micro-hydro

Nairobi-Conference

hydropower

a multi-level

cost-benefit-approach

installations

installations

compared

compared

stated

that

ranks top as far

44)
This statement

economy are concerned.

using

micro-hydro

the

existing

as its
by

for

to

to alternative

larger

from

all

as accessible
will

which

be elabowill

be ap-

hydrostructures

and on

energies.

1. BASIC APPROACH
a) Cost-Benefit-Approach
When the

World

cost45!

the

to

Bank

what

appropriate

to

say

most

44)

United

45)

World

of

that

of
that

future

benefits

the

important
Rapport

Energy

in

du Groupe
the

Developing

demand should

are to

should

energetic

Technique
countries,

into
-

the

and external,

. . . p 28
p 8

the

Likewise

least

one has

calculation.

as all

and diseconomies.

internal

be met at

be considered.

be taken

infrastructures

economies

effects,

Selection

energy

what cost

many external

Nations,
Bank,

Socio-Economic

arises

kinds

expecially

of

says

question

decide

have

for

It

is

infrastructures
One way to

could

be the

get

hold

following

-llO-

system.

cost
II

Benefit
I

cost

I
tanqible
tangible

inteKF+Z!rnal
I

inte&rnal
intehrnal

External

cost

ect's
imostly

nal

economies),

of other

but

for

of the

detriment

reasons

internal

on local
engineers

uses most of the

to

three

(external

are

plant

workshops

etc.

(exter-

stratification
produced

electrical

diseconomies).

differentiate

levels

"situation"

among various

levels

suggested:

cost:

works

- Generating

linkages.-

some new sociological

advisable

the

proj-

of a micro-hydro

on civil

of others

Here,

cost-benefit-analysis.

- Civil

foster

an economic

on

operation

backward

equipment,or

perhaps

to the

operational

o tangible

- via

which

unvoluntarily

or one sawmill-owner

energy

influence

Thus the

units.

generating

would

as the

exercises

effects

cf

one grainmill-owner

is

defined

performance

construction

or mechanical

are

stimulating

exercise
the

It

and

profitability)

for

if

and benefit

creation

could

I
intangible

I
tangible

I
intangible

(dam,

canal,

equipment

powerhouse

(turbine,

etc.)

governor,

generator

etc.)

- Penstock
- Operation
and
or labour-cost
- Local

distribution

- Other

(RtD,

. tangible

maintenance
for collecting

project-design,

internal

- Mechanical

and/or

for

consumption

for

productive

- as "price

network

(also
fuel
dung for

cost if non-renewable
biogas-purposes)

energy-source,

(L-T.1
land

acquisition

etc.)

benefit:
electrical

energy-supply

(domestic)
(entrepreneurial)

per kWh" (as measure

uses
uses
of comparison

to other

energy-options)

-lll-

- Surplus

revenues

- Producers

cost
grid.

Internal
in local

Internal
benefit
the
units
(incl.
energy-system
The price

local

IER (internal

within

community

economic

means cost

of producing

means benefit
to
hydropower-producing

per kWh is

rate

of return)

unit
all

to be calculated

plus

some local

individuals,
unit), which
over

the

investment

households
integrated

are

life

public

of the

and economic
into the new

project

(be it economic
units
or individuals)
are
of customers
0 The surplus-revenues
obtained
because of more economic activity
as such and/or
because of productivity-effects
providing
more foodstuffs
per acre, more textiles
per day, more
cement per hour etc.
. The calculation
of the IER needs a forecast
of costs
and reventies
(those of
the hydropower-producing
unit)
which requires
a concept
about selling
prices
and tariffs.
The estimated
future
costs and revenues
(e.g.
the net balance)
must be discounted
as will
be shown later
on.
Here comes in a difficult
adjustment
problem:
the shadow-prices,
i.e.
distorted
prices,be
it to high or to low prices
for cost-components
of the hydroor of alternative
energitq
(e.g.
subsidies
for kerosene).
power-plant,
aspect of the tangible
internal
bena It remains to be said that the two-fold
efit
(consumption-aspect
and producers-revenue-aspect)
coincide
when a household or an economic unit
is supplier
and sole consumer at the same time (e.g.
a family-biogas-piant).

So the

first

of

installation,

the

chasing

IER);

power (incl.

tangible

the

external

- Interlocal
- Step-up

energies

and -down

national)
transformation
of energy

- Subsidies
- Need of foreign
. tangible
- Increased

external
tax

selling

price
price

increases

and their

all

of
must
of

cost

over the

energy

currency
benefit:
revenues

provides

given

to

it)

as to the

as well

revenue-increas

distribution-grids

(which

life-period

be related

~0s';:

(regionai,

- Distribution-losses

the

aggregating

a selling

energy-induced

of alternative

prices

by

determines

a cost-covering

least

ling

cost-benefit-level,

(H.T.)

ing

potent

ial.

at

pursel-

112-

- More diversified
and
energy-input
increases
regional
community
- Less subsidies
- Lowering

for

possibly
cheaper
(for
production
per hour)

alternative

of import-bill

economies
of
product-supply

scale
arise
when
to the local
and

energy-sources

(e.g.

oil)

and increasing

of import-substitution

Comnents:
* Though

this

difficult.

level
At least

the
should

is still
"tangible"
rough indications

quantifying
be possible.

problem

becomes

more

. The result
of this
level
cannot stand for itself;
it has to be superimposed
To elucidate
this:
it would make sense to
on the result
of the first
level.
accept
a negative
IER and subsidise
the hydropower
plant
with a fraction
of
the increased
tax revenues
generated
by more economic activities.
There would
still
reamin a net benefit
to the community.

intangible

cost

- new need
herence

(examples

arises

to

- Price-increases
- Privileges
others

for
of

- Increase
of
concentrated

1:

regulate

the

consumer

goods

electrified

of

rivers

by law

in case of monopolistic

households,

local
capital-interest
capital-allocation

- Short-term
displacement
chanical
and/or electrical

use of

workshops,

farms

and credit-shortage
on a hydroplant

human energy/work
power

in

and enforce

its

ad-

contrast

to

markets
etc.

in

as a consequence

economic

production

of

by me-

- etc.
l

intangible

benefit

(examples):

- more comfort
- educational

effects

- environmental
- recreation
- degree

(lighting),

'protection,
(in

flood

case of dam'and

of "self-reliance",

- slowing

health

down of urbanization

local

effects

(heating)

control
lake)
production

because

rural

quality

of life

- learning

process

and "trickle-down
effect"
of more productive
of hydropower
and the demonstration-effects
_

"fall-out"
sequence

- Prevention
- etc.

of deforestation

increases

methods

as a con-

-113-

Comments:
The larger
to assess

the powerplant
all intangible

Again,considerations
not integrated
into

Sumarising
into

the

can

only

the more difficult

effects,
internal

of this
cost-benefit-level
the net-effects
of the first

there

one may say:

is

cost-benefit-analysis.
be

assessed

an actual

in

a qualitative

may be a negative

prices

turbine,

exchange,

expensive

structured

tariffs,
etc.

problem),

when one has to

range

value

problem

will

smaller
of

plants

tangible

justify

a low

arise

where

often

connected

in

order

to

calculate

the

of

costs

and revenues

the

tion

2 lit.

a).

with

those

costs

and

this

money
more

years
are

underlying

a future

Electrification,

thirty

date
- if

this
is

accessible

cost-benefit-approaches
p 41/42;

is

including

UNIDO,

is

to

the

simple:
less

today

- would

see:

Wright,

Issue

Paper,

it

than

can only

value

be invested
Micro-Hydro

a forecast
produce

life-period

to

of

cost

(C)

p 2;

be

end of sec-

if

of today
all

future

and revenues.
or

revenue

amount today
a given

the

should

or revenues

costs

Installations,

basis

intangible

and should

of

at

with

discounting

of

be done

Che synonym

p 10

the

(refer

costs

large,

46)

cost,

later

money - be it

worth

the

this

that

IER needs

other

over

long-

on the

question

each

the

successfully

capital-interest

present

the

shows

Thus,

the

treated

Obviously

like

incentive.

how one can compare

ahead?

is

to

of

(load-factor

when calculated

investment

cost,

discounted

It.,)

related

depreciation

The question

revenues

- of

of

are

initial

running

The problem

The concept

then

rate

Fortunately

compete

earlier,

input-

more difficulties

evidence

is

The

wrong

project

self-reliance".

cost-benefit

inputs
level

overvalued

and benefits.

As mentioned

on total

reimbursed.

of

IER.

which

return

At least

with

of

benefits

a compensating

if

per kWh, or wrongly

intangible

to

and

arbitrary.

because

are quantifiable;

costs

third

is

a high-cost

and scattered,

than

this

selling-prices

empirical

the

on the

a highly

difficulties

are small

an additional

problem

project.

have

of

"local

since

and external)

are rather

some positive

or

all

perhaps

of

a bad IER with

too

loads

use

factors

development"

(internal

A further

For

of

hydropower-plants

benefits

46)

of wrong

influential

"rural
not

centralised

because

because

arise

of

because

seize
added

quantifying

and even

e.g.

possibly

cement),

But these

IER,

of

- above

way;

becomes to

should
be at least
and second level.

problem

Many factors

first-level-result
(expensive

it usually
and external.

(to)

(R)
since

interest-rate
World

Bank,

Rural

114-

(i).

t n, the

Up to

initial

amount would

have increased

according

to the

formula

on the interthat much of the IER depends

(1 + i) n. This elucidates
'tn = Cto
since
in hydropower
plants,all
costs occur today whereas the
est-rate
chosen,
revenues

are

fies

discounting

the

distributed

have

ipates,

lowers

the

venues

appear

Fig.

over
calculation

to

be

of

to

since

discounted

today-worth

to

,future

only

or even
the

their

more years.

future

present

revenues

This

which

A high

value.

a low interest-rate

revenues,

discounting

the

together

method;

simpli-

one antic-

interest-rate

makes future

re-

it

is

assumed that

all

future

reve-

at tn.

2,

Fig.

fifty

high at to.

72 exemplifies

nues occur

thirty

72:

Discounting

Alternatives

Case II
Cto

Case 1c

Case I shows that

day's
have

capital
to

view

the

into

future

A hydropower

plant
total

prevailing

interest

14 % p.a.,

for

plying

the

interest,
the
I)

will

he will

revenue

quickly
be

of

lower

to

fig.

since

the

future

revenue,

more capital

today

will

(loans,

country

$ 278'025.--.

hydropower
on this

plant

for

- also

a bank

earlier

the

than

so

to-

would

bank-account

illustrate

the

the

is

higher

(estimation

etc.)

than

$ 1'500/kW

10 years.

The

discounting

including
estimated

$ 278'025.--

Should
II),

problem.

- is

institutions.

tlO'

investor's

of
of

financial
at

the

cost

t#j be used for

capital

If

at

a life-period

or other

energy-investment.

$ 278'025.--

further

capacity

planned

through

embark
than

is
the

mentioned

the

73)'

kW installed

0'

to

low,

of

Rtn.

50

rate

value

investments

investment)

amount
into

present

comparably

(refer

investments

formula

investment

is

revenue

example

75'000.--

the

alternative

The following

($

of

investment

be put

to reach

in

tn

to

then

the

Apcompound

revenue
(estimation

estimated
the

of

investor

future
will

-115-

prefer

to

return

entrust

his

capital

to

a bank

or

another

institution

granting

the

of 14 %.

C.R

Fig.

73:

Investment

positive
Inv.-decision

Decisions

*4--

- -

_--

-rn$

J 75'00.-negative
decision

Inv.-

--'

278'025.--

-_Oestimatkon

--

-*--

y-

_ --Qestimation

--

II

t
t10

tO

needs

"investor"

The term
relevant

private

investor

. the

public

investor

choosing

A certain

complication

of

future

revenue

will

of

plant's

lifespan,

the

procedure

is

between

cost

In other

words:

at

interest

this

or,

higher

rate

return
it

should

the

costs

discount-rate

one could

invest

installations

discount-rate

than

from

the

fact

an aggregated
each year's

also

yearly,

arise

that

the

sum at the

means that

must be chosen
today's

(unless

money)

staggering

the

revenue

end
must

net balance

the

labour-intensive

installations

at

The

capital-investment

to.

(interest)

cost,

low
will

initial
: thus

allow

(again:
less

for

more

meaning

advantageous

kWh-prices

favours

capital-investment
capital

be a yearly

stems

among invest-

chasing

and revenue.

the

capital-intensive

investment-opportunities

discounting-method

Mathematically

separately

yearly

among alternative

the

rather

be discounted

low'

The discounting

thus
having
an utility-obligation,
within
the energy-supply
possibilities.

ment-alternatives

high

explanation.

in two cases:

the

a further

are

because

that
are

applied);
it

keeps down

respectively

the

labour-intensive

plant

operation.

In practice,
count

analysts

rates

prevailing

exclusively
47)

see:
electric

have tended
in

on relatively

French:

Renewable

Powerplants,

poor

to underestimate
areas.

One result

capital-intensive
Energy

p 104 f.

Systems,

p 41;

seriously

the

has been to focus

and complex energy

for

example

level

of

calculation

systems.
see

NRECA,

of disattention
47)

Small

Hydro-

-lib-

In sumnary it

is necessary

Determine
levels

all

quantify

and qualify

discount

the

The results

to:

pertinent

factors
these

tangible

to

costs

of different

. compare

hydropower

plants

with

the

latter

point

of

efficiency"

thermodynamics.

a distinct

tives

at

the

outset

b) Constraints

for

hydropower,

from
biogas,

stationary

cost-benefit-analyses

48)

see

Reddy:

this

Rural

energy-source

energetical

Centres,

- eliminates

considered
reasons

rather

cooling

etc.

the

"second

analysis

since

law
there

and energy-device,
many energy-alterna-

than

for

economic

power.

have to

reasons.

the

grid

with,
tasks

in

very

electricity,

a selection
into

In an outstanding

concentrate

sugar-processing,

may require

biomass,

as reproduced

pre-selection.

grainmilling,
etc.

To begin

tabulating

p !7

or

liquefied

shows this
will

Energy

task,

heating

wood,

and mobile

48)
Reddy

needs,

on economic

dyeing,

by

have to consider

of Energy-Sources

kerosene

constraints

thermodynamic

energies.

embarking

thermodynamic

water-pumping,

after

is

cooking,

energy-sources,ranging

over

cost-benefit-

and sizes

first

between
(task)

lighting,

brick-making,

energy

before

on the Selection

like

lighting,

one will

interrelationship

- when one end-use

types

alternative

however,

which

cal

three

may then be used to:

plants

End-uses

the

and revenues.

hydropower

is

into

factors

. compare

As to

be included

on the

mechaniwill

consider

temperature-grades,

analysis
fig.

different

74.

ofia

Thus the

alternative

village's
economic

options

left

-117-

Alternatives

Task

Devices

Sources

Fig.

biogas

ture

energy

heating

Selection
of Sources
Devices for Pura

gas

burner

wood/charcoal

forests

waste
solar

low-temperature heating

74:

Source:

medium-tempera-

heat

stoves

wood/charcoal
stoves
solar waste-heater/
solar dryer

and

incandescent
fluorescent

lighting
electricity

lamps
tubes

Reddy

draught animals
human labour
wind
biogas
energy forests

stationary
power

animal powered devices

pedal-powered
devices
wind mills
biogas engine
producer-gas
engine
internal
coaustion
engine
electric
motor

ethanol
eiectricity

animal powered devices

pedal-powered
devices
Internal
combustion
engine
producer-gas
engine
biogas engine

draught animals
human labour

mobile
power

ethanol
energ.y
biogas
biogas
charcoal

high-temperaturc

c) Concluding

forests

heating

furnace
furnace

Remarks on Decision-Criteria

The energetical

selection

a) will

both

limit

maining

alternatives,

(lit.

b)

and the

energy-options

the

some more

to

general

economic
a few;

criteria

to

cost-benefit-approach
narrow

might

further

(lit.

down the

be helpful.

