StudentID:450420210

Violationsofhumanrightsinwar
Aninterpretationfromsocialpsychology

(2133words)

Introduction
Inthefallof2003theworldwasshockedbythenewsthatUnitedStatessoldiersand
militarypolicehadbeentorturingprisonersintheAbuGhraibmilitaryprison.Theprisoners
weremainlyIraqidetainees,andseriousviolationstothehumanrights,suchasphysicaland
sexualabuse,torture,rapeandmurdertookplace(Amnestyinternational,2013).
Investigationsshowedthatthiswasnotonlyasingleincident,andBrown(2005)pointedtoa
culture
ofextensiveviolationsinsomecircuits.AccordingtoreportsfromWikiLeaks
(HuffingtonPost,2011)theviolationscontinuedforseveralyearsafterthenewsbreak.
ReportsfromAmnestyInternational(2013)furthershowedthatsimilarpracticeshadbeen
happeninginbothGuantanamoinIraqandthePhilippines(Amnestyinternational,2014).As
theseviolationsreflectsanexceptionalinjusticeacteduponprisonersofwar,wherelifelong
consequencesarelikelytofollow,anunderstandingandfuturepreventionofthepracticeis
crucial.
Heroofwar,
asongbyRiseagainst,focusesontheextremeexperienceswhich
soldiersendureininternationaloperations.Thesonginitiallydescribesmilitaryenrolmentwith
promisesofexploringtheworldandadequatepayment.Thesonggoesontodescribethe
cohesivenessofamilitaryunit,andhowthismaysometimesleadtoextremebehavioursuch
asviolationsofhumanrights.Oneofthecentralversesdescribestheabusiveviolationsofa
fellowsoldier,andhowthefirstresponseofresistanceevolvestohispartaking.Lastly,the
songtouchesonthepersonalconsequencesforthesoldier,whenthewarisover,andhe
allegedlyhasbecomeaheroofwar.Theundertoneinthesongrepresentsaclear

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misconceptionofthelifeinwar,fromthesoldier'sperspective.Thisessaywillhighlightthe
generalthemesofthesong,withafocusontheoryandresearchthatcanexplainthe
violationsofhumanrights.

Afoundationforunderstanding
Earlierexplanationsforabusiveviolationsinwarandprisonwereoftenthoughtto
consistofuniquecases,referredtoasthebadapples(Fiske,2004).Thesebadapples
couldbeexplainedbythedispositionalhypothesisasindividualswithdeviantpersonalities,
whichwereconsideredpronetoabusivebehaviour(Haney,BanksandZimbardo,1973).With
thisperspectiveinthought,thesystematicappearanceoftheseactscannotbeexplained.
Theunderstandingofsuchbehaviourhaslaterbeennuanced,andFiske,HarrisandCuddy
(2004)arguesthatseveralknownpsychosocialprocessescancontributetoexplainhow
ordinarypeopleinveryspecificconditionscanturntoabusiveanddeviantbehaviour.
In
understandingabusiveviolationsinwaritisessentialtoapplyaholisticperspective,andto
considertheinterdependenceofseveralsocialandenvironmentalprocesses.
Thefocusof
thisessaywillthereforebeonthesepsychosocialprocesses,ratherthantheindividual
characteristics.
Aleadingresearcherinthefield,PhilipZimbardo(2007),summarisesthefactorsthat
combinedcanbeconsiderantecedentsofevilbehaviour(referencedinMintz,2008).The
imbalanceofpower,anonymityofthesoldier,reducedperceptionsofdignityofprisoners,
boredom,andseverestresswouldincreasetheriskofsystematicabuse(Mintz,2008).Ifthe
supervisionfromleadershipisreduced,andthedeportationsarelonger,theriskincreases
evenmore,asthesoldierslikelihoodtogetarealitycheckisreduced(Mintz,2008).Together,
thesefactorsmayimposethewarningsignsofhumanrightviolations.

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Cohesiveness

Wemarchedandwesang,Weallbecamefriends,Aswelearnedhowtofight.

ThephraseabovefromthesongbyRiseAgainst,illustratestheconceptof
cohesiveness,whichaccordingtoSalo(2011)canbeconsideredtheemotionalbonds,
sharedidentityandfeelingsofbelongingnessbetweenmembersofthegroup.Themilitaryas
aninstitutionisdependentoncohesiveteamsforsolvingtheirmissionandbeingeffective,
andcohesivenesscanbeconsideredoneofthebuildingblocksofafunctionalmilitaryunit.
Fromthefirstdayasarecruit,thetrainingisdesignedtoincreasecohesivenessandthe
connectionbetweensoldiers.However,inametastudybyRichard,BondandStokesZoota
(2003),theyfoundthathighcohesivegroupshavealsobeenshowntomakebaddecisions.It
isreasonabletoassumethatthestrongcohesivenesssoldiersinwarexperience,willmake
themmorepronetoabusivebehaviourduetonegativegroupprocesses.

