Deictic as a Source of Case Markers in Dravidian:

A Study of *a/* (Distal)

Basavaraja Kodagunti
Central University of Karnataka
Gulbarga, Karnataka
bkodagunti@rediffmail.com

I. Case markers in the world languages are explained to have developed from free
morphemes. Verbs and nouns are considered to be the major source for case markers,
with verbs constituting the more common source. There are two common lexical
sources for case markers, one verbal and the other nominal (Barry,2001.161). Further
he adds that the verbal is probably the more fruitful (Barry,2001.161). However,
in Dravidian linguistics, attempts have been afoot to reconstruct proto forms of case
markers. Zvelebils contribution in this regard is significant. He has reconstructed
markers to six case relations. (Zvelebil,1972). The reconstructed forms are mostly
accepted by the scholars in Dravidian linguistics and discussed elsewhere, with minor
modifications and developments. (Krishnamurti,2003). As mentioned above, the
reconstructed forms of case markers are generally seen to be either verbs or nouns.
However, in the case of Dravidian the reconstructed forms seem to be markers, but not
free morphemes. They are neither verbs nor nouns. For example, forms like *-n/*l,*-in/*-il, and *-kk(v) etc. have been reconstructed to the Proto-Dravidian for
different case relations. These forms can be markers but cannot be considered as free
morphemes. Hence, one needs to study the source of case markers in the Dravidian.
The present study uses data from a wide range of dialects of the Dravidian family,
and studies them historically. The paper establishes that a large number of case
markers have originated from the deictic in Dravidian. And the paper further
concentrates on the distal deictic *a/*.
II. *-n/*-l/*-a, *-un/*-ul/*-u and *-in/*-il are case markers available in different
dialects of the Dravidian family. Following are the few examples given of the above
said forms derived from Kannada.
Eg. From Old Kannada:
*-n/*-l/*-a:
*-n:
Pre Old Kannada:
vrasiyn (Inscription of Mahavali-Mahabali,738AD).
Vrasi
y
n
Varanasi (place Name)
AUG. LOC./ACC.
in Varanasi (as LOC. meaning) /Varanasi (as ACC. meaning)
*-l:
Medieval Kannada:
keadiyllobbaa (Srikrishnaparijata-3.1.3-A Folk Literary piece).
keadi
y
l
obbaa
(Female) Friend
AUG. LOC. one (human) 3SING.FEM.
1

One among the (female) friends

*-a:
Old Kannada:
bevaigeya (Inscription of Rashtrakuta Govinda IV,933AD)
kega
d
a
war AUG. LOC.
in the war
*-un/*-ul/*-u:
*-un:
Pre Old Kannada:
vrasiyun (Inscription of Ganga Nitimarga,893AD)
vrasi
y
un
Varanasi (place name)
AUG. LOC./ACC.
in Varanasi (as LOC. meaning)/Varanasi (as ACC. meaning)
*-ul:
Pre Old Kannada:
vrasiyul (Inscription of Badamai Chalukya Vikramaditya(?),8th Cen.)
vrasi
y
ul
Varanasi (place name)
AUG. LOC.
in Varanasi
*-u:
Pre Old Kannada:
nDu (Inscription of Kadamba Kakustavarma,450AD)
nD u
state LOC.
in the state
*-in/*-il:
*-in:
Old Kannada:
karaakadin (Shabdsmruti,1-3,11thCen.).
karaaka
d
in
Karnataka (language name) AUG. LOC.
In Kannada (Language)
*-il:
Old Kannada:
tapalilli (Karnataka Kadambari-3.20.1,11th Cen.)
tapal
illi
hillside
LOC.
In hillside
*-n/*-l/*-a, *-un/*-ul/*-u and *-in/*-il etc., are used in various dialects of the
Dravidian to express different case relations. There are number of markers which are
either related to these markers or developed from them. These forms are also available
in compound case markers either as a first part or as sub part. These three set of
markers discussed have been developed from deictic forms *a/*, *u/* and *i/*
respectively.
2