These

reare:

of the time-dependence
of the energy-utilising
task with the
0 the matching
time-variation
- if any - of the supply of energy from the chosen source.
If matching
is bad, energy-storage
becomes necessary
which implies
new cost.
The problerr
may arise
with the variable
discharge
of rivers,
the time of surshine,
variable
wind-velocities
etc.
. the primacy
l

the
tion

local

of basic

needs

self-reliance

and system-independence

soundness; the
a the environmental
minimising
of negative
ecological
These

providing

social

participa-

and control

additional

among alternatives

criteria
arises.

primacy
impacts

may be a useful

of

renewable

guidance

energy-sources

when a non-decisive

and the

result

-118-

The following

sections

CL

by way of

full

three-level

at this

will

examples

illustrate

of

hydropower

cost-benefit

place,

some of
plants

analysis

the

criteria

of

and alternative

of

each

lit

a),

b)

and

energy-sources.

and every

option

is

impossible

however.

2. MICRO-HYDROPOWER
AND LARGER HYDROPOWER
PLANTS
All

figures

given

be taken

as

reasons

of

order

de-

cal

in

U.S.

1 MU) is
as too

in the

and

a cost

per

case

will

plants

differ

are

very

site-cost,

would

etc.

be academic

international

inflation-rates

to

much for

import-cost
it

a comparable

statisti-

nor rates

of exchange

and

still

to

to look

of

kW of

per

types

of

kW for

of

for

mini-hydro

One should
as too
experience

a figure

sources

at some actual

different

limit

$ 3'000

view

puts

other

$ 1'000

economic

in

goal,
close

Costs

per kW range.

villages,
OiADE5"!

fig.

to

neither

the

- 3'000

from

A series

every

hydropower

cost/revenue-years;

Internal
that

$ 2'000

and

of interest

of

state

obvious

consider

high

turbines

reasons.

from

to

this

statement
hamlets,

a number

2'000

should

this

of

pro-

per kW as the

Based on this,

European

(under

electrify

efforts

to see how far

figures,

to

made in

$ 1'000
that

projects

be made to
it

is

now

can be achieved,

manufacturers

is

shown

75,in

the output
range from 30 kW to 300 kW, and a head range from
51)
350 m.
The costs given are updated to the level
of 1980 and include

m to

complete

ding

since

A report

desirable

sary.

currencies

($)

with

equipment-cost,

foreign

Tangible

micro-industries

remain

costs,
different

Dollar

with

rough

jects.

since

reflect

Bank 49) states

The World

experience

be secured.

a) Experience

2,3

magnitude

and revaluate

basis

examples,and

labour

figures

can accurately

in

of

different

Furthermore,
to

from

generating
flywheel,

penstock).

equipment
governor,

alternator,

It

clear

becomes

low output

becomes very

costly.

49)

see

World

Bank,

the

50)

see

OLADE,

51)

From

Small

Integration

(e.g.

Energy

in

Hydropower

Developing
Stations

GmbH, Laufwasserenergie,

turbine,

step-up

valves

from

the

. . . p 34
data

and other

table

Countries,

sheets

transmission

p 46

that

where

acessories,

equipment

for

but

necesexclu-

low head and

in

Ossberger

(appmx.)

Cross-Flow-Turbine

Francis-Spiral-Turblnc

Ffg.

75:

Different
Source:

Hydro Generating-Equipment
Integration

GmbH,

Laufwasserenergie

The same source

states

that

in

hydro

installations

conventional

- since
struction
60 % for
purpose

low-head

lower

euqipment

installations

costs

amount
heads.

of arriving

Costs

to
This

of
have

50

% of

is

of

at a relevant

cost

ranges

the

from

sizes

referred

a relatively
total

course

magnitude

cost

40 to 50 % of total

larger
for

broadly
of total

to.
flow

This
rate

heads

above

generalised

but

cost.

cost

means that
- civil

con-

20 m, and to
it

serves

the

-120-

Based
per

75,

on fig.

kW for

heads

the
from

27 and 350 meters.

in total
for

plant

the

is

not

the
It

pricing.
by several

as costs

percent
cost

of civil

be given
share

the

an output

far

unusual

As far

different

this

is

geology,

between
to

to get

type

of

suppliers.

analysis

more difficult.

total

for

and also

on the

context

of this

also

the

reflected
equipment

and the

given,

suppliers

which

adds another

differ

variable,

no standard

obviously

Much depends
method

between

examples

same site,

will

sites.

is
that

of the

This

intakes

construction

and $ 8'750
heads

true

are concerned,

and

different

for

equipment

for

from different

Dams, canals

is

average

quotations

still

$ 3'000

it

above the

on the

$ 1'825

of head and size

trend,

construction-components

here.

of the

are

cost-function

Notwithstanding

Much depends

representative

and

clear

cheapest.

hundred

can

Thus a very

nothing

costs

m and $ 1'000

13,5

head with

making

unit

2,3

total

to

costs.

highest

calculated

applied

cost

cost
a very

on the

topography

and the

materials

used.

Of interest

in the

technology.

The examples

price

of 1980.

level

struction.

Other

transmission,
nors

are

not

used

either

from within

Comparing

cases

data
not

at

all

in

were found
the

from

the

be

interpreted

project

diversity.

to

the

turbine
also

of local

while

of local

at

about

design
such

and conas step-up

and penstock.
on the

bigger

are in all

the

Gover-

sets,

cases

dif-

imported;

overseas.

be the

equipment
cost
40 to 50 %.

is

costs

costs

gate-valves

to

light

absolute

the

trend

of the

a number

and

only

clearly

The influence
of variations
of head and size
cause of a high degree of flexibility
as to
tion,
which is appropriate
to the situation,

0 The average share of

than the conventional

project

Alternators

76 brings

However,

with

made locally,

plants,

as indicated.

75 and

actual

frames,

smaller

or from

now a comparison

all

are

base

.;.:lgion

fig.

shown,

components

flywheels,coupling,

solutions

enormous

In all

is

76 are

fig.

equipment

ferent

should

in

paper

truth

stands

of

facts.

for

These

reasons

of

as shown:

on price
are not pronounced
bethe chosen equipment
configura-

total

is

26,s

%, e.g.

6 Total
costs for the range
from 10 to 100 kW using local technology,
to cost per kW in fig.
75 show reversczd economies of scale,

clearly

less

compared

II

Sallcri/
Chialsa

Nepal

2 turbines,
15,5 m

electronic

1 alternator

speed controller,

difficult

canal

00 kW

2 turbine-generator
1 Mechanical

sets,

governor

no governor

2 turbine-generator
2 imported

governors

no governor,

180

30

188

Excluding

Total

+He Project

Fig.

penstock
cost
not

of

power

28

installation

station

executed,

hand alternator

existing

irrigation

canal,

no governor

660.--

work

excluding

projected

second

no canal

transmission

costs

are

updated

and distribution
to

price

level

of

1980

76:

Cost of Generating
Sources:

and

600.--

sets,

BYS,

Nepal;

Equipment
NEA,

Thailand;

Using
ITB,

Local

Cross-Flow

Turbine

Indonesia

Taking the average figure

for equipment
cost of $ 265.-/kW
and comparing
this
with the averag e of $ 890.-/kW of eight
turbines
(imported)
in fig.
75, shows
that on an average,
locally
made sets (fig.
76) cost approx.
30 % of imported
equipment
only.
(To arrive
at a more representative
average cost for imported
equjpment,
the first
three
figures
- representing
atypical
cost because of
low head/low
output
- have not been included).
Taking
amounts for total
cost
with
local
technology
can the
under "normal"
conditions.

for

both

stated

series

goal

of

of examples
$ 1'000 per

shows,

that

only

kW be approached

-lx?-

Conclusions:
. It

is

possible
technology

local
. It

is

also

to
in

counter
the rule of,traditional
the range up to 100 kW.

possible

to reduce

traditional

economies

overall

costs

latter

the
to

point

result

of

can

from

ranges

1 to

range

of

over

of

referred
size

100

be derived

hydropower
to52),

in

3 MWbecause

from

directly

an evaluation

500 kW. The study

feasible

not

evidence.

in the

kW to

latter,

from

in

technology
from over

is pos100 kW to

examples

shown but

is

Nepal,in

the

up

that

there

The first

from

2 to 30 kW* and the

is

the

of

scale

following

are

two

range

maintains

economies

1 MW,, it

the

activities

by using

considerably.

is, that
the range up to 100 kW - where local
. The result
sible
- becomes more economical
as compared to the range
1 MW.

This

of scale

economically

are pronounced.
factors

second
For the

that

make it

running

costs

un-

economical:
- too

big

for

- requires
- too

local

skilled

small

for

a remarkable

also

supply
are

presses.

These

projects

ped with

small

alternators

electricity
cludes
granted

uses,

that

extended

from

benefits

of

to

provide

upper
30

still

using

of

of

these

about

100

appropriate

very

scale.

cost-reduction

units,

exist

such

and could
lighting

kW, without
technologies,

be equip-

limited

kW (this

one can take

hydropower

jeopardising
which

plants
the

are

Nepal

and oil

therefore

420 per

economical

in

as mills

and very

previously,

marginal

for

installations

$ 250 to

As indicated

limit

kW to

domestic

cost

distribution).

the

profitably,

only'marginal

at

electricity

agro-processing

high

of

of

hydropower

operating

cost

therefore

a new dimension

to

capital

of economies

Many small

power

high

staff,

effect

introduce

electricity-supply:

mechanical

therefore

and professional

for

The same authors

village

technology,

other
also

in-

it

for

can be

intangible

locally

managea-

ble.

Similar
China.

52)

see

which

53)

see

cost-experience

53)

has

The cost-concept

KrayenbUhl,

Small

may be extended
SATA/UMN,

Study

Hydro

is

been

made

based

on the

Development

to

100 kW if

Tour

. . . p 58

head

with

micro-hydro

conviction

installations

that

canals,

. . . p 20 f.
is

over

20 meters

as shown

in

fig.

75

in

dams, roads

123-

etc.

can be attributed

power

can

works

implied.

in

In

Most

line

(min.

200 meters,

hydro

plants,is

cultural

to

max.
used

line

is

the

extension
practically

in

contributed

to

the

its

Another

cost-component

To conclude
briefly

consumers

be sketched:
and

generators

are

hydropower

plants,

plant

the

and

characteristics
than

in

salaries
of

on the

the
size

54)

see

Hassanaly,

Exploiting

55)

see

KrayenbUhl,

Small

Mini
Hyde1

the

111,

a lownetwork

or

from

is that

the

rather

same
grid

villages

step-down

have

transformation
envisage

local

power

can afford

must

plant.

.... p 6
p 11 f.

of

be discussed

operation-

are

a gridplant

later-on

has

to in-

energy-consumption.
later.

and maintenance-cost

characterised

by high

cost,

with

high

staff.

Maintenance
of

55)

intakes,

Experts

initial

cap-

diesel-powered

running

fuel-cost.

cost

of the
depend

removing

on this

shall

whereas

be seen as a function

(rebuilding
the

distances,

powerstation,

metering

investment,

local

site
of

of

cost

of

and agri-

the

the

and maintenance

terms

operation

the

and will

plants

low operation

cheaper

is

cost,

Hydropower

micro-

grid-system.

applied

internal

by these

remain

One must

this

of 800 meters

distribution

since

after

overhead

would

point

so that

distribution

tariff

on tangible

local

future,

a larger

of

the

a short

productive

short

distribution

thing.

development,

such

of kiloin Nepal

produced

low-tension

But the

so distant

into

much on the

ital-investment

etc.)

not

and

exist

length

pumping,

With

local

a costly

have

energy

local

of

up to a couple

plants

a grid-extension,

is

village

tegrate

depends

get

side

a maybe

the

power plant.

to

and civil

generation

Good examples

water

comes from

by a distant

electric

(380 V) were included

an average

etc.

cost

lines

micro-hydro

households,

Since

anyway, the

high-tension

extension

for

electricity

wiring.

consuming
points,with
54) The electrical
2 km).

mostly

chance

to

so that

equipment

are possible

used for

Tanzanian

sufficient.

no

on the

L-T.-lines

electricity-supply

fed

generating

low-tension

hospital-stations,

be provided

whether

It

the

machinery,

tension

the

the

anyway,

kW, are reported.

local

material

of

for
attributable

energy,

outlay.

on the

Tanzania.

distribution

must

of
cost

depending

in

costs

way,

distribution

first-level

meters,
or

extra-cost

at

this

and flood-control

of as low as $ 350 per

the

the

irrigation

be calculated

distribution

As to

to

of the

more on the

slides

problem

size

For

on canals

maintain

that

-124-

operation
kW)

are

almost

$ 25'000
unit

40'000

maintenance

can only

than

of

75 %) and at

high

plant

plants
by

than

micro-hydro

stations

micro-hydro

plant

too

high

to promote

A further

element

the

plant.

cording

to

the

initial
of

They

Form an economic

point

of

country's

not

ways

are

the

of

the

new plant,or,

ment of the

In most
public
schools,
see

wearing

KrayenbUhl,

proportionally
reserves

can be paid

to

investment.
and
Small

other

Hyde1

can be repaid

with

the

public

. . . . p 22

services

electricity

dt

of

the

tariff,

depreciation
depreciation,ac-

rate
price

gener-

of

4 % of

the

per

kWh in

the

problem

is

regarding

there

is

cannot

of

posed.

deprecia-

no such

be paid,

thing

then

must replace

the whole

depreciation

can be paid,

If

by step
the

financial

No one would

also

civil-work,

stand

plant

step

will

the

of

of

like

invented

are accumulated,

plant

that

running-cost

the

a serious

increasing

proper

is

rate

a firm

not

plant.

capacity

overstaff

shaping

a high

that

agencies

the

and

and maintenance

selling

parts

of the

foreign
of

A loan

a subsidy

hydropower
streets

out

plant,and

alone

depreciation

per

an availability

to

the

cost

such

is

its

evidence

depreciation

one has to take

or

internal

plant

cases

If
budget

conceivable:

ital-cost

56)

depreciate.

after

an annual

mobile

cost

a good load-factor.

plant's

determines

perpetuum

development

lation,

the

as the

seems that

a weighted

depreciation

plant,if

tendency

and maintenance

this

view

the

to obtain

of the

roughly

operation

of operation

be an adequate

calculated

to

be avoided.

rather

suggest

Usually
for

does

also

that

fosters

by simply

lifespans

US Cl

that

have

again

However,
It

amount

20 % (with

be covered

will

experts

etc.

As long

This

100 - 400

and maintenance

of the

reduction

56)

and

least

kW should

operation

up to

tion.

4 - 5.

easily

the

at

(between

conclude

revenues

is

use of electricity

investment.

range

factor

a problem.

different

ating-equipment

by the

prices.

solution

of

Again

size.