Groupprocesses
Severalgroupprocessescanpartlyexplainviolationsofwar,andtheirsimultaneous
presencemayincreasetheprobabilityofthis.Theconceptsofdissentfromthegroup,
conformityandobediencewillbediscussed.

Theytookoffhisclothes.Theypissedinhishands.Itoldthemtostop.ButthenI
joinedin.Webeathimwithguns.Andbatonsnotjustonce.Butagainandagain.

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Thequoteaboveillustratesthepowerofgroups,andhowthediscomfortcausedby
grouprejectioncanaffectindividualsbehaviour.Whentheindividualislocatedwithinaculture
thatperformsabusiveacts,todissentagainstthisischallenging.Itmayalsohavenegative
consequencesonthedissenter,informsofsocialrejectionandostracism.Inlinewiththis,
Richardandcolleagues(2003)foundthatpeoplewhodeviatefromagrouparemorelikelyto
berejectedbythegroup,whichmakesindividualsmorepronetofollowthebehaviourofother
groupmembers.Fiske,HarrisandCuddy(2004)highlightstheimportanceofconformityto
thegroupssurvival,whereostracismfromthegroupmaybedangerous.Inhighlystressed
environments,thisimpliesthatthesoldierswillbemorelikelytoemphasisegroupharmony,at
theexpenseofreducedautonomy.
TheclassicstanfordprisonstudyconductedbyHaney,BanksandZimbardo(1973)
highlightstheenormouseffectofrolesassignedinaprisonsetting.Arolecanbedefinedas
thesetofexpectedbehaviourassociatedwithagivenpositionorstatus,astheroleofa
prisonwardimpliespowerandcontroloverprisoners.Byassigninganormalsampleof
studentstotheroleofeitherprisonguardoraprisoner,theyshowedthatabuse,humiliation
anddehumanisingbehaviourtowardtheprisonersoccurredratherquickly(Haney,Banksand
Zimbardo,1973).Theexperimentwasshutdownafteronlysixdays,astheconditionswere
developingtobelifethreatening.Thestudyillustratesthepowerofroles,andhighlightsthatif
deviantbehaviouroccursaftersixdaysinaroleplay,areallifewarsettingmaypotentially
escalatetosimilarbehaviour.Inpeacekeepingmissions,asmaintainingdetaineescanbe
considered,itisofsignificantimportancetobewareofthesocialrolessoldiersareassigned,
toavoiddehumanisingviolationsofhumanrights.
Conformityisthetendencytochangeanindividual'sbehaviourtoagroupstandard,
withoutexplicitpressuretodoso(CialdiniandGoldstein,2004).Conformityoccursduetoan

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implicitsocialpressure,andcanbecausedbybothadesireforsocialapprovalorthe
understandingofaccurateknowledge.Conformitytogroupbehaviourisbelievedtobea
contributingfactorinsystematicviolationsandabuse,asanindividual'sbehaviourcanbe
negativelyaffected(Fiske,HarrisandCuddy,2004).Anotherpsychologicalphenomenon
whichcanaffecthighlycohesivegroupsisgroupthink(Janis,1972),whichexplains
dysfunctionaldecisionsandreducescriticalthoughtcausedbyadesiretoavoidconflictand
keepthegroupharmony.Whengroupthinkisinplace,asoldierwithconcernsaboutthe
behaviourofcolleagues,maybemorelikelytowithholdthatinformationinordertokeep
groupharmony.Thisreductioninthetendencyandacceptancein
dissent
maybe
problematic.
StanleyMilgram(1963)conductedastudyinwhich65%ofparticipantsdeliveredwhat
theybelievedwerelethalelectricshockstootherindividuals,bytheordersofanauthority.
Theseresultsimpliesthatanauthorityhassignificantimpactonbehaviour,andpointstothe
importanceofleadersasrolemodelsinmilitarysettings.InlaterexperimentsMilgramshowed
thattheimmediacyofthetestedindividualandperceivedauthorityoftheresearchleader
significantlyinfluenceobedience(Milgram,1965).Inthecasesofmilitarytortureofdetainees,
Bartone(2004)pointstounclearchainofcommandinAbuGhraib,inwhichthesoldierswere
notcertainwhoweretheirleader.PartofthiscanbeexplainedbyacultureofLaissezfaire
leadership,whichisalackofaction,visibilityandoverviewoftheleaders(Bartone,2004).
Withnoclearleaderstomonitorandreprimandthesoldiers,abusivebehaviourwillnotbe
pickedupbeforeitescalates.Inordertofollowordersandbehaveinabusivewaysagainst
prisoners,toavoiddissentandleaderresistance,therealsoneedstobeenvironmental
factorsandinconvenientperceptionsinplace.