*a/*
> *-n/*-l/*-
*u/*
> *-un/*-ul/*-u
*i/*
> *-in/*-il
One may observe the lack of a form with - sound in the proximate deictic. These
three set of forms with example have been taken from Kannada. The form -i is not yet
found either in Kannada or in any of the dialect of the family. However, there are
many other forms in different dialects, which are discussed elsewhere in the present
paper.
III. There are three deictic in Dravidian,
*a/ (Distal)
*u/* (Intermediate)
*i/* (Proximate)
The distal and proximate deictic are found in all the dialects of the family, but the
problem lies with the intermediate. The two-fold structure, consisting of distal and
proximate deictic, is found in more dialects like Malayalam, Telugu, Kolami and
Malto etc. while the three fold structure, consisting of intermediate along with, is
found in various dialects like Old Kannada, Old Tamil, Pengo and Kui etc. And it has
been explained that Kuvi has a four-fold structure (Reddy,2010,63) based on Isreals
work. However, Isreal has listed five variants of demonstratives at first with the
explanation for the fourth and fifth variants of the demonstratives being h and h
which are practically corresponding forms to (intermediate) and (proximate)
respectively, expressing a further degree of remoteness (Isreal,1979,82). The
intermediate and the distal forms take different variant forms to specify different
degrees in Kuvi. Hence, it may be clear that Dravidian features a three-fold structure
of deictic. And, some dialects have reduced the three-fold structure into a two-fold
structure.
*a/*, *u/* and *i/* have been considered as deictic forms of Proto Dravidian.
Developed forms of deictic are available in both long and short vowels in many of the
Dravidian dialects.
Ex. From Kannada:
Long Vowel Short Vowel
ta
ata
he (distal)
ki/ke
aki
she (distal)
ta
ita
he (proximate)
ki/ke
iki
she (proximate)
From Telugu:
Long Vowel Short Vowel
Da
ikkaDa
hear (distal)
Da
akkaDa
there (proximate)
IV. Deictic is a source for different forms of grammatical categories in the world
languages. Demonstratives provide a common source for a wide variety of
grammatical items such as definite articles, relative and third person pronouns,
copulas, sentence connectives, complimentizers, number markers and
possessives(Diesel.1999.115).
3

It is also observed that developed forms of deictic are used to mark the case
relations in some of the languages. Guugu Yimidhir, a Pama-Nyungan language
spoken in North-Eastern Australia, has case markers which are derived from the
deictic. (Diesel.1999.12).
V. Deictic have been developed into various forms of grammatical categories in
Dravidian also. Grammatical forms like third person pronouns, such as avan, uvan and
ivan, quantifiers such as anitu, unitu and initu, and locational forms such as alli, ulli,
and illi (Examples from Old Kannada) have been developed from the deictic. The
structure and the development of these forms may be seen as given below.
Third person pronouns,
*a + -v- + -an = avan
*u + -v- + -an = uvan
*i + -v- + -an = ivan
Quantifiers,
*a + -n- + -itu = anitu
*u + -n- + -itu = unitu
*i + -n- + -itu = initu
Locational forms,
*a + -l = -al > -alli
*u + -l = -ul > -ulli
*i + -l = -il > -illi
Deictic have also developed as case markers in the Dravidian. Case markers like
*-n/*-l/*-a, *-un/*-ul/*-u and *-in/*-il have been developed from deictic.
VI. Tables given below show in detail that the deictic forms used as case markers in their
proto forms. Data from different dialects of the family are given here for *-a, *-u and *-i
respectively.
Table I. Deictic forms as case markers in Dravidian.
Table I.A: *a/* (Distal)
Marker
Language
Language Group Case Relation
Koya
S.D.II
Loc.
-a
Kuvi
S.D.II
Loc.
-a
Badaga
S.D.I
Acc.
-a
Kani (Kanikkar) S.D.I
Acc.
-a
Kannada
S.D.I
Acc.
-a
Kodagu
S.D.I
Acc.
-a
Kubi/Konda
S.D.II
Acc.
-a
Malto
N.D.
Acc.
-a
Table I.B: *u/* (Intermediate)
Language
Language Group Case Relation
Marker
Kannada
S.D.I
Loc.
-u
Malayalam
S.D.I
Dat.
-u
Table I.C: *i* (Proximate)
Language
Language Group Case Relation
Marker
Parji
C.D.
Loc.
-i
4