100 - 1'000

cannot

in order

They

electricity

is

the

rate;

with

load

averaging

capacity
operation

100 kW show a drastic

a factor

plants

Consequently,

be paid

between

hydropower

installed

rapidly

200 kW, the

higher

small

from

annum.

decrease

is

Smaller

per

costs

small-sized

for

independent

produced,

cost

cost

and maintenance

thus

the

instaltwo

diminishing

cap-

new debt-potential

for

so that

the

total

replace-

means.

be inevitable,
ever

be it

question

have

to

the
be

for
fact

private
either

depreciated

or
that

at

the

-125'

However,

public'expense.
ned by the

to

what

extent

a question

revenues,

that

costs
will

are covered,

be dealt

is entirely

with

in the

determi-

following

chap-

ter.

b) Experience
Information
"surplus

with

Tangible

thereof

will

in

designed

and

focus

and the

revenues'

"Baliguian"

Internal

a very
locally

on the

IER

remote

Benefits

are not

place
equipment

27 meters,

and an installed

capacity

total

of

40 % for
plying

the

$ 749
generating

a load

US-cents

factor

2.1

Philippines

per

per
sell

(Welded
of

- situation

is

Francis

an example

turbine).

in

plant

caused

distribution

cost),

which

hardly

($ 287).

Producing

of

437'500

kWh per year

per

2'800

kW capacity

4.7

- Agua Grande with

2'750

kW capacity

5.2.

30 kW capacity

5.3

itself

with

may demonstrate

a guarantee

much on the

- im-

for

which
cost

low
the

prices:

- Magat A & B with

example

a head of

hydropower

US-cents

so many variables
too

With

locally

100 kW, the

Installation

The third

of

price
is an amazingly
of close to 50 % - the selling
57)
Other
small
and micro-hydro
installations
in
kWh.

at higher

- Hasaan

whereas

at length.

Philippines,

kW (excluding

equipment

- and tariff

elaborated

in the

built

cost

prices

once more that

a low total
finally

element

investment

determine
of

the

a micro

the

capacity

and selling
economy

generating

of

equipment,

is

kWh

by no means

price.

There

a plant,that

are

relying

can be a misleading

yardstick.

The East-African
US + 13 and

power
18 in

European

electricity

to

cost

57)

cover

calculated
Loqking

1966,

mentioned

a not

producers

and depreciate

from
at

plants

data

investment

in:
cost,

Dumol,
it

so attractive
calculate

the

plant

Mini-Hydro
appears

within

Application,

that

capital

see

Integration

GmbH, Laufwasserenergie,

p 55

sold
offer

today

for.
58)

earlier,

at

rates

considering

per

kWh between

the

fact

with

a price of US d 3.5
58)
At US 4 2.0
10 years.

that

per kWh
per kWh

p 31
interest

and

depreciation

are

not

accounted

-126-

the depreciation

Back to

is

electricity

installed

kW in

(1979).
turn

small
It

60)

out

native

to

remember

standpoint.
getically

From this

angle,

and

tariff

is

not

keeping

public

that

of

unwanted

part

the

capital

a certain

moment of

amount

energy

investment

and low energy

energy

of

individual

The

90 % of total

consumption

An alternative

method

of

consumer

see

United

Nations,

60)

see

SAIA/UMN,

61)

see

Amann,

Rapport

Report

Energy

the

cost

At this

point,

from

often

of alter-

the

case

of

one should

a thermodynamic

example,

would

ener-

is

du Groupe

. . . . p 116 f.

company
the

has to

fact

has to charge

that
for

by

deliver

electrical

two services:
is

a typical

actual

supply

energy

per

period

of

tariff,

one part

For

of

for

hydropower

generation

as the

on the
to
. . . . p 19

this

assumption
the

moderate

number

is

that

metering

peak

demand.

simply

the

of .rooms

high
capacity

capacity

the

acthe

relatively

means high

requires

consumers

consumers,

with

this

induces

however

power-capacity,

the

plants

(no fuel-cost).,

tariff

correspond

Due to

be controlled

(which

by small

based

supply

can

ready

as well
is

power

equipment

cost

two-part

. . . . P 61

Supply

grid-electricity

as in

for

generated

supplier

thermal

energyiconsumption,

59)

transmission

lower

selection

production,

consumption.

charges,whereas

a domestic

per

countries

but

electricity

generation

and low running

charges.

of

an electricity

storeable,

for

unmeasurable.

sell

of US $ 5 per kWh is

developing

- if

Any electricity

utility
duty),
and for the
61)
There results
a two-part

count.

or

plants

high

kWh for

countries;

with

uses

accordingly.
at

per

plants

investment-cost

by the

in

energy-source

cooking

higher

a price

US $ 8.4

higher,

are

micro-hydro

offset

county,

industrialised

which

of

kWh-prices

even

that

hydropower

undertaking.

thus

energy

energy

high

costs

case

Xinhui

on small

said

by far

and

are

question

the

electrical

other

often

be a luxurious

shaping

in

the

Uneconomical

is
the

is

in

plants;

true

than

experience
It

stations

certainly

intangible

of

available.

larger

hydel

sources

20 years.

a lot

plant&this
59)
For

be higher

wood - have

for

is

energy

simply

small
plants.

for

is

than

larger

indicated

with

evidence

cheaper

of

over

- a country

China

- more comforting

costs

stretched

and
of

If

the
upto

too expensive.

power
or

requirements
bulbs

etc.

he

127-

possesses.

The tariff

room or

per

is

called

in

a very

electrical

the

flat-rate

the

However

of

electrical
the

the

utilised
fore

aspect

in

angle:

for

per

the

largest

to
interested

in

a consumption-inducing

also

Another,
price

the

first

- the

next

- all

additional

2'000

can also

uneven

capacity

use.

examplify:

see

will
The

China-Tour,

Report

structure

is

that

it

induces

instead

be looked

flat-

turned

off,

the

same.

consumers

to

saving

energy.

at from

another

generating

equipment

supplier

The flat-rate

of

the

cases

of

energy

L though

on,

both

and thus
rate,

at 10 US Q per

at 6 US # per
load

factor

is

tariff

is

is

therein

fact

load-improving

method

average

per

is

to

e.g.:

kWh

both

should

different
high

rated
river"

measures

the

the

tariff

use-value

power

for

is

whereas
reasons

plant

in

price
thus

larger

unit

flattening

of
out

consumers.

of the social

untility-

attached,

expressing
the users'
62) For example,
by electricity.

rendered

use-value,

tariff,

favour

be mentioned:

lower

the

an off-peak

services

. . . . p 60

kWh.

and lowers

with

use a different

"Mei

switched

in

when the

factor.

cost

is

The electric

load

fact

when it

should

decrease,

at a decreasing

However,

the

be

course

aspect

tariff

be combined

method

receives

machinery

62)

of

is

consumption;

of

extent.

a high

the

This

lighting

possible

units

To every

device

part

in

The method

at 8 U d per kwH

increases

appreciation

this

kWh can only

units

energy.

principle.

two

The rate

is

does

per

tariff.

1'000

a fourth

the

charge

necessary.

tariff

on as much as possible,

hydropower,

in blocks

- the

Finally,

rate

flat

This

energy

the

consumption-inducing

supply

The method

pays for

anymoiz

electric

installed.

having

not

account

capacity

of

price

into

when the

devices

case

is

installed.

take

consumer

pays

The negative

per unit

supplier:

to the

a maximum-demand equivalent

then
Metering

- also

way

energy

charged

have

rate

simple

is

device.

flat

the

an electric
r&e

applied

the
of
China

energy-input
its

productivity.

charges

the

into

workshop
To

following

further
rates:

-128-

type

-US 6 per

of consumer

- Industry

1.2

- Domestic

2.1

- Irrigation

ferently.

It
-

dustry
is

looks

in the

the

socially
tariff

helps
per

to

But

end-uses.

c) Experience

with

one looks

which
This

is

sites

of

costs,
the

most

crucial

63)

see

China-Tour,

64)

see

SATA/UMB,

precisely

in-

revenues,

and

second-most,
revenue

but

will

hardly

anything

be generated

is

in

agri-

6'500.-.

Report
Report

will

energy

the

be given

factor

in consumption

and

and the

by di fferentiating
wil 1 have

tariff

here

specifically

state

whereas

potential

problem

subsidies

of

of this

consumer

209'000

country

because

however,

main

of
Very

. . . . p 60
P 55

10 kV,

similar

transformation

. ..)

load

the

to

provide

focusing
and

on

foreign-

points

MW - 14 % of it

seems to be solved.

the

are

distances

enourmously

from
long.

the
And

of H.T.-lines.

64)

including

the

the

Costs and Benefits

an illusion

to

costs

like

costs,

all,

hydroenergy

a transmission-line

7 km length,

since
surplus

dif-

quantified.

- the

only

implied

to

partner,

and off-peaks

in

factor,

Brasilian

hydropotential

$ 5'500.-

weight

organisation.

External

further

optimism

Considering

utility

attain

generating

all

some data

are not

utilised

so are the

to

social

many things

peaks

the

producing

Tangible

at the

"global"

enabled

surplus

kWh, the
of

costs

solvent

determining

distribution

IER to the

If

(though

wanted

as

the

domestic-sector

price

H.T.-grids

puts

most

- is

the
63)

tariff

an acceptable

exchange

as the

average

external

China

place).

the

according

As to

in

electricity
most,

first

plant

industry

and pumping

Consequently,
thus

at

charged

irrigation

culture

power

by means of

therefore

for

0.6

and pumping

The "Gu Don Mountain"

kWh

the

costs
to

Chinese
are

6 kV in

indicate

budgeted
Nepal,

with

for

cost

per

km of

a H.T.-line
$ 6'250.-

of
per

km

-129-

The World

(1977) Jj5)
25 km to
to

an isolated

$ 4'000

per

$ 6'000.-

per

$ 8'430.-

per

7'000

$/km.

main grid

km.

In

is

serving

costs

generation,

grid.

The crucial

of

the

ferent

are

is

At

are too expensive

at $ 7'000.hydro

thus

either

per
is

from

nically

to run

range.

as it
into

When the

to

compared

65)

see

Meier

et

66)

see

World

Bank,

8.3

T.Shs.

67)

see

Hassanali,

68)

see

World

the

in

is

from

that

since

its

public

transformation

radius

if
is

the

grid,

since

its

the

load-factor

given

for

remote

from

the

are

- L.T.

internal
with
al.,

remote

are

tech-

at the most.

micro-hydro

tends

the

uplift
cost

of
of

external

Salleri/Chialsa
Rural

Electrification,

the

village

expanding
cost

of

has increased

also

micro-hydro
integrating

energy-consumption,

generation,
the

will

village

into

...
p 19

= 1 $

Bank,

Micro-

too

lines

the

networks

grid.

not

some kilometers

dif-

from

so expensive

and H.T.-lines,

nearest
of

supplies

consumers

of

of microthe

extend

- as shown earlier
small

those

utilisation

public

local

L.T.-line.

from

where .unit-cost

extravagant-to

the

was assumed

local

than

unit-cost,

utilisation,

from

grid

distance

the

approx.

- an installed

the

the

approx.

supplies

to the

higher

demands in areas

a relatively
to

78,

of

provided

plant,

supply

fig.

level
it

on the

a decreasing

in

from

is

therefore

lighting

link

the

this:

amounting

costs.

socio-economic

be

public

link

above-mentioned

- is

are much higher

depending

is

the

public

supplies

grid

is

result

a low

power

high

marginal

off

off,

comes

the

course

because

better
the

and

thus

a 33 kV line

small -hydra

the

km, to meet small

restricted

As soon

of

illustrated

situations.

for

to

of today

public

however,

costs

This

close

price

consumers

from

better

transmission

increases.

supplies

$ 100'000,

a compari son between

68)

local

point

energy-project,

it

of 33 kV as subtransmission

but

hydro

around

a subtransmission

- at costs

of 80 kW was considered,and

The capital

grid

in the

stations.

to be of medium-voltage

fixed

average

been done of

extending

bring

a typical

only

and micro-hydro

capacity

will

Tanzania*

valid

have

micro-hydro

1975 that
may cost

Inflation

km. 67) A rough

This

in

demand point,
66)

km.

Some analyses

For

Bank stated

Exploiting
Rural

Mini-Hydro
Electrification,

Plants

.... p 3

p 18 - 2 and the

table

in

fig.

78 of

this

report

have
the

to

main

-130-

grid.
up

Again
to

the

its

Chinese

capacity-maximum

demand by public

Fig.

have even

applied

(maximising

supplies

from

World

Bank,

Electrification,
hydra

basis

of

micro-

project

data

remarks

revenues

rise

into

be added
depends

production,

and possible

peak-

from Grid

Micro-Hydra

29 km

4 km

10

18

40

21

25

17

11

50

subsidies

for

plant.

be activated

in

on

kerosene

turn

But

it

of

might

country,

etc.

It

affected

by implementing

Imicro-hydro

Most

the

civil

will

for

30 - 50 % of the

counting

tendency

As to

the

of

especial?y

importing

mechanical

has been elaborated

d) Experience
As indicated
problem

employment,

will

comprehensive

the

cost.
cement

steel,

and electrical
in chapter

with

Intangible

earlier

this

be

demonstrated

description.

subsi,dies

be that

bill,

which

Product

diver-

for

Similarly,
conceivable
depreciation

increase,

build-up

on the

higher

is

subsidies

local

by the

here.
it

Whether

of

innovation-

trade-balance
could

but

of

the

substantially

be

plants.

be entrusted
total

industrial.

into

expenditures

import

generated

case to case;

as well

less

local

benefits.

be generalised

accounting,through

more

work

or

cannot

will

external

revenues

agricultural

decreases

centres,

of

surplus

at from

terms

is

tangible

the

must be looked

imported

a micro-hydro

to

be it

price

of subsidies

question

that

should

will

input

sification

the

hydra

Nepal

energy

can

small

and supplementing

Supplies

Load Factor

are calculated

Some brief

of

factor)

using

grids.

Rural

p 21,

figures

on the

the

load

by

78:

Source:

tax

the

regional

Average Costs of Different

Schemes, US $ per kWh

from

a combination,

to

local

engineering

One has of course

etc.

to

firms
safeguard

used in too elaborate

components,

what

is

thus

possible

ac-

against

construction.
by local

means

D at length.

Costs and Benefits

third-level
by

assessment
means

of

few

is

the most difficult

examples

without

one:
aiming

The
at

-131-

Measuring
a cost

the
which

instable
The

climatic

charge

is

interruptions
and

working

planning

with

rather

Certainly

one does

energy-source

heats

light

in

life,

the

insist

have

flies

for

irrigation

ing

and milling,

first

steps

counts

are

electrical

appliances

do not

in

fodder
towards

not

a small
for

see

Smil,

70)

see

SVMT/LAI,

the

Chinas
Solar

drive

Energy,
cookers,

first

but
towards

so much

primary
oil

extraction,

external
above
"being

all
able

remote,

benefits

do

and

KrayenbUhl,

Small

A fire

fire

offers

for

power

sawing

social
70)

the

available

as grain
etc.,

- the

something"

tresh-

truly

the

. . . . p 18

What

revenues)

of

motivations,
against

im-

thrust

communities.

(surplus

Hyde1

houses

functions.

such

poor

- intangibly

a new

in

center

p 31 f.
p 14 f.,

of

the development

tasks
timber

to

the

makes suddenly

processing

- such

do not,

these

all

in

experts

one has to evaluate

electrification,
that

But

open fires

less;

for

in

some dis-

impacts

a natural

place

community

can consist

so dramatic.

appliances

substitute

modernisation

tangible

activities,

and the

69)

crushing,

sensible

only

the

of rural

and drainage,

above-mentioned
attitude

electrical

provides

stations.

of flow

not

smoke from

dis-

on minimum-flow

based

are:

and

in

is

incapacitate

a village.