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Environmentalstressors

Ikickedinthedoor.Iyelledmycommands.Thechildren,theycried.ButIgotmyman.
Wetookhimaway.Abagoverhisface.Fromhisfamilyandhisfriends

Thegradualexposuretoenvironmentalstressorswhichthesoldiersarepresentedto
continuously,maybeillustratedfromthequotefromRiseAgainstabove.Harshand
demandingsituations,asinGuantanamoandAbuGhraib,causesanextremeenvironmental
andsocialpressureonthesoldiers,whichaffectsthesoldiersmoral,compassionandsense
ofjustice(Zimbardo,2007)Thesoldiersarefollowingordersandareexpectedtocomplete
theirmission,byadaptingtotheenvironmentstheymaymeet.AccordingtoPizarro,Silver
andPrause(2006),warisparticularlytraumaticasitinvolvesdirectcombat,observationsof
deathandprisonerofwarexperience.Astheindividualgetusedtoahighlevelof
environmentalstress,itisreasonabletoassumethatthethresholdforstressorsincreases,
andmakestheindividualadaptedtomoreextremebehaviour.Thisadaptationdoescomeat
acost,andametastudybyRichard,BondandStokesZoota(2003)showedthatindividuals
underhighenvironmentalstressaremoreaggressive.Thishighlightstheneedforcoping
mechanismsinmilitaryandprisonsettings,inordertofunctionandadaptadequately.

Perceptionsofprisoners
Inadditiontotheenvironmentalfactorsthatispresent,thesoldierneedstoperceive
theprisonersaslesserhuman,aprocessoftenreferredtoasdehumanisation(Reference).
Dehumanisingmayrationalisetheabusebehaviourforthesoldier,astheyinternallybelieve
theprisoner
deservesit
.InthecaseofAbuGhraibdehumanisingoccurredinseveralforms,

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forinstancebytakinghumiliatingphotographs,hoodingprisoners,scaringthemtocowering
andprovokethemwithdogs(AmnestyInternational,2013).Thesoldiersalsodeprivedthe
prisonersofsleep,madethemstandforhoursandoftenposedwiththeprisoners,asifthey
were
personaltoys
.Theselffulfillingprophecyeffectfurtherexaggeratestheirperceptions,as
behaviourcongruentwiththeirbeliefsareconfirmed,whilenoncongruentbehaviourare
dismissed(Merton,1948).AccordingtoFiske,HarrisandCuddy(2004),suchanenvironment
makesoldierspronetoaggressionagainstthedehumanisedprisoners.

Consequencesandinjustice
AccordingtoPizarro,SilverandPrause(2006)theexposureofsoldierstowar
increasesthepossibilityofbothphysicalandpsychologicaltraumaslaterinlife.Theincidence
ofmentaldisorderssuchasdepressionandposttraumaticstressdisorderareseverely
heightenedintheveteranpopulation,andthepersonalreflectionsofmilitarydutymaychange
frompretopostdeportation,asdepictedinthesongbyRiseAgainst:

(Beforedeportation)
Aheroofwar,Yeahthat'swhatI'llbe,
AndwhenIcomehome,They'llbedamnproudofme

(Afterdeportation)
Aheroofwar,Isthatwhattheysee,Justmedalsandscars
Sodamnproudofme,AndIbroughthomethatflag,Nowitgathersdust

Thisquoteillustratestherealitythesoldiersfacewhenacknowledgingtheiractionsin
war,andtheharmtheymayhaveinflicteduponothers.Thevictimsofthetortureandabuse
seeninAbuGhraibarefoundtoexperienceseverepsychologicaldistressaftertheseevents

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(AmnestyInternational,2013).AccordingtoMollica(2004),depression,posttraumaticstress
disorderandanxietyareresponsesoftenseeninsurvivorsoftorture,andtheseneedstobe
identifiedandtreated.Tobetterthesituation,Summerfield(2000)highlightsthathealthand
humanrightsworkersmustpressforinvestigationsintoviolations.Summerfieldfurtherargues
thatpublicrecognitionandapologiesbenefitsvictimsofwarandatrocity,asthismaybea
signofremorsefortheunjustthathasbeeninflicteduponthem.

Conclusion
ThesongHeroofwarbyRiseagainstwereproducedtohighlightthedarkestsidesof
war,andtheconsequencesitcanhaveontheindividual.Itiswrittenfromtheperspectiveof
thesoldier,asitdescribesthetransitionofayoungandhopefulsoldiertoamilitaryveteran,
andthechallengeshefacesinwar.Thisessayhaveshownthatviolationsofhumanrights
mustbeunderstoodbyconsideringseveralgroup,socialandenvironmentalfactors.This
topicisimportantasthetraumaticconsequencesforthevictimsaredevastating,and
researchonthetopicmightprovideaframeworkofunderstanding,whichcanpreventsimilar
actsinthefuture.Theactoftortureandabuseofhasbybeendepictedastheultimate
deprivationofpersonhoodandpersonalidentity(MacDonald,G.,personalcommunication,
april27,2015),andimposeanenormousburdenontheindividual.Italsorepresentsalarger
societalchallenge,andareinastrongcontrasttothehumanrightsofallindividualsinvolved.

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