Kani (Kanikkar) S.D.I

Loc.
-i
Kannada
S.D.I
Loc.
-i
Irula
S.D.I
Loc.
-i
Gondi
S.D.II
Loc.
-i
Kubi/Konda
S.D.II
Dat.
-i
Kui
S.D.II
Acc.
-i
Gondi
S.D.II
Inst.
-i
Parji
C.D.
Abl.
-i
Shorter forms of *a/*, *u/* and *i/* are listed in the table IA, IB and IC.
However the longer forms are also available in some of the dialects.
Table II: Longer forms of deictic as case markers:
Language
Language Group Case Relation
Marker
Kannada
S.D.I
Loc.
*-
Kannada
S.D.I
Loc.
*-
These monophonic forms are primarily deictic which later developed into case
forms.
VII. The phonological development in deictic is very clearly shown in the above part. The
semantic relation in the development is discussed in this part.
Deictic expressions have traditionally focused on the relative distance of a referent
from the speaker that signifies the location. The Dravidian has only locational distances.
However, there are languages like Khasi an Astro-Asiatic language, where locational
distance, locational height and conceptual locations, like seen and unseen, are specified.
There are three locational distances which are signified in Dravidian.
The locative case dose signifies or it specifies the location. The function of the
deictic and locative case meets in signifying or in specifying the location. Deictic forms,
which are source for different grammatical categories in the language, have moved to
express the locative case relation. In due course of time, the locative case markers moved to
express different case relations.
Study of the historical development of case marks has shown that the markers in
Dravidian are moving from the locative case to other case relations. All the case markers of
the Dravidian family were once locative case markers and in due course of time, they have
moved to express other case relations. (Kodagunti.2011). The deictic forms once used for
case relation formed into a grammatical category of case markers.
VIII. Derivational suffixes are used in word formation in Dravidian (Caldwell,2001 and
Krishnamurthi,2003 etc.). Derivational suffixes have a role to play in the lexicalization and
also in the grammaticalisation process. Proto forms of the deictic, which were monophonic,
have also been added by the derivative suffixes to develop into diaphonic forms. As the
monophonic deictic forms, which are proto forms, were used to express the case relations,
the developed forms also continued to be used for the same. As mentioned earlier, these
developed forms used to express different grammatical categories also. *-n/*-l/*, *un/*-ul/*-u and *-in/*-il, -at, -a etc are available in different dialects of the family. It
needs to understand that weather all these sounds were added to the proto form or any of
them are later development. All the developed forms of deictic from all the dialects may be
collected and studied. Such a study would throw light on sound development in the early
5