Examples

and evenings

can be generated

of

some socio-cultural

does

water

stations,causing

harm done is

cooker

plant.

reliability

can

cost

consider

an electrical

have

of

power

China

capacity

the

occur,

and insects;

benefit-side

large

at optimum-utilisation

mornings

intangible

of

life

if

aiming

to

of

the

general

an intangible

economic
-

once

the

one

power

zones

the hydro-potential
costs

areas

small

that

capacity

mense "mobilisation-effect"
which

the

electricity.
from

the

can be

to a hydropower

In China

than

from

and when they

a house,

whereas

On the

to

also

like

inmates

also

problems

plant

are seldom

projects

supply

a power

incidents

lower

trick

tangible

year.

10 - 40 years

and subtropical

assessed

very

a dry

energy

micro-plants

than

into
in

over

a costly

plaguing
large
69)
Therefore

rapidly.

of

play
correctly

rated

periodically
quite

can

turn

is

a river

The tropical

having

lower

plants

stations

order

not

substantially

droughts

small

which

of

of

considered.

suddendly

micro-hydro

Severe

really

cost

site,will

discharge

features

intangible

the

long-term

nobody

chosen

of

very

the
the

poverty.

-132-

3. MICRO-HYDRO PLANTS AND ALTERNATIVE ENERGIES

a) General

Remarks

The following
criteria
this

sections
the

system

will

tangibles

A fist

rough

tives

be more

on costs

by,other

is

Generator

of

eclectical

than
capacity

basical

energies

approach.

installed

in

of

in fig.

relative

F2.

again

per

the

applicatian

The evaluation

and user-prices

costs

(cost-relation)

of
will

kWh, surrounded

among energy

US 1 per

local

alterna-

Power-Costs

Fuel-Costs

Investment-Costs*

range

the

Yowever,

section

using

79.

Type

- micro

ly

and intangibles.

impression

given

ive

alternat

multilevel-cost-benefit

of

concentrate

compare

US 6 per

kWh

kWh

technology

Diesel

- small,

light

oil

fuel

Steam

5,2**'

- coal-fired
- oil-fired
- wood-fired

5'000-

15'000

none

30 - 100

2O'ooo-

3O'aoa

none

100 - 300

Wind Generator**

Solar

Fig.

Photovoltaic**

79:

Comparative
Source:

*
+I+

World

including

Costs

hydropower
on a base

of

Bank,

Energy

costs

of

intermittent
investment

u+*

are
of

the

sources

given

plants
load

in

include
assumed

'11000

hours

Generation

from

various

Fuels

in

1980 $

. . . . p 43

transmission

energy
cost

Electricity

and distribution
requiring
storage
to

operate

per

year.

storage

to

make energy

available

on demand

at

all

per

coal-units

costs.
at

a load

factor

of

5'000

hours

year,

times;

-133-

*/
I

The diesel-powered
creasing

fuel-cost&thus

fired

steam

attractive
for

coal

(80

per

kWh of
for

sections
in

cost

oil-fired

out

will

of

have
only

the

seem to eliminate

individually,

b) Oil

also

%) than

following

relative

and the

falling

engine
cost

conversion

The

generator

face

hydropower

relation

deal

to

in

from

station
for

very

both

the

price

in

depend

long

run.

beside

a load

factor

on in-

The coalthis,

the

40 % higher

(57 X1. Wood, wind

and solar

reasons.

briefly

hydro-power,

engine

price-increases;

US$ stems

themselves

will

competition

to

5.2

steam

with
order

alternative

to

check

energy-sources

the

so far

outlined

situation.

fuels

From

"model-calculation"

other

for

diesel-electric,the

two

40 kW-plants,

cost-functions

one

hydro-electric

as shown in fig.

and the

80 have been derived.

2
1

Fig.

80:

Total
Operating
for 40 kW Diesel
Source:

The

Wright,

key

costs

Cost and Unit Cost

and Hydro-Electric

Micro-Hydro

suming

point.

tion-costs
and above

As to

high

investment

especially
since

because
all

of

diesel,

transmission-costs

Capacity/Utilisation

Installations

characteristics

as the

against
Power Generated
Installations

the

of

because

a diesel-set

of

fuel

are:

the
shorter

costs.

hydropower

much

can be put

operation-costs:

a three-times

variable

costs

higher
right

diesel

civil-work
in

the

as much
costs

centre

has much higher

lifespan,

The main

has twice

results

higher

of a condeprecia-

maintenance

of the

and

comparison

costs,
are:

-134-

total

operation

tion,but

costs

example

fication

from

the

supposed

to

capacity

amounts

equivalent

of

about

2,3

million

costs

fo

$ 35.-

80.5

capital

per
8,

interest
7.7

cases,

or

sized

barrel

at

of

5.3

oil

Q/kW for

the

The National
with

1'276

a total

Electricapacity

kW. The total

On average,
capacity

generating

be installed

which

would

5000 hours

per

equivalent,

yearly

fuel

would

in

addition

to

maintenance

plant

compares

power

plant

to

costs
2,4

5.2

year.

Q** per

and other

costs

q/kWh***

for

is

consume

use of

kWh,

is

1 kW installed

to

plant,

of

cost

a capacity

Excluding

thermal

of

utilisa-

as expensive.

stations

generating

Q US per

and depreciation.

10 % capacity

instructive.

thus

thermal

oil

twice

$ 533 million.

The total

of

or

also

capacity

at about

is

239 hydropower

$ 1'748.

barrels

million

is

pesos*

a medium

systems

diesel

an average

be 4 billion
to

the

Philippines
plans

71)

1987,

for

utilisation,

Administration

305 MW until

to

equal

at 40 % capacity

Another

the

are

At

amount
kWh for
in both

the

hydro-

power plants.

The advantage
required
Future

of

is

such

lower

costs

by 289 million

of fuel,amounting

as explained

in

10 % interest,

section
fuel

in today's-value
in

the

case

of

plants

price,

the

shorter

saved

over

71)

see

3umo1,

over

thermal

life

Mini

15 % on 244 million

$,

I-*+

15 % on 533

$ capital

Calculation:
Where:

si xth

get

equal

the

the

a true

picture.

to

of

the

today's

all

of

in

factors,

million
C+(l+O.l

C = yearly

million

fuel

costs

)*+...
at

$.

todays-value

759 million

= today's

value

of

future

289

= today's

value

of

difference

million

= 759 million

c+( l+O. 1 q

fuel

cost
in

investment

of the
total

the
fuel

amount

to

investment
$

plants,

of

money - when compared

kW

$ = 470 million

the

case

fuel

to

. . . p 34 f.

)l+C+(l+O.l

$ - 289

the

for

amounts

same period.****

$ 800 per

assuming

$, expressed

increases

= 1 US $
e.g.

Thus,

money spent

hydropower

value

alternative.

305 million

possible

and other

capital

have to be discounted

a net-saving

here

initial

hydropower

onwards,

to

plant,

in

to the

amount

year

30 years

again

Application

+J+

million

will

of

over

7.5

759

5 years

a thermal

expressed

Pesos

to

be that

$ per year,

Not consi dering

period

Hydro

million

plant,is

of

operation

would

compared

114 f.),

From the

life

$ -

plant

(p

envisaged.

the

470 million

Fl

costs

the

$,when
to 80.5

of.money.

hydropower

thermal

a thermal

"135"

It

remains

to

tangible

be said

benefits

diesel-sets

a lot

teria

not

ranging

provide

like

that

of

inherent

from
local

unless

to

installations
It

diesel.

$ 600 to 850 per

employment

environment,

favourable,

micro-hydro

have many external

starts

kW. Hydropower

and improvement

maintenance,

there

is no water.

between

hydropower

with

the

plants

import

etc.

the

costs

in contrast

of human capital.

lifespan

and inof
will

By any cri-

hydropower

plant

is

c) Wood and Dung

Cost

comparisons

much sense.

Difficulties

countries
others
per

really

buy

the

wood at

cut

capita.

Those

wood crisis
that

company

can

of

one can

for

to

the
there

A similar

problem

their
to

cooking

this

- even

the

is

preserved

forests

of

fuelwood

if

to

of

dung

wood

and dung

tonnes/year
the

For Nepal

on the

campaign

fuel-

it

is

other

in-

supply

hand,

does

The world-

of conservation

of wood

But

as long

as wood is

the

cutting

of

1 billion

now being
of

energy
kWh were

are

0,6

All

free

wood are i,n-

energy-forests.

tons

per

up to

an alternative.

over

Up to

dung.

an example.72)

1 US B. No electric

no longer

plant

hydro-electric
price

than

as controls

some 2 million

its

less

supplies.

in developing

are - despite

hydroplants.

an immediate

with

which

from

is

people

people

burned

nitrogen

annually,

it

to

a fraction

of
better

fuel

is believed

and phosphorous.

can compete

an economically

use

731 The

economically

with

wood

a US cent

- nor

does

solution

than

hydro-

power.

In

wood,

for

The amount

neither

prices

of

The comparison,

wood simply

posed

to

at

and do not make

% is

quantities

for

price.

and as long

fires,

mean that

electric

1 kWhth

of

village.4

kWh-charges

calls

is

it

are difficult

a minority

cost,at

are few incentives

is that

and dung

because

only

Indian

get

this

planting

be equivalent

problem

than

with

user,

effective,

an

no private

rate

a massive

cost

for

acquire

compete

deforestation

and

because

who buy wood,

make much sense

wide

wood;

- much lower

dicated

not

arise

and wood/dung

overall

it

context,
are feasible

appears
could

72)

see

Reddy,

73)

see

World

only

that

The Design
Bank,

Energy

propositions
-

justify

in

this.
of

processes

most
The

. . . . p 15
. . . . p 38

in
and,

regions
latter,

which
in the
of

the

fertiliser-value

of

case of power generation

the

world

however,

have

- only
long

planned

gestation

dung
from

energyperiods,

-136-

and there

seems not

ison

hydropower.

with

to

be any experience

available

that

would

permit

a compar-

d) Biogas
Biogas
use

will

be evaluated

energy-source

tric-energy

For

first

costs

to hydro-electric

Source:

French,

Energy

. . . with

ments

Costs
Biogas

a typical

Cost-Base

plant

375.--

capital

6 supplements

economy

biogas

size

family

Item

of

biogas

conversion

biogas
fig.

plant

in

estimated

lifeperiod:

+I+ The plant

daily.

needs
It

new

is

labour

unload

I2
daily

of

annual

labcur

per

day

the

dung

is

needed

to

slurry.

Annual

that

much of

the

labour

is

taken

into

account.

tangible
Of gas,

five

to

six

heating.

internal

.benefits

enough

to meet the

people.

annual

production

Technical
rience

shut-downs
shows

"load-factor"

that
is

water

each;

time

labour

costs

amount

daily

basic

be used

for
to

approx.

70 f.

See

will
also

decrease
technicslly
French,

from

for

Renewable

system,

the

per

plant

but

Energy,

hardly
to

p 23.

and to
case.

of

the

production
family
cooking

of
of
and

day or 19.5

of US # 2.6

so easy

still

Indian
half

a daily

the

gas-production
not

fuels,

the

80 % for

kcal

rate'of

is

be removed

needs of an Indian

16'800

kWh at a price

must
other

members,

home lighting,

to 5'000

plant

$ 114.--

by family

energ,y

amounts

biogas

slurry

collect

and maintain

to

result

a capacity

break-downs

of
to

feed

be provided

plant

corresponds

pounds
spent

to

water,

will

the

350

formerly

Assuming

or

+*

28115

basis.

a family

57.--

12150

gather

labour

of

20 % will

The gas production

day on a calorific

and
the

fact

cost

cost

(15 %I

deducting

the

74)

of

after

Considering

The

and distribute

31,25

cost

years

that

4 hours

is

128,90

175 pounds

assumed

India

operating

investment

Total

elec-

81.

of plant

cost

as end-

into

Annual

total

114.--

Of

Maintenance

own adjust-

the

are shown in

feeding/removing
plant
Renewable

the

energy.

of such a plant

81:

Total Operating
of Family-Size
Plant

firstly,

steps:

and secondly,

consideration,

Operating

Fig.

two

analysed,

is compared

the

taken.

is

in

run

kWh per
74) total
of 70 %

per

kWh.

labour
and

that

costs.
in

India

Expethe

Formerly
is

used energy

said

to

here

for

tion

of

the

creased.

is

intangible

when

etc.).

reduced

there

are more

But
dung

from

3 -

plant
higher

important

than

About

second

use of the

The second

step

hydro

electricity.

shown

in

would

benefit

here

because

unit

costs

compared

cost

is

to

of

to

electrical

the

of

is

a severe

of

of
with

are 4 to 8 times
possible

to

plant

produced

annual

still

cost

be close

is
the

power

that

installations

high

costs

of

of

doubled

the

biogas

must

Biogas

properties.

cooking,

but

when it
the

be used for

biogas

it

will

operation.

(no

micro-

biogas

are
plant

considered

biogas

is

with
unit,

no economic
energy

is

an

kWh of biogas),

2'136

kWh of electric

half

($ 97.501,the

which

thermodynami-

power.

tasks
is

more

be difficult

comes to mechanical
plant

a small

were

as a rule
already

dung

Nevertheless,

100 % (7'120

those

plants.

with

been

hydro-electric

equipment

very

A larger

there

(30 %,giving

conversion

not

for

to US 4 11 per kWh of electric

biogas
for

practically

the

regions.

energy

plants.

that

at

by the

with

from

higher

when

one of

in dry

has

many

having

be mixed

but

state

this

required

as a basis.

large

needs daily

hydropower

electric

scale

biogas

where

is

constraint

plant

biogas,

rate

81
rate

have

of

to

into

from

the

in-

in fig.

plant

electricity-generation

experience

is

This

plant,

energy

Even if

is

activities,

operation
per

economies

that

electric

up-

utilisation

of labour

plant.

same family-size

it

quickly
rate

cattle-owners

biogas

converted

costs

limited

protcc-

costs

the

alternative

of

micro-hydro
labour

costs
of

pronounced

is

capacity

plants'

amount

The conclusion
match

Indian

micro-hydro

and the
would

Firstly:

accounting

increases,

when labour

to consider.

is possible),

the

not

economy

the

and the

daily

of electricity,

and

substantial

compare biogas

very

biogas

price

per year

water

taking

the

labour-extensive

of

water

82,

conversion

cally

liters

from

alternative.

power)

the

oil

be reached

50 % of

very

Projected

fig.

feasibility

the

80

than

operation
of

future

amount

85 %.

as opportunity

the

calorific

uneconomical,

differently

costs

the

a comparable

biogas

that

can thus

less

advantages

Thirdly:

valued

intangible

be seen

return

argue

by 30 % to $ 40.-

4 cows;

of

(evitating

point

Secondly:

should

the

70 % to approx.

heads of cattle.

is

The break-even

from

rendering

One might
work

increased

coal)

benefits

family

further

(kerosene,

thus

$ 90.-,

forests

lifted

are

cost

sources

power,

Finally,

economical

than

to compete

with

because
biogas

of the
is

very

completely

-138-

Total

annual

biogas

at a capacity

rate

5'000

production

kWhth

of 70 8

(256 days x 3 m3 x 6.5 kWh)

Fig.

Conversion

82:

into

electric

(16 % efficiency

Cost-Comparison
of Electric
Power from Biogas versus
Micro-Hydropower

Annual

costs

800 kWh,

power

75))

of electric

power

from biogas:
- cost

of biogas

- cost

of conversion

$ 126.90

production

Cost per kWh of electric

S 324.--

0 195.--

equipment*

power

us q! 40.--

power

us g! 5-10

from biogas

Cost per kWh of

electric

from micro-hyaro

* annual

operating

Annual

Investment

cost:

operation
$

33

(lifespan

6 years)

$ 400.--

67

(lifespan

S years)

Maintenance

50

45

Engine

$ 200.--

Generator

Capital

(1

costs

kW)

(15

%7

$ 195

total

out

of

biogas

the

advantages

oriented
possess
costs

acceptable

toward
the
very

majority

necessary

cattle.

much because
quantities

The overall

outlook

see

Smil,

76)

see

French,

Chinas

Energy,

further
of

Community

of water,

skilled

biogas

therefore,

p 106

Energy,

p 29

power supply

when one applies

a village

of management,

for

Renewable

when electric

dwindle

the

of enormous

75)

cost-range

still

cost

since

on the

gas distribution
tecilnicians
is ,rather

The few

a development

population,

plants

is desired.

other

only
hand will

networks,
to run
bleak

few

a large
in rural

concept
people
increase

transportation
plant

etc.

electrifica-

76)

-139-

tion.

e) Liquefied

Biomass

The production

of

methanol

micro-hydropower
The

tural-gas.
equivalent,
of

because

the

experts

very

are

the

of

in

large

Brasil

trast

to the

f 1 Solar
Along

with

.77)
78)

ethanol

It

to

natural

gas feedstock

the

the

is

nowadays

at

or

forests

and na-

barrel

of

oil

and the

of

alcohol

size

in

the

about

5'000

- 6'000
is

being

which

the

food

of countries,

grain

hectars

price

of

solution

have large

from

costs

substantially

be a partial

ethanol
for

a day),

ethanol

and Mali

relevant:

suitable

which

of

most

substitute;

equivalent

For the majority

is

costly

cost-factor

the

Kenya

production.

land

oil

per

a too

oil

decisive

might

unit-cost

45.-

production

(350 barrels

reserves)

sugar

than

hydropower,
energy

solar

the

for
surplus
however

sugarcane
production,

can grow on non-agricultural

radiation

can
the

Thus,

expensive.

World

Bank,

see

Smil,

China's

energy

use of

provide

an

1970 total

to the

see

direct

The potentials

sources.

many technical
very

land

fuel-wood

MWh - is equal
78)
ern China.

it

$ 25.-

is

the

feedstock.

residual

for

biomass.

designed

good agricultural

m2 annually.

Yet

naphta,

substitute

plantain con-

land.

and Wind Power

renewable
The

are

existing

problem
needs

that

kerosene,with

large

from

tions

from

agree

of

other

(having

another

the

as potential

of

that
or

molasses

of

is

and require
$ 10 - 20 million
77)
Today, the unit
cost
annually.

than

sugarcane

from

Of more interest

plants

range

sugarcane

higher

price

here

basis

ranges

(ethyl-alcohol)

Economically,

considered

production

on the

plant.

form of ethanol

not

price

depending

though

the

end-user

production

is

solar

flux

Irregular

flow

Energy,

Developing

p 110

flow

up

solar

energy

of

radiation

to

by less

(seasonal

for

1.6
of

conversion

p 37 ff.

are

at least

generation
annually

Countries,

power

impressing,

energy

received

of

the

are

electricity

obstacles

in

sun and wind

data

two more truly

theoretically.

million
China

kcal

per

- 60 million

than

40 km2 of north-

into

electricity

and random

on Methanol

and

make
fluctua-

Ethanol

140-

tions)

and its

plication

which

unlikely

within

convert

solar

quickly,

the

still

remain

low-lift,

farm-irrigation,

electrification

are

the

advantage

power;
load

factor

of
small

potential,
likely

to

tion,

the

Wind energy
central
feasibility

of
With

energy

seems to

over

be
will

can play

of

development,

other

concluded
not

a very

networks

than

all

the

significant

providing

future

many cases.

problem

of

mechanical

and electrical

energy-systems

employment
of

power

for

and village

to

micro-hydro-

proportion
is

to

again.

batteries

heating,

are

desalinamore viable.

However

hydropower

the
than

capacity

the

no hydro-

The economically

considerations,

in conjunction

local

Solar

it

is

very
economic

the

solar

still

in-

installation.

role

inducing

all

are economically

tc

come down
above

there

water

order

storage

kW installed

these

energy

where

like

be closer
per

in

without

arises

a micro-hydro

from

solve

alternatives,

prejudicing

$ 5'000

will

compared

areas

uses

in

on the

pumping

moreover,

equipment,

seasonality

wind

It

it

solar

(batteries),

more expensive

generation

simple

storage

of

range

systems
Other

costs
price

supply

ap-

photovoltaic

equipment

water

in

commercial

from

cost-factor.

economic

pumping

of

disputably

might

village

the

the

complementary

Nonetheless,

has a marked

a cost

that

important

possibility.

with

electricity,

becomes greater,

hydro-plant.

drying

problem

option.

hydro

into

that

a wide

Electricity

forecasts

a very

photovoltaic

also

directly

of

surfacemake

century.

fact

out

become a sound

and crop

this

for

simply
of

the

published

conceal

battery-systems
small

reaching

energy

kWh. The widely

$ 2 per

rather

before

very

cells,
of

diffusion

a larger

that

developing

micro-hydropower

countries,

but

de-centralised

with

power

at

patterns

lower

prices

and technical

activities

type,

local

to which

that

than

without
distribution

can be linked.

G. ASPECTSOF TECHNOLOGY
TRANSFERAND DISSEMINATION
Technology
from
on

for

the

an increasing
different

scales

measures

are

* refer

annexe

to

required

IV for

development
number
of

of

small

sources*

magnitude.

from

a list

of

the

of

user's

organisations

hydropower

covering
For

is

different

effective

end

(country,

pith

activities

available
approaches,

implementation,
region),

in

this

field.

which

for

transfer
and based

a number

of

were so far

141-

very

often

lacking.

technology
sured,

has

this

been

has not

Small

hydropower

without

definite

the

That

present

is

is

so,

corroborated

around

for

a long

led

the

application

to

development

has

objectives

situation

apparently

this

but

time,
of

so far

in

even

the

mostly

on a nationwide

by the

fact

where

done

relevant

finances

technology

been

that

were

as-

on a wide

scale.

on an ad-hoc

basis,

scale.
Concluding
from analyses
of
79)
some of the ingredients
lacking

a number of regions,

are:

- Clear policies
pertaining
to water rights,
licencing
procedures,
rural
electrification
and small hydropower
in particular,
and also the use of energy
for productive
applications.
institutional
development

- A practical
hydropower

in

all

framework
geared
its aspects.

budget
allocations
development
plans.

the

magnitude
resulting

- Knowledge of the general

and specific
one hand and energy demand on the other,
- Trained
manpower,
ments in overall

to

requirements

of

of available
from above.

and formulation
All
as a result

small

resources

on

of
of

specific
preceding

requirepoints.

at

present

is

1. POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONS

Concerning

hydropower

one of central
towards

the

practice
small
of

(state)

adopted
schemes

dealing

on all

levels

is

evident.

control

perhaps

less

kWh produced

interest.

A fundamental
can

local

and

degree

of state

For

to

lowest
or

79)

possible
even

on the

refer

to:

OLAOE,

report,

Regional

Manila

1980

framework

the
is

may be considered
in

the

large

not

other

only

hand,

it

appears

may be on the
level.

level

The

it

People's

where an appropriate

SHPS Program

....

Quito

1980

needs in a wider
the

national
small

under

which

interest

drainage-area

UNIOO,

of

exists.
report,

of

of all.

be delegated

Republic

a time

encouraged.

is

i,n the

policy
and

at

be in

but

should

of the

a loss

No doubt,

dissemination

necessary
that

addition,
of

situation

permitted

is

danger

an open policy,

of

in

necessary.

to

scale

formulation
is

village

ones,

a monopoly

by the

once more as an example

UNIDO,

A legal

a promotive

Where,

of

on the

This

initiatives.

still

are geared

and not

continuation

and fair,

level.

restrictive

water-resource

initiative

control;

procedures

all

constraint

be effective

perhaps

quoted

individual

a very

same way as large

hydropower,

be removed

and licencing

and coordinate
the

by

common state

development

the

and

hydropower,

with
in

be to

most

with

treated

when each

it

monopoly,

are

aim should

context,

in

the

Water rights

control.

end of a state

interest

its

development,

to the

concerned,
China

may be

One may first

Kathmandu

1979

and

-142-

note

the

overall

ments

in

parallel

the

maxim of
to

large-scale

ious

the

of

responsible

to

the

task

small

is

the

The

level.

to

smallest

than

added that
tion

the

local

ning,

directly

ment

may require
would
The

in

bodies

most

without

the

Besides

of

requiring

relates

are

plans
is

clear

that

size,

loss

of central

An

governmental,

development,

basically

two

projects,

be it

another

81)

see

also

Report
SATA/lJMN,

hydra,

on Study
p 4 f.

tour,

on which

the

with

hydropower
copy

may be
formulapromotes

central

plan-

because
central

social

all

governstructures

development.

the

projects
on the

It

based on con-

is

different

there

important

and at what

The first

there

the

projects

For the

needs

with

is

for
80)

population,

to

(as

and thus

their

rural

that

policies,

Chinese

It

system.

and decision-making
lowest

possible

level,

of

or

source

p 35 (this

of

report

that

which

require

common to
isolated

is

available

which

- should

and for

problems
is

is

private

level

group

are a number of other

question

communal

groups

assists,

and

and province

level

communes.

while

stations

coordination.

and organisational
guidelines.

county

define

Its
of the

communes

by the

impractical

authority

the

projects."

deal

much rather

overall

institutions.

SATA/UMN,

or

and the

of

is

stations.

county

larger

the

Conservancy

isolated
at

var-

may show:

and integration

plans

countries
to

be impossible
is

of

citation

of

data-base

the

organisation

in

be it'

part

for

side,

hydropower

at

develop-

responsible

Water

planning

waterbureau

needs

other

from

small

and thus,

form

propriate

80)

the

together

of

for

is taken

county

to

Farmland

approved

level

settlements

related

legal

hydropower

There

the

following

of

year

are

province

details,

be learned

clear

agencies

which

policy

equipment

the.5

in projects

cases

to

are

on

small

implementation

interconnection
required

step

a different

point

based

individual

development
81.)
acts.
It

the

the

The communes on their

with

local

the

kW and at

initiatives.

this

of

unit),

first

sultations

in

is

and technical

Bureau

optimal

production

500

the

stresses

been the

and construction

guarantee

administrative

smaller

which

countrywide

that

On the

concerned

coordinate

planning

has

achieved.

level,

planning

to

stations,
promote

are

legs",

This

already

government

for

on two

schemes.

government

central

specific

large

dissemination

levels

"At

"walking

all

power

from

institutions
best

specific

the
rural
supply,

SKAT)

areas
or

be involved
aspect.

attention

of

ap-

electrification
or

extensions

143-

from

The

a grid-system.

power

development

which

the

basic

institutional

the

first

problem

lems

in

their

second
will

group.

with

here,

of

require

problems

concerns

organisational

structure

that

Bank gives

"Rural

Electrification".

hydro-specific

specifically

involvement,in

usually

The World

publication

been adapted

group

addition

already

exists

to

an outline
82)

of

institutional

elements

hydro-

take

Material

to

care

of

prob-

therefrom

has

added.

a) Tasks and Responsibilities

The interdependence
the

success

program's

includes
level

of

the

institutional

to

a more

other

it

is

sible

them - that

The diversity
special
the

institutional

levels
the

areas.

partly

the

Where the
exists

the

country

for

arrangements

at

allocation

the

public

coordination

between

irrigation,

agro-industries,

roads,

schools,
is

E!leCtriCity

82)

World

Bank,

Rural

to

elements

locality.

At
or

however

Analysis

in

local

of trained

inappropriate

of

terms

bad
suc-

institutions,

In discussing
of who is

electrification

levels

of

agencies,

changes

from

rural
take

in related

and health.

administration:

this
respon-

p 60 ff.

these

three

of

the

how they

are

sometimes

tasks.

levels

The table
allocated,

case to case.

sectors,

by

at

administration

nature

an active

rural

requires
namely,

local

and the

development

In addition,

and distributed

programs

between

on the
and

and other

Electrification,

the

elements.

This

At the

nationally,

may be.

tasks

a significant

generated

program

as

of responsibilities

important

investment

water,

all

and partly

sector

the

rural

executing

obviously

has

lapses

them.

or a lack
within

such that

of organisation.

with

more

such

at each of their

connected

The division

program.

in billing
program

is

any one of

the

the

the

program

in

running

program

classify

in terms

on conditions

83 lists

although

look

government,

the

rural

depends
fig.

of

the

to

is,

tasks

discredit

of

convenient

of

for

responsibility,

a careful

problem,
for

of

aspects

requires

by a failure

discredit

may eventually

the

therefore,

can

an investment

negligence

example,

faults

level

pricing-policies

of

arrangements
for

repair

central

cessful

many elements

can be undermined

of responsibility,

personnel

in

the

program,

interest

in

a need clearly
order

particularly

infrastructure
where
independent

the

to

promote

in agriculture,
projects,
country

regional

is

such
large,

utilities,

as
and
a

-144-

Main r
Pub1 ic
sector

Task

Fig.

Identification

83:

Project
formulation
Economic analysis and linkage
with
development
aims
Program directives
and
ground rules
Identifying
power requirement
Engineering
planning
Equipment
procurement
Construction
Plant operation

Typical
Tasks and Divisions
of Responsibilities
in Rural
Small Hydropower Development
Source:

Adapted

Rural

Electrification

from

World

of potential

Bank,

ansibility

of:

Executing
agency

Local
institution

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

Maintenance

Identification
Repairs

Promoting regional
cooperation
Training
Supervieion
Accounting
Record keeping

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

Billing

Consumsr relations
Load promotion and
management
Transfer of technology
and know how
Acceptance standarde for
equipment and plant
Finance
Tariffs

X
X
X
X

"X" in more than one column indicates

that the task
may be performed jointly,
or by any one of the inrtitutions.

*An

central

government

electrification

Another

function

ground-rules
* Rural

Electrification

for

as

REC* in

India)

between

regions,

and

(such

cooperation

standardisation,
rural

agency

may be needed
a regional

to

balance

promote
in

the

program.

for
tariff

public

the

sector

and financial

Commission

is
policies,

to

provide
the

general
aliocation

directives
of

funds,

and
and

-145-

the

criteria

al,

except

to
that

cover

the

small

hydropower

indirect
tion

be used
the

special

the

end

technical

rural

rules

sector

may also

compare
of

public

public

be to

rules

sector's

approve

select

is

tradition-

needs widening

to

particular,isolated,

involvement

are well

and conduct

to

This

and,in

and directives

technology

sector's

of

policy

primarily

knowledge

up

jointly.

of

local
and

programs

identification,
on the

much

laid.

needs

designs

performance

tests.

equipment,

to be

A specific

equipment

advice

and

local

active

load-promotion

require

considerable

based

funcof

local

This

may

on an objective

There

is

Also,

best.