days of the Proto-Dravidian. Deictic must have been used as case marker at the Pre-ProtoDravidian stage and a derivational suffix must have been joined to the deictic at the early
stage of the Proto-Dravidian. And this has been spilt into different sounds at the same time.
Hence, these different sounds are found in different dialects from different groups of the
family. And different sounds are attached to different case relations in various dialects of the
family.
IX. Now, the focus may be restricted to the distal deictic *a/*, which is the aim of the
present paper.
The distal deictic *a/* has been developed into different forms which are used to
express the case relations in different dialects. Table II provides details of the forms
which have been developed from the deictic *a/*. They are found to be used for
different case relations in the Dravidian.
Table III Developed forms of distal deictic as Case Markers:
Table III.A Loc.
Language
Language Group
Marker
Kannada
S.D.I
-al, -l, -a, aa, -a
Old Telugu
S.D.II
-an
Pengo
C.D.
-a
Dat.
No examples have yet been found for the dative case.
Table III.B Acc.
Language
Language Group
Marker
Kannada
S.D.I
-an, -n, -, -annu
Tulu
S.D.I
-anu
Pengo
C.D.
-an
Kuruk
N.D.
-an
Table III.C Inst.
Language
Language Group
Marker
Tamil
S.D.I
-n, -l
Malayalam
S.D.I
-l
Kota
S.D.I
-l/-r
Old Telugu
S.D.II
-an
Ollari
C.D.
-nl
Gondi
S.D.II
-al
Irula
S.D.I
-le
Table III.D Abl.
Language
Language Group
Marker
Gondi
S.D.II
-al
Pengo
C.D.
-a
Brahui
N.D.
-n
X. Sound Distribution:
The details of the sound distribution of the developed forms of the distal deictic *a/*
are given here.
Vowel distribution: Both long and short vowels are available in different dialects.
6

The initial long vowel:

N.D.
Brahui for ABL.
C.D.
-S.D.I
Kannada for LOC. and ACC., Tamil, Malayalam and Kota for INST.
S.D.II
Old Telugu for INST.
The initial short vowel:
N.D.
Kuruk for ACC.
C.D.
Pengo for LOC., ACC. and ABL.
S.D.II
Old Telugu for LOC. and INST., Gondi and Konda for INST. and
ABL.
S.D.I
Kannada for LOC. and ACC., Tulu for INST.)
The initial consonant form -nl is reported in Ollari dialect of Central Dravidian.
The consonant distribution: -n-, -l-, --, --, -r-, -- are available in various dialects.
-n-:
N.D.
Brahui for ABL., and Kuruk for ACC.
C.D.
Pengo for ACC.
S.D.II.
Old Telugu for INST.
S.D.I
Kannada for ACC., Tamil for INST. and Tulu for ACC.
-l-:
N.D.
-C.D.
Ollari for INST.
S.D.II
Gondi for INST. and ABL.
S.D.I
Kannada LOC., Kota, Malayalam and Tamil for INST.
--:
N.D.
-C.D.
-S.D.II
-S.D.I.
Kannada for LOC.
--:
N.D.
-C.D.
-S.D.I
Kannada for LOC.
S.D.II
--r-:
N.D.
-C.D.
-S.D.II
-S.D.I
Kota for INST.
--:
N.D.
-C.D.
Pengo for ABL.
S.D.II
-S.D.I
-Vowel ending forms:
N.D.
-7

C.D.
S.D.II
S.D.I

--Kannada and Tulu for ACC.

References:
1. Blake J. Barry. 2001. (Sec, Ed.). Case. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge
2. Butt Miriam. 2006. Theories of Case. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge
3. Caldwell Robert. 2000. (Reprint). A Comparative Grammar of Dravidian or South
Indian Languages. University of Madras, Chennai.
4. Diesel Holger. 1999. Demonstratives Form, Function, and Grammaticalization. John
Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam/Philadelphia.
5. Krishnamurti Bhadriraju. 2003. The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge University
Press, New York.
6. Kodagunti Basavaraja. 2011. kannada vibakti rUpagaLa aytihAsika beLavaNige.
(Historical Development of Case Markers in Kannada). 2011. Bandara Prakashana,
Maski.
7. Reddy B. Ramakrishna 2010. Reference and Meaning of Dravidian Demonstratives.
IJDL. Vol. XXXIX No.2. Pp. 59-70.
8. Zvelebil V. Kamail. 1972. Dravidian Case Suffixes: Attempt at a Reconstruct,
Journal of the American Oriental Society. 92.2.