The main

outlined

should
the

talented

is

executing

of

and motivated
more widely.

delegated
likely

to
to

is often

stated

need not

be true,

in

that

extent

to

the

local

one of marginality,

can

assume

hydropower

the

site

and contracting.
providing

of

personnel

of

of

carried

in which

institutional

to

the

out
local

at

all,

is

institutions

costs

of

responsibilities
It

additional
at

the

modest

small

principle
maintaining

operate

centre,

of

the

efficient

well,
that

spread

appointed
it,

personnel
of

such

stations
institutional
operation.

is
just

sometimes

advantage

revenues

hydropower

is

quite

such centrally
to

usually

arrangement

responsibilities

working
if

which

administration.

the

to

still

of

done

and construction,

training

not

areas

are

of which

station

underlying

while

in

hand,

relation

the

best

agencies.

the

, with

can,

other

operating
if

question
the

people

the

often

executing

in

thus

Is Best?

a project

On the

a small

be high

from

about

agencies
stage

is

the

neglected,

for

that

financing,

design

load-manag&nt,

to the

be delegated

operative

a task

have

are

are

executing

and therefore

procurement

sometimes

as facilities

Arrangement

debate

service,

is

and effective

answer

assessment
agencies

of

with

on tariffs,

engineering

quality

assistance

no clear

executing

jointly

projects,

potential

this

out

Questions

projects,

as well

b) Which Institutional

in the

of

institutions.

implementing

overall

although

supervision

to be worked

reality.

appropriate

importance,

in

of

formulation

decisions

needs

engaged

The responsibilities

that

the

such designs

the

and ground

electrification

ground

who are

setting

is

of

directives

the

to

an intimate

forts

the

and selection.

appraisal.

agencies

the

of

appraisal

Much of

users

Much of the

Of

project

stations.

public

manufacturers;
permit

scope

problems

only,if
of

for

said
also

the more
their

ef-

personnel

is

costs

are

a plant.

It

are high.

This

arrangement

it

In:practice,
On the

tion.

different

necessary

one hand,

Experience

suit

was taken

institutional

set-up

development.

Consequently,
who

capable

activities,

The

Agricultural
for

the

tions

onljl

major

their

field

is

institutional

very

as agro-processing

In the

other

hand,

larger

E.l),

the

section

all

the

tasks

in

the

micro-

identification

and

account

company,

are

small

level,

introduction
feasibility

hydro

nature

so that

refined

of

such in-

there

Liwas no

in the

follow-

installation-

to carry

through

proj-

check-up's

during

opera-

based on a productive

activity

of regular

(refer

also

to

is

installa-

requirements.

up specialised

whose job

installastations.

project

repayment

was further

always

in

conducted

specific

daring

of the manufac-

on existing

of

loan

to

identification,

and later

assess

the

local

point

lift-irrigation

various

but

World

still

Two government

section

Bank,

of

operations

Rural

Electrification,

the

E.21,

micro-range

specialised
agencies

respectively,

as a contractor
scale

in

manufacturer's

mini-range

working

from

them to

in the

to the

projects,

on this

used

the

site

no

of hydropower
sold

personnel

up financing

into

be

financing,

of them by now) set

executed

necessary.

company,

could

when tur-

such

and stations

owned.

of

in

Material

or

privately

case

limited

organisa-

was virtually

aspects

same time

enable

on the

inception
are

related

surveys

involvement

to

there

situation,

the

reti.srn)

(three

affiliated

that

to

traditionally

of

Projects

at

taking

area.

their

are usually

of

on the
831

and maintenance

and took

slow

Manufacturers

from

form

at the outset,

turbines
of

the

personnel,

view

in this

or

problem

Bank

basis,

authority

within

tion.

of

context:

site-identification

personnel

point

The arrangement

ects

in
of

longterm,

problem

units

well;

and cultures.

of all

few

To improve

(e.g.

ing years.

the

Development

on a sustained

cencing

the

manufacturer,

care

very

somehow tackled

lending

vestments

83)

of taking

training

tion

from

may work

in this

up by a local

company was engaged

courses

deciding

countries

interest

and installation.

licencing,

in

arrangements

different

in Nepal may be of

customers

be flexible

Example

development

turing

to

several

arrangements

c) A Country

bine

is

were set

with
on the
is

units

a third
mini-scale

usually

P 60 ff-

(e.g.

the

cannot

cope

up to handle
agency,
of

with

projects
a private

projects.

done by small

example

Site

engineering

147-

consultant
study.

firms
Detail

hydro

aided

surveys

contractors

hand,and

all

are

then

design

the

rest

local

the

with

team,

engineering

stage,

by

authorities,

done
the

is

jointly

respective

split

into

on the

other,

here,

are

followed

a feasibility

by one of

the manufacturers

government

agency.

penstock

as is

by

In the

and equipment

actual

or the

construction

execution

layout

on one

and installation

work.

The

executing

contractor,
sion

agencies
and the

manufacturers

and distribution

are

or are contracted

The several

with

and

hydraulics

technology

tion.

is

fied

cost-wise

project

opment

in the

The attitude

in

the

in

this

area

of

remarkable:

equipment

having

to

face

in which

steady

operation

while

institutions

what

has an impact

that

despite

bears

promise

to see the

on

co-operation

failure

in

competi-

for

intensi-

of a compe-

could

discredit

in the

early

phase of activities

as did

hydropower

while

plants

co-operative

to

devel-

to

the

with

in

no prior
skills

the

also
was
expe-

without

case

situation

of

site-

of competition

are evident.

several

arrangements

small-scale)

is

operated

others

are under

direct

control

often
is
is

is

equipment

develop

engineers

has led

ownership

located

local

the

are

structure

chance

finally,
in

of

Workshops

consulting

this

still

company,

are

the

improvements

(but

Micro

and reliability

got

and ownership-side

institutional
that

like

manufacturers.

mentioned,

limited

mentioned,
say

encourage

risks,

stations

agency.

This

it

performance

technological

government

to

authorities
of

undue

As previously

as a private

that

themselves,

of competition

manufacturers

market

because

manufacturing

surveys.

larger

firms.

the

hydro-

firms.

a situation

may be noted

No one would

situation,

to

in

the

future.

government

rience

of

consultant

potential

agencies

engineering

in

the

electricity-transmis-

government

today

It

or

concerned.

deliberately

On the

are

agency

while

electrical

among some of

large

requirements

relaxed

few local

performance.

the

government

by the

equipment

exists

due to

activities

titor's

of

of

as are the engineering

quality-wise

This

care

to one of the

each other,

relevant

team respectively,

taken

,manufacturers

the

the

geographically

owned
also

and

existing.

most

suitable,

close

to

is

of a central
privately,
still

except
the

One

successfully

operated
It

exist.

as

too

early

perhaps

that

hydropower

station

1?5-

under

their

control,

d) The Need for

A number

of

problems

of

operation

and it

hydro

become

more

This

is

indeed

cal

side,

an

is

be regarded

as the

pilot-projects

that

cou?d

be engaged

in

further

The multiplicator-effect
permitting

substantial

It

be noted

ferent

from

approach

is

that

projects

on the

while

in

small

On the
overstaffed,to

that

after

to big
in

project

the

Another

short

projects,

point

leve1,tern.l

to

generalists

are required.

is

and execute

in

that

could

be trained.

of

a skill-bank,

side

that

oppor-

time.

should

be dif-

a non-conventional

as far

be specialised

therefore

be trained

basis

engineering

hydro

plan

would

development,because

small

concerned.

projects

civil

have

hydropower

should

could

up.

practi-

as many training

a relatively

on the

built

paper,

new people
form

that

countries

training

personnel

could

situa-

More on the

this

give

again

initiated,

training

higher

of

projects,where

necessary
are

a stock

is

individual

Governments

this

snd workshops

cadres.

job

that

a necessity

done about

throughout

instrument.

dissemination

usually

techniques

operation,

way,

thus

oriented

working

and. plant

evident

- is

seminars

and

of know-how

is

expertise

of higher

are deliberately
In this

of

It

operators
being

level

most effective

a lack

into

interantional

out

have identified
construction,

countries.

already

situation-specific.

as possible.

should

as

As pointed

play.

highly

is

numbers

on the

execution
to

development

primarily

to plant

a lot

meaningful

hydropower

designing,

in many developing

increasing

valuable

role

planning,

translates

see that
of

more

project

important

tunities

to

very

of small

- from policy-makers

a trend
and

in

area

levels

is

for

This

stations.

encouraging

There

tion.

development

capacity

specific

on all
is

84,) on the

insufficient

in the

knowledge

at an advantage.

Training

seminars

of

and skills

are

as materials

people

assigned

one specific

and
to big

activity,

2. FINANCE
The lack
gical

of

financial

development

in

hydropower

84)

See

for

instance

means is one of
and

its

development
UNIDO,

the

dissemination
for

Kathmandu

two
1979,

principal
in

reasons:
Manila

1980,

factors

general.
First,
and

This

limiting
is

hydropower
NRECA,

Quito

1980

technolo-

particularly
is

of

true

a capital-

,149-

'intensi've
benefits
wise

which

nature,
of

hydropower

returns

are

scarce

capital,
promise
a relatively

in

part

of

should

development

Activities

that

as an investment

rather

this

funds,

and bilateral

cannot

may

construction

of

sistance
items

of

propriate

list

are

usually

Within

the

framework

to

be very

the

provision

might

the

of

design

risk.

be required

which

turer

BYS in

provided

from

general

and

consistently

the

infrastrucregular

state

agencies.

Specific
and

to hydro

topographical

training

and also

initial

contractors.
in the

charge

priorities,

The

must be regarded

hydrological

overall

in

and the

financial

as-

The first

few

of a government

these

could

should

get

addition

may result

with

around
in

part

for

in

ap-

laboratory

of

per

replacing

previous

loan.

Exactly

the

manufac-

equipment
of

limited

having

and testing

prototypes,

turbine-units

build-

without

case

turn
along

sufficient

or a soft

relatively

well

financed

production

the

for

no national

twenty

in

a grant

sources

this

are

make self-supporting

to finances

of

and could

prototypes

some equipment

be financed

items,

grants

of

few
this

since

of

form

instance,a

The result

auxiliary

the

input
year,

was

kind

re-

is by now
including

activities

in

and structural-engineering.

concept

have

the

co-operation

capacity

mechanical-

Persuading

could

where

existence,

a manufacturing
accessories

of

In addition,

a testing-facility,

was in

terms.

that

make up only

the

in financial

blue-prints,

bilateral

Nepal,

for

to,

a country

activities

a manufacturer

initial

was done

quired

If, for

which

this

regular

for

development.

donor

and

Money-

competition

other

of

manufacturers

may be in

effective.

up of capability,
to bear

future

the

allocations.

entrepreneurs

to

limited

purpose,

this

Assistance

not

side.

to

as used for

for

equipment

open

of hydro

and multilateral

this

social

likely

information-processing,

potential

budget

but

as,

Second,

by technologies

is

surveys,

to

department.

is

areas

sources

meteorological,

plants

there

be absorbed

the

long-term

include

pilot

all

be recovered

potential-assessment

service,

in

such

which

to

limits.

more on the

where

come from

the

certain

money therefore

finances

affect

are often

tend

projects,

will

beyond

situations

Commercial

development

with

and

areas

returns.

budget,

out

rural

resources

part

development

be reduced

financial

small

substantial

in

slow,

quicker

tural

cannot

to

of

on the

be included

job
in

training,
actual

financing

projects.

If

in
such

this

area

a project

would
is

of

150-

a pilot-nature

or

as a long-term

investment,

Regular

project

approach.
of

the

of

stations

form

of

the

may be
enough
in

should

the

consumers

period.

If

a high

be adapted

corresponding

of

If

external
are

extensive

themselves

benefits,

loans.

on the

that

is

justified

will

be more realistic

clear

productive

use
to

hand,

are

by its

that

of

to

be sought
interest

as

on the

power

is

small

as

nature

of

feasible,

a loan,

intangible

terms.

in the
be

depend

repay

expected
than

have

should

will

able

characteristic

often

is

in its

and repayment

will

desirable,

other

long-life

financing

who are

of flexibility

periods

It

may be considered

basis.

to the

funding

soft

it

degree

grace

external

01 loans

project.

grant-component

requires

portion

grants

a project

finally,

or long-term

the

particular

on a non-recoverable

resources,

self-reliance,

unit,

financed

with

grants

Whether

be a demonstration

to

particular

on internal

feasible.

in

hydropower

in

destined

financing

Loans

Depending

is

given

a long'

in monetary

social

impact

a permanent

it

terms

an outright

obligation

of

subsi-

dising.

Local
of

involvement
to

the

in

largest

extent

station-operation
is

small.
in

quoted

generating

here

as

established
for

value

load
of

in

than

collected

is

and is

expected

lion

$ in

Such

a tax

consumers

used
to

apt to foster

the

policy

internal

funds

by

the

amount

concerned
to

the

5.6

million

U.S.

due to

the

fact

power

to

derive

not
In-

deve 1opment

a surtax

Fund"
on electricity

plan,

$ in

has been
bills
of the

with

an installed

clients,

a monthly

agency

may be

10 percent

Electrification

government

is

be satisfactory.

Electrification

clients,with

Rural

funding

participation

to

industrial

10 kW, and by commercial

in efficient

equally.

Under this
by

advantage

of overall

hydropower

money of

consumed

local

situations

consumers.

interest

unlikely

small

be taken

component

that

A "Rural

with

to

local

is

for

example:

kWh, goes

and should

however,

different

supplied

is

if

to treat

electricity

2'500

even

An uniform

and industrial

than

desirable

This

obvious,

a practical

of

greater
more

is

Ecuador,

commercial

voiced

It

is no reason

One way of

very

possible.

many cases.

deed there

is

and management,

relatively

possible

financing

Fund.
for

project

in-

consumption
The money so
activities,

1981 and more than

7.5 mil-

1982.

seems sensible
utilise

electric

that

the
profits

industrial
from

and commercial
processing

goods,

151-

largely

consumed

contribute

in this

International
to

in

financing

in

tions

the

to

make the
the

next
be

of

implementing

power

funding

pilot-scale

it

economically
potential

sense,

and

from

private,
quired

potential

85)

Material

86)

Refer

World

no

to

is

reason

of

they

shouid

at the

top,

intend

development

this

comprising

of

small

energy

re-

hydropower

context,

so it

a number

of

preceding
in

that

85)

Individual

in

Viteri
Energy

state

number
perhaps

action

sta-

might

be

projects.

To

should

institution-building

in

NRECA,
in

the

the

development

development.

of
the

why this

is mature

that

rural

governments

of action

Bank,

the

possible,

aiding

and international

from

for
86)

areas.

Bank ranking

guide-lines,

a great
it

side

a plan

used
to

in

is

national
for

programs

in

exists,

the

the World

a package,

seems credible

there

of rural

worldwide.

policy

therefore,

be in
and

in

projects.

feasible

Where

just,

proposition

such
out

is

available

for

of

has a great

efforts

dollars

working

In conclusion,

with

an attractive

seek

it

development

few years,

formulation

fields

and

agencies,

billion

may not

necessary

areas

way to the

make several

sources

urban

situations
best

sector

alternative
should
institutions,

development

agencies.
today.

p 274 ff.
Developing

Countries,

is

p 72

not

in

and

desirable.
more than

invoke

one

substantial

and interest
Basic

hydro-

technically

and socially

and local

and available

It

of small

technology

from
re-

-152-

ANMEXEI
ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF BIBLIOGRAPHY

BYS Cross-Flow

Adam, Co,

Adam, C., Study

mandu i974

for

the

Electrification

AOB/N, Agricultural

Development
of Bhorletar
Area,

velopment

Alward,

R. et al,

D.C.,

Design

of the

Chialsa

Bank Nepal, Lift

Kathmandu 1978
Reviewing

Micro-Hydropower,

and

Manual,

Kathmandu

Handicraft

Center,

Irrigation

and old

Project

Concept,

1974
Kath-

for

the

De-

DOE, Washington,

1979

Amann, H., Energy

lag,

Arter,

Project

Turbine,

Munich

A.,

Supply
1969

and Economic

Ourchstromturbine,

Oiplomarbeit:

ATOO, Appropriate
Islamabad

Bossard,

Technology

in

Zurich

Development

East

Africa,

Weltforum

Ver-

1980

Organisation,

12th

six-monthly

Report,

1980

W.E.,

Vorlzufige
Abteilung
fiir

Schweiz,

Brenken,

G., Versuch
wasserwirtschaftlichen

Breslin,

Development

W.R., Small

Mitteilung
Uber
Landeshydrographie,

einer

Klassifikation
Gesichtspunkten,

Michell

(Banki)

die ausgenutzten
Berne 1914

Wasserkrafte

der FlUsse und Strijme

Karlsruhe
1959

Turbine:

A Construction

der

Manual,

der

Erde

nach

VITA,

Mt.

Rainier

Buchanan & Somers, Discharge

Creager,

W.P. & Justin,

York

Oillo,

J.O.,

teilung

P.G.

Vienna

Hydro-Electric

Stations,

Handbook,

Ein Beitrag
zur Energieversorgung
in
Nr. 51 des Franzius-Instituts,
University

& Oenton,

F.H.,

1969

John Wiley

& Sons,

New

Mini-Hydro

Entwicklungslandern,
of Hannover 1980

Application

in

the

in Mit-

Philippines,

UNIOO,

1980

ESCAP,

Electric
Power
New York 1978

Falkenmark,
Vol.

at Gaging

1927

H.-G.,

Oumol,

Measurement

M.

in

& Lindh,

3, No. 3-4,

1974

Asia

G.,

and the

The

Pacific

Global

1975 and 1976,

Freshwater

Circulation,

United

Nations,

in

AMBIO,

-153-

French,

O., The Economics of

Washington,
O.C., 1979

Renewable

Energy

GATE,

Oirekte
Statusbericht
Biomasse
II,
- 01.100,
Eschborn 1980
78.2247.1

Gautschi,

C.,

Gloor,

chung einer

Gladwell,
Gladwell,

J.S.

& Warnick,

C.C.,

Guerrero,

J.L.,

Turbines:

Pelton

Grainger,

L.,

10th

Grumnann, H.R.,
L.A.,

Mean Velocity

The Cross-Flow

of

Flow

Turbine,

in

Hamerak, K.,
5, 1966

Elektrische

Energie

aus

Hamerak,

Die Ossbergerturbine:
Asynchronkraftwerke,

in

K.,

nungslose

Hassanaly,

M.G.

Development

Hiller,

& Reichel,

Howe, J.,

Calculation

Energy for
Foundation,
1977

How Things

Integration
GmbH, Statusbericht
78.2247.1 - 01.100, Eschborn
ects,

B. & Evans,

L.,

in NRECA. Small

Jagdish

Lal,

Kadete,

H. & Reichel,

Tanzania,

Hydraulics

Power",

Countries,

and Fluid

R.,

of

Machines,

St.

Mechanics,

with

Louis

1928

1960
"technica"

Nr.

fiir
bedie15, May 1963

Stations

for

Rural

to the

Rocke-

1979
Report

Bibliographisches

In-

Kleinwasserkraftanlagen,

Considerations
Powerplants,

Experience
Dar es Salaam 1978

Rainier

in

(draft),

Laufwasserenergie,
1980

Distribution
Hydroelectric

Mt.

january

Wasserkrtiften,

of Check Dams, Kathmandu

Developing

NRECA, Small

die geeignete
,Antriebsmaschine
"Energie
und Technik",
No.

Work, The Universal

Encyclopedia
Mannheim, London 1967

stitut

Jackson,

kleinen

Untersu1980

1979

in open Channels,

"Water

PN.

Use, A Digest
of the
Press,
New York 1978

Exploiting
Mini-Hydropower
Oar es Salaam 1979

et al.,

feller

and Rational
and Technology

R.,

in Tanzania,

B., Manual

Idaho

in

VITA 002178,

of Water

Countries,

Verbrennung,

Assessment,

Moscow,

Wheel Governors,

Availability
Energy Resources:
Energy Conference,
Science

World

Haimerl,

Hydro,

Developing

1980: Experimentelle
HTL Brugg Windisch

Hydropower

Low-Head

for

reduzierte

Diplomarbeit
des Typs Banki,

Hydrologic
Studies
for
Powerplants,
p 22 ff.

Hydroelectric

und

W., Wong, T.M.,

Durchstromturbine

J.S.,

Systems

for Mini/Micro
p 214 ff.

MetropolitanBook

Small

Hydro-electric

PN.

Hydro Proj-

Co.,

New Delhi

Stations

in

-154L. & Ledergerber,

Kathmandu/Zurich
1981

E.,

Krayenbiihl,
Kuntz,

H., Hydro-electric

in

"gate"

Lausselet,

H.R.,

Litscher,

Electrical
1977

J.,

MacKillop,
ects,

Maucor,

Wadebridge

Design Criteria
in NRECA, Small

of Typical
Hydroelectric

U., Lausselet,
Proposal

H.R.,
the

Small

Scale

Installations,

Final

Report,

isolated

Systems,

Wirz,

Water

Kathmandu

Civil

Works for
Powerplants,

Wiring,

1979

Mini-Hydropower
p 145 ff.

GRET, Paris

W., Salleri/Chialsa

Kathmandu

Design

House and Factory

1975

Hydrauliques,

and Report,

U., Manual for

Kathmandu 1979
U.,

through

Hyde1 Project,

Hydropower,

Meier,

Meier,

Small

M., Les Microcentrales

ect

Evaluation,

Electrification

Low Tension

Salleri/Chialsa

A.,

Mata, J.,

Rural

Program

l/79

Kathmandu

Meier,

Power:

SHDB -

Plant

Proj-

1979

Micro-Hyde1

Project:

Proj-

1976

of a simple

Mechanical

Power Development,

Water-Hydraulic

Photo-documentation,

Governor

Kathmandu

1979

Meier,

U., Small

Mother Earth
Nakarmi,

A.M.,
R.,

Water

News, Cross-Flow

Kathmandu
Noyes,

Scale

Cottage
1980

(editor),

NRECA, National

Turbine

Multi-Purpose

Small

and Micro

Plans,

St.

Gall

1981

for

Rural

1980

Power

Unit

Hydroelectric

Power Plants,

Rural
Electric
Cooperative
Association,
Proceedings
of Workshop in Quito,
Ecuador

Powerplants,

OECO, The Electricity

OLAOE, (Latin-American
and Requirements
American Energy

Supply

Industry,

24th

to 26th

Enquiries,

Energy Organisation),
Regional
for the Promotion
of Technological
Sector,
Quito

OLAOE, Requirements
Hydropower

Stations

Palmedo, P.F.,

et al.,

U.S. A.I.D.

Power Development,

and

Methodology
for
the
in Latin
America,
Quito

Energy Needs,
Springfield
1978

Areas

in

Nepal,

New Yersey

1980

Small
Hydroelectric
1980, Washington
1980

Paris

1978

SHPS Program:
Prospects
Cooperation
of the Latin

massive

Implementation

Uses and Resources

in Developing

of

Small

Countries,

155-

Foundation

R.B. et al.,

Peck,

Pittet,

Study

A.,

Bangalore

SATA/UMN, Report

Smil,

Metzler,

H.,

for

the

V., China's

Statistik

of

Energy

Energy,

Jahrbuch

B.,

a Cross-Flow

New York

der Wasserkraftanlagen

Statistisches
Stern,

of Rural

R. & Yoder,

Construction

der

der Schweiz,

SVMT/LAI,

Schweizerische
Vereinigung
sches Institut,
Erfahrungen
mit
St. Gall 1976
lungslandern,

Conference

1950,

UNIDO, Draft
nology
1979

plication
Manila,

Resources

"Rural

Small Water Turbine,

Turbine
GATE-Modul

Berne

in

p 109,

China,

19.8.

Instruction
Manual
l/13,
Eschborn 1980

1928

Bdsle

fiir Mittlere
dem Einsatz

of Water Resources
Symposium 1973

Projects

on Seminar-Workshop
on Mini Hydro-Electric

Paper for the

of Technology
Vienna 1980

1978

Technology",

Development

in

"Appropriate

Technology"

TechnologielLateinamerikanivon Sonnenkochern
in Entwick-

Nations
Conference
on New and Renewable
News 1-6 in ASSET, UN-University,
Tokyo 1981

Report
Transfer

UNIDO, Issue

in

Structures,

UNESCO-WMO,Design
of Madrid

1974

EPFL, Lausanne

Centres,

Schweiz,

Gabions for Hydraulic

7, No. 4, London 1981

UNCNRSE, United

London

1976

P. et al.,

Vol.

& Sons,

Load Controller,

on Study Tour on Water

Kathmandu 1981

to 12.9.1980,

Scheurer,

on an Electronic

The Design
1980

Reddy, A.K.N.,

Wiley

Engineering,

with

inadequate

Sources

Data,

of

Energy,

Proceedings

on the Exchange of Experiences

and TechGeneration
Units at Kathmandu, Vienna

Second Seminar-Workshop
for
Mini-Hydro
Power

in the Development
and ApGeneration
at Hangzhou and

UNIDO, Report on Second Seminar-Workshop/Study

Tour in Development
and Application of Technology
for Mini-Hydro
Power Generation
at Hangzhou and Manila,
Vienna 1980

United

Nations,

United

Nations,

tric

United

Electric

Proceedings
Power Development,

Nations,

secretariat,

Power

in

Asia

and

the

of Regional
Seminar
ECAFE, Bangkok 1962

Rapport
du Groupe
New York 1981

Technique

Far

East,

on Energy

de 1'Energie

ECAFE Bangkok
Resources

Hydraulique,

1957

and Elec-

UNCNRSE

-156of
Dept.
Developing
Countries:
Report
of the Advisory
nology to Development,

United

Nations,

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,

tions

Vischer,

and Construction

D. & Huber,

A.,

VITA,

H.,

a Guide
Earth Manual:
Materials
for Hydraulic

Wasserbau,

Financial

to the Use of Soils

Structures,
Denver

Springer-Verlag,

Berlin

Installation
and Maintenance
and Subsystems,
Mt. Rainier

The Planning,
fication
Systems

Viteri,

Economic
and Social
Affairs,
Natural
Resources
of
Development
and Rational
Utilization,
Investigation,
Committee
on the Application
of Science
and TechNew York 1970

Aspects,

in

1979

of Low-Voltage
1979

NRECA, Small

as Founda1960

Hydroelectric

Rural

Electri-

Powerplants,

p 274 ff.

Water Power and Dam Construction,

Wilson,

P.N.,

001686,

Mt.

Water-Driven
Rainier

World Bank, Energy

World Bank, Rural

in the

Prime

Movers,

Developing

Electrification,

Wright,
D.L., An Appraisal
ITIS, Rugby

various

articles
in

Countries,
Washington

of

Some Recent

on Mini-Hydro,

Engineering

Washington,
D.C.

Heritage,

D.C.

January
Vol.

1979

1, VITA

1980

1975

Micro-Hydro

Installations

in

Nepal,

-157-

AWNEXEI I
GLOSSARYOF ABBREVIATIONS USED
AC:

Alternating

Current

ADB/N:

Agricultural

Development

ATDC:

Appropriate
Pakistan

Technology

BEW:

Butwal

Engineering

BYS:

Balaju

Yantra

CEDT:

Centre

for

CMEC:

China

Machinery

DC:

Direct

Current

DOE:

U.S.

Department

EAP & L:

East

African

EPFL:

Ecole
Federal

ESCAP:

Economic
and Social
kok, Thailand

ETHZ:

Eidgenossiche
Technische
Hochschule,
Federal
Institute
of Technology)

GATE:

German Appropriate
public
of Germany

Technology

GRET:

Groupe

et dIEchanges

GWh:

Giga Watthour

(see

HMG:

His Majesty's

Government

HP:

Horsepower

(see

HPS:

Hydropower

Station

H.T.:

High

HTL:

Hijhere

Hz:

Hertz

IER:

Internal

kg:

kilogram

kgce:

kilogram

coal

equivalent

(see also

Annex V)

kgce1c.y.:

kilogram

coal

equivalent

per capita

and year

km:

kilometer

kVA

kilo
Volt Ampere,
pareilt
Power)

Bank Nepal
Development

Works,

Shala

private

private

Electronics
Export

limited,

limited,

Design

Kathamndu,

Corporation,

Nepal

Nepal

Bangalore,

Beijing,

India

China

of Energy
Company,

Polytechnique
FBd?rale,
Institue
of Technoloqy

also

also

Ltd.

Lausanne,

Commission

de Recherche

for

Asia

Switzerland
and the

ZUrich,

Exchange,

(Swiss

Pacific,

Bang-

Switzerland

Eschborn,

Technologiques,

(Swiss

Federal
Paris,

Re-

France

Annex V)
of Nepal

VI

Annex

(>lOOO V)

Technische
= cycles

Butwal,

Technology,

Power and Lighting

Tension

Islamabad,

Organisation,

Lehranstalt

per

Economic

(Swiss

Engineering

College)

second
Rate of Return

= 1000 m
equivalent

to

kW at

a power

factor

of 1 (Ap-

-158-

kWh:

kilo

LDC:

Least

Developed

LNG:

Liquid

Natural

LPG:

Liquid

Petroleum

l/s:

liters

per second

L.T.:

Low Tension

m:

meter

mm:
3
m ,/c*
,I.
".

millimeter,

MW:

Mega Watts

NEA:

National

NRECA:

National
Rural
D.C., U.S.A.

NRs:

Rupees,

OECD:

Organisation
France

for

OLADE:

Organization
Organisation,

Latinoamericana
Quito,
Ecuador)

PE:

Polyethylene

PVC:

Poly

RPM:

Revolutions

SATA:

Swiss Association
for
the Swiss Government
non-profit
orqanisation,

SHDB:

Small
Hyde1 Development
Kathmandu, Nepal

SKAT:

Schweizerische
Kontaktstelle
fiir
Center for Appropriate
Technology)

TANESCO:

Tanganyika

UEB:

Uganda Electricity

UMN:

United

UNCNRSE:

United Nations Conference

on New and Renewable
(to be held August 81 in Nairobi,
Kenya)

UNESCO:

United

UNIDO:

United
Austria

U.S.

Watthour

Cubic

A.I.D.

..

United

(see

also

Annex V)

Country

as per U.N.

definition

Gas
Gas

(4000

V)

1000 mm = 1 m

meters

per second
(see also

Energy

(Unit

Administration
Electric

Co-operative

Electric

States

Watt

WMO:

World

'Washington,

$ 1

Co-operation

and Development,

de Energia

(Latin-American

Paris,
Energy

Technical
Assistance
in
Development
Co-operation
Kathmandu, Nepal

Supply

Department

of

comprising
HELVETAS, a
Electricity,

Angepasste
Technik
St. Gall,
Switzerland

Company,

(Swiss

Ltd.

to Nepal

Economic,
Industrial
Agency

for

in Technical

(see also

Board,

Nepal
and

Board

Nations

w:

Association,

NRs 12 = U.S.

Economic

Bangkok

per Minute

Nations,

Volunteers

of Thailand,

Chloride

Mission

VITA:

Mass Flow Rate)

Annex V)

Nepal-currency,

Vinyl

for

Social

and Cultural

Development
International
Assistance,

Sources
Organisation

Organisation,
Development

Mt.

Rainier,

U.S.A.

Annex V)

Meteorological

Qrganisation,

Geneva,

of Energy

Switzerland

Vienna,

-159-

'

AWNEXEI I I
ALPHABETICAL MANUFACTURER'SLIST
Balaju

Yantra

P.O.

Shala private

Box 209,

limited

Balaju

Kathmandu,

Nepal

0 General

engineering

firm

turbines

and

capacity

of max. 70 kW/unit.

Barata

related

Metalworks

Jalan

P. Tendean

Jakarta.

Indonesia

industry

Cross-Flow

Bell,

general

Switzerland

. Highly

firm

specialised

turbines

Francis

from

0.1

1 MW capacity.

Also

firm

specialising

of max. 70 kW/unit.

China National
12 Fu Xing

in

Manufacture

of newly

Francis-

developed

manufacture

the

Standardised

equipment.

Machinery

and

S-Propel-

large

units

of

manufacture

turbine

of

program

Cross-Flow

within

output

Imp & Exp Corporation

Men Wai Street

PR China

Exporters

of

Small

Hydro

turbines

12 to

12'000

kW of

Francis,

Pelton,

and Turgo-type.
- Alternators

upto

- Speed governors

Disag Dieselmotoren
7320 Sargans,
Manufacturer

range.

output

450 kW capacity.

range

capacity

upto

firm.

a standard

and related

also:

engineering

with

turbines

Kaplan

within

Works

Nepal
--Eutwal,
engineering
0 General

program

Cross-Flow

and Pelton.

Butwal Engineering

Beijng,

turbine

of

AG

6010 Kriens/Lucerne,

ler

manufacture

P.T.

occasionally

Maschinenfabrik

the

12-14

and

turbines

in

Standardised

equipment.

& Engineering

Kaplen

Heavy

specialising

Also

12 MW capacity
of various

types

d
and other

accessories.

AG
Switzerland
of

produce

Cross-Flow
a small

turbines
governor.

and

Pelton

turbines

in

the

small

-160-

Drees GmbH
Postfach

43

4760 Werl,

Federal

0 Manufacture

Elektro

Republic

a variety

of Germany

of Pelton

and Francis

turbines

with

upto

in the

small

range.

GmbH

St.

Gallerstrasse

27

8400 Winterthur,

Switzerland

Manufacture

other

small

Pelton

sets

output

England

CV21 1BD

25 kW beside

non-related

equipment.

GEC Machines
Mill

Limited

Road

Rugby,

Warwickshire,

0 Manufacturer
form

Kendal,
.

complete

electrical

generating

equipment

with

capacities

500 kW to 10 MW

approx.

Gilkes

Gilbert

of

& Gordon Ltd.

Cubria,

England

Manufacturer

of

LA9 782

Francis,

turgo

and

Pelton-turbines

with

capacity

upto

350 kW.
Also

manufacture

James Leffel

control

other

non-related

products.

Street

Springfield,

Ohio 45501

Manufacturer

a few kW upto

Jyoti

beside

& Co.

426 East

equipment

of

USA

a large

the

range

of Kaplan,

Francis

and Pelton

turbines

from

MW range

Limited
R.C.

Dutt

Baroda
.

390 005,

Manufacturer

program

Koessler
St.

India
of

of Gilkes,

a rang e of water
including

turbines

alternators

more or

less

and associated

according

equipment.

GmbH
Georgener

3151 St.
l

Road

Piilten,

Manufacture

Hauptstrasse
Austria
Pelton,

Francis

and Kaplan

turbines

in

t&

small

range

to

the

-161-

Leroy-Somer
Boulevard
B.P.

Marcellin

Leroy

119

16004 Agouleme

Cedex,

m Manufacturer

or

kW.

Also

Mitsubishi

a large
a

produce

installations

upto

electric

Nagasaki,

France
range

bulb

of

standard

turbine

with

alternators

built-in

from

4 kW to 1'200

alternator

for

low-head

very

low-head

34 kW output.

Corporation

Japan

. Manufacture

a very

small

bulb

turbine

with

4 kW output

for

application.

Nikki

Engineering

Corporation,
2940 Shin

Company

Yoshidamachi

Koohoku
Yokohama,
.

Japan

Have recently

started

manufacture

of Cross-Flow

turbines

upto

800 kW out-

put.

Ossberger-Turbinenfabrik
Postfach

425

8832 Weissenburg,
l

Longtime

1'000

Peltech

producer

kW per

. Manufacture

Jalan

turbines.

Have delivered

equipment

up to

Acme, Washington
small

Pelton

98220,

USA

turbine-sets.

Kom. Ud.
98

Bandung,

Indonesia

Manufacture

Tamar Designs
Deviot,

Cross-Flaw

C.V.

Supadio

of

of Germany

Turbines

Wickersham,

Sukaraja,

Republic

unit.

Hydraulic

5i41

Federal

Bavaria,

Cross-Flow

Ptv.

of local

design

Ltd.

Tasmania

e Manufacture

turbines

7251,

Francis,

Australia
turgo

and Pelton

turbines

upto

about

100 kW capacity.

-162-

Turbomeccanica

Diisol

SA

68rlri Taverne,

Switzerland

e Manufacture

a range

Voit

of turbines

including

all

accessories.

GmbH
Postfach
Federal

7920 Heidenheim,
, Manufacture
tdoodward Governor

Vertical

and Turbine

Controls

Division

Collins,
Manufacture

Francis

of Germany
turbines

50 to 2'000

kW.

Company

Engine

Ft.

Republic

Colorado,
a variety

USA
of speed governors

of high

quality.

-163-

AWIEXE IV
ALPHABETICAL LIST

AND ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN HYDRO DEVE:OP-

OF INSTITUTIONS

MENT
ADB/N, Agricultural
Putali

Bank

Sadak

Kathmandu,
.

Development

Local

Nepal
financing

agency

for

a large

number of

small

productive-use,

hydro-

projects.

ATDA, Appropriate
Projects
P.O.

Technology

Box 311,

Gandhi

226001,

Have taken

electricity

Bhawan

India
up integrated

47th

Technology

Street,

Islamabad,

development

projects,

based

on hydro-

Development

Organisation

F-7/1

Pakistan

. Work on more than

bines

village

plants.

ATDO, Appropriate
l-B,

Association

Division

Lucknow
l

Development

in the

twenty

output

DEH, Directorate

for

range

small
from

Development

hydra

projects

using

local

Cross-Flow

tur-

3 to 20 kW

Co-operation

and Humanitarian

Aid,

of the Swiss

Government
Eigerstrasse

73

3003 Berne,

Switzerland

a Sponsoring

agency

in Nepal

Kaliurang

Juruksari,
Yogjakarta,
.

hydro

development

activities

(among other

with

own design

P.O.

Technology

Organisation

km7,
Box 19, Bulaksumur

Indonesia

Work on village

electrification

projects

Flow turbine.

ETHZ, Institute
Sonneggstr,
l

Technical

things)

and elsewhere.

DIAN DESA, Appropriate

Jalan

for

for

Fluid-Technology

3, 8092 Zurich,
consulting

in

Switzerland
small

hydro

development.

their

of Cross-

-164-

GATE, German Appropriate

Technology

Dag Hammerskjold-Weg
6236 Eschborn,

lated

Federal

0 Have published
manuals.

Republic

a manual
Maintain

GRET, Groupe de Recherche

34,

of Germany

on Cross-Flow

turbine

an enquiry-service

et dIEchange

construction

and information

and other

re-

network.

Technologiques

rue Dumont-d'urville

75116 Paris,
.

Exchange

France

Have published

an introductory

an enquiry-service

manual

and information

on micro-hydro

generation.

Maintain

network.

HELVETAS
St.

Moritz

Strasse

8042 --Zurich,
o Sponsoring

15

Switzerland
and executing

agency

of

Cross-Flow

turbine

development

at

BYS

in Nepal.

ITB,

Institute

of Technology

Departemen
Jalan

Mesin

Ganesha

Bandung,

10

Indonesia

Have implemented

design

about

of Cross-Flow

ITDG, Intermediate
9 King

Bandung

ten

small

hydro-projects

so far,

with

small

hydro

their

own

turbine.

Technology

Development

Group

Street

London WC2E 8HN, U.K.

0 Technical

consulting

Have collaborated

ITIS,

intermediate
3rd floor
Rugby,
l

in electronic

Technology

Mayson House,

load

Industrial
Railway

activities
controller

in

projects.

development.

Services

Terrace

CV21 3HT, U.K.

Project

others).

and development

executing

agency

of

ITDG collaborating

with

BEW in

Nepal

(among

.,, _
:,
.,
1;
$8,
_

-165-

,,
,

ITINTEC, Division
Apartado
Lima,

145

Peru

0 Have
for

developed

local

Bangkok

Villa,

projects

in the

National

Ja Ela,

NRECA, National

Sri

equipment

of U.S.

local

manufacture

and

implement

range.

Cross-Flow

Research

turbines

Electric

and Development

20036,

in

small

for

local

Co-operative

Avenue,

D.C.

Assisting

Centre

manufacture.

Association

N.W.

U.S.A.
hydro

development

in

developing

countries

on behalf

A.I.D.

.Have organised
proceedings

a workshop

thereof.

OLADE, Organicacion
Casilla

119-a

Quito,

Ecuador

RCTT, Regional
Manickveen

for

Mansions,
road

Bangalore

560052,

o Are disseminating
in

Further

Quito

organising

1980 on small

workshops

are to follow

hydro

and have

published

elsewhere.

de Energia

and disseminating

Centre

49 Palace

in

Latinoamericana

Are promoting

orated

associated

Lanka

Rural

Washington,

small

for

turbines

Engineering

1800 Massachusetts

and

ion of Tha ilan

Cross-Flow

Have developed

turbines

Yose

developed

NERD-Centre,

Cross-Flow

5, Thailand

Have

Ekala

of

Energy Administrat

Pembultan

hydro

a range

manufacture.

NEA, National

de Energia

small

the Transfer

hydro

technology

in Latin

America.

of Technology

Box 115
India
small-hydro
the

technology

Kathmandu

in the

ESCAP region.

1979 workshop

on small-hydro

Have collabwith

UNIDO.

,166-

RECAST, Research
Tribhuvan

for

Science

and Technology

Campus

Kathmandu,
Are

Nepal

collaborating

as the

in

Multipurpose

the

local

Mini-Power

SATA, Swiss Association

P.O.

Applied

University

Kirtipur

Centre

for

development

of

improved

water-wheels

such

Unit.

Technical

Assistance

Box 113

Kathmandu,
a Is

Nepal

the

local

on small

agency

hydro

of

DEH and HELVETAS collaborating

development

(among other

SHDB, Small Hyde? Development

with

BYS and SHDB

activities).

Board

Bagh Bazaar
Kathmandu,
l

Nepal

Project

implementing

SKAT, Swiss

Center

American

for

Research

VarnbUelstrasse
9000 St.

other
with

at
Co-operation,

Development

documentation

and consulting

Development

institutions

ILE, Institute
University

for Latinof Saint-Gall

of

in

small

Cross-Flow

hydro

turbine

development
T3 in

(among

collaboration

in Switzerland.

Appropriate

Technology

Foundation

Papua New Guinea

0 Work on village

THE, Technical
Den Dolech
Postbus

electrification

University

projects

based on hydropower.

of Eindhoven

513

5600 MB Eindhoven,
Development

thesis

Technology,

Box 6937

Boroko

Department.

Switzerland

SPATF South Pacific

P.O.

Appropriate

and for

activities).
other

of HMG Electricity

14

Gall,

a Technical

agency

The Netherlands

of Cross-Flow

work on other

turbine

turbine
types

in collaboration
and load

controllers.

with

ITB,

Bandung.

Also

>;

-167-

;:<,
i

~7;

UMN, United

Mission

to Nepal

Thapathali
Kathmandu,

Nepal

Q Sponsoring
and other

agency

local

UNIDO, United

Nations

Are

activities

in

BEW, Butwal

Development

Organisation

Austria
and disseminating

and study

VITA, Volunteers
Rainier
Information

hensive

tour

on small

in Technical

3706 Rhode Island

development

promoting

workshop

Mt.

hydro

Box 707

1011 Vienna,
l

small

organisations.

.Lerchenfeldstrasse
P.O.

for

20822,

hydro

hydro

technology.

at Hanghzhou,

Manila

Have

organised

1980

Assistance

Ave.
Maryland,

U.S.A.

and documentation

renewable

small

energy

program.

on small

hydro

technology

within

a compre-

-168-

ANNEXEV
STANDARDENERGYCONVERSIONS

Abbre-

Unit

(Equivalent

Values Lie in Vertical

Columns)

viation

Barrels
Oil

per Day

BDOE

---

-__

mm-

m-v

.013

1.6

2.74

Mtce

-mm

_--

0.05

0.21

77.5

125

212

BOE

mm-

.0047

0.25

4.7

365

586

IO3

kgce

---

53.5

212

lo3

77.5

125

212

x103

x1o3

xlO3

18.7

1.45

2.33

3.97

x103

x106

x106

x106

8000

0.62

106=

1.7

X106

1GWH

xd

Equivalent
(a)

Metric

tons of

Coal Equivalent
(b)

Barrels

of Oil

Equivalent

__-

_--

s-m

---

(c)

Kilograms

of

Coal Equivalent

Kilocalories
per W

1000

3970

(a)

Kilowatthours
(lo3

18.7

s-s

0.28

kWh

---

-a-

---

8.0

428

1700

watt-hours

kcal

Kilocalories
(10'

0.24

0.25

860

calories)

British

Thermal

950

BTU

0.95

4.0

3413

Units

Kilojoules
(lo3

240

kJ

m-s

1.06

4.2

3600

joules)

Megajouler

MJ

0.001

0.0011 0.0042

(a)

3.6

6.9

3.65

1.45

6.9

530

860

1.45

x103

x105

x106

x106

x106

xd

x109

27.3

1.46

5.8

27.3

2.12

3.4

5.8

x103

x106

xd

x106

x1og

xlog

xloq

28.8

1.54

6.1

28.8

2.24

3.6

6.1

x103

x106

x106

x106

x109

xloq

xloq

28.8

1.54

6.1

28.8

2.24

3.6

6.1

x103

x103

x103

x106

xl06

x106

Equivalents
in other units pre shown on a per annum basis. For vample,
one
barrel
Der day of oil,
mai,ntained for a year, eauals 2.24 x 10 kilojoules.
(b) One metric ton = 1000 kilograms = 2202 pounds = 1.1 short tons.
(C) One barrel
of oil = 5.8 million
BTU.
Source:

Palnedo,

Energy

Needs . ..)

P 24

-169-

STANDARDPOWERCONVERSIONS

Abbre-

Unit

(Equivalent

Values Lie in Vertical

Columns)

viation

1000

106

log

9.81

735.5

4185.9

1055.1

Watt

kW

0.001

1000

!06

0.0090

0.736

0.001

4.19

1.06

Mega Watt

Mw

---

0.001

1000

---

--_

---

0.0042

0.0011

Giga Watt

GW

---

-me

0.001

---

em-

-mm

---

-em

Meter-kilogram

mkpls

0.102

a02

1.02

1.02

75

0.102

427

107.6

x105

x108

1359.6

1.36

0.0133

0.0014

5.69

1.43

Watt

kilo

-force

per second

Horse power

HP

0.0014

1.36

K106
Joule

kilo

per second

Calorie

per

J/s

1000

lo6

log

9.81

735.5

4185.9

1055.1

kcal/s

mm-

0.24

238.9

2.4

0.0023

0.1757

---

0.2521

0.0093

0.6971

0.0001

3.97

x105

second

British

Thermal

Unit per second

BTU/s

0.0001

0.95

947.8

9.5
x105

SKAT PUBLICATIONS

HARNESSING
WATERPOWERON A SMALLSCALE

SERIES:

Publication

Vol.

1:

Local

Experience

Vol.

2:

Construction

Manual

Vol.

3:

Illustrative

Implementation

Vol.

4:

Design

Vol.

5:

Construction

Manual

with

for

Micro-Hydro
for

ttie

for

Technology

Cross-Flow

Turbine

T 1

Activities

a Simple

Manual

No. 11

the

Mechanical
Cross-Flow

Governor
Turbine

T 3