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DESIGN ELEMENTS
The elements in the design of a roof are:
the material
the construction
the durability
The material of a roof may ranges from lamininated glass,
aluminium sheeting and precast concrete, AC sheets, mangalore
tiles . In many parts of the world ceramic tiles have been the
predominant roofing material for centuries.
FORMS OF ROOF
The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region. The
main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate
and the materials available for roof structure and the outer
covering.
The basic shapes of roofs are flat, skillion, gabled, hipped, arched
and domed. There are many variations on these types. Roofs
constructed of flat sections that are sloped are referred to as
pitched roofs (generally if the angle exceeds 10 degrees). [2]
Pitched roofs, including gabled, hipped and skillion roofs, make up
the greatest number of domestic roofs.
There are two parts to a roof, its supporting structure and its
outer skin, or uppermost weatherproof layer. In a minority of
buildings, the outer layer is also a self-supporting structure.
The roof structure is generally supported upon walls, although
some building styles, for example, geodesic and A-frame, blur the
distinction between wall and roof.
1. Support
Domestic roof construction
The supporting structure of a roof usually comprises beams that
are long and of strong, fairly rigid material such as timber, and
since the mid 19th century, cast iron or steel. In countries that
use bamboo extensively, the flexibility of the material causes a
distinctive curving line to the roof, characteristic of Oriental
architecture.
Timber lends itself to a great variety of roof shapes. The timber
structure can fulfil an aesthetic as well as practical function, when
left exposed to view.
With continual improvements in steel girders, these became the
major structural support for large roofs, and eventually for
ordinary houses as well. Another form of girder is the reinforced
concrete beam, in which metal rods are encased in concrete,
giving it greater strength under tension.
2. Outer layer
List of commercially available roofing material
This part of the roof shows great variation dependent upon
availability of material.
1.Asbestos, usually in bonded corrugated panels, has been used
widely in the 20th century as an inexpensive, non-flammable
roofing material with excellent insulating properties. Health and
legal issues involved in the mining and handling of asbestos
products means that it is no longer used as a new roofing
FUNTIONS OF A ROOF
1. Insulation
Because the purpose of a roof is to protect people and their
possessions from climatic elements, the insulating properties of a
2. Drainage
The primary job of most roofs is to keep out water. The large area
of a roof repels a lot of water, which must be directed in some
suitable way, so that it does not cause damage or inconvenience.
Flat roof of adobe dwellings generally have a very slight slope. In
a Middle Eastern country, where the roof may be used for
recreation, it is often walled, and drainage holes must be provided
to stop water from pooling and seeping through the porous
roofing material.
TYPES OF ROOF
1. Pitched Roof
It is the most common form of roof and is generally regarded as
the cheapest alternative for covering a structure. Pitched roofs
are almost always constructed in wood or steel. Wooden pitched
roof consists of a system of joists, rafters and purlins arranged in
Pitched roof
Lean-to-roof
Coupled roof
Couple-close roof
Collar roof
Scissors roof
King-post roof truss
Queen-post roof truss
Lean-to roof
2.Coupled Roof: Coupled roof is formed by a pair of inclined
rafters with their upper ends nailed to a common ridge piece
and their lower ends, notched and nailed to the wooden wall
plates embedded in masonry on the top of the wall on the
either end. The rafters are spaced at suitable intervals and the
battens are nailed on their top. Upon the frame work thus
prepared. Roof covering is laid. This type of construction is
considered suitable for maximum span of 3.7 metre.
Coupled roof
3.Couple-close Roof: In a coupled roof the notches provided
at the feet of the rafters prevent them from spreading. If the
span of the roof is increased or the loading on the truss is
increased gradually, it will be found that at a certain stage the
Couple-close roof
4.Collar Roof: With excessive loading conditions or increased
spans the rafter of the couple closed roof tends to bend in the
middle. This tendency is overcome by fixing the tie near the
middle of the rafters. The truss formed is called collar roof.
Thus collar roof is similar to couple, closed roof with only
difference that the tie instead of being placed at feet of the
rafters is raised up. The tie in collar roof is termed as collar
beam. In type of roof a part of the roof space can be utilized, as
the ceiling can be attached to the collar beams and the
exposed faces of the rafters. This type of roof can be used for
spans varying from 4 to 5.5 metres.
Collar roof
5.Scissors Roof: As the name suggests, the roof is shaped so
as to have the appearance of scissors. It is similar in function to
collar roof.
Scissors roof
6.King Post Roof Truss: It is a form of roof truss which is
commonly used for spans varying from 5m to 9m. It consists of
a frame-work, comprising of two principal rafters, one tie-beam,
two struts and a king post. The trusses are spaced not more
than 3m centre to centre.The trusses are connected to each
other through purlins which are placed at right angles to the
sloped rafters and are secured to them through cogged joints
and cleats. The purlins also support the common rafters upon
which roof covering is laid. In order to distribute the
concentrated load due to the truss at its ends, templates or
bed blocks of stone or concrete are provided under the truss on
the supporting walls.
King-post truss
7.Queen Post Truss: For spans greater than 9m and less than
14m, queen post truss is commonly used in timber roof
construction. It may be defined as frame work consisting of two
principal rafters, two queen posts one straining beam, two
inclined struts and a straining sill. It differs from king-post truss
2. Flat Roof
A roof laid at angle of less than 10 degree to the horizontal is
known as flat roof . Flat roof may be of reinforced cement
concrete , reinforced brick work. Flat roofs are constructed in a
similar manner as the upper floors, except that the roof surface is
properly treated to protect it from the adverse effect of rain ,
snow , heat etc. Efficient water proofing and roof drainage is an
important requirement of flat roof. In addition a layer of insulating
material is laid over the roof surface to provide adequate thermal
insulation to the space below. This layer is known as terracing or
grading . In case of R.C.C. or R.B.W. roof slab provided with
terracing , a slope of 1 in 40 to 1 in 60 is considered desirable for
proper drainage of rain water in areas of moderate rain fall. The
slope may be increased , in case of flat rooofs in heavy rain fall
regions.
The slope to the roof can be given either by varying the thickness
of the terracing material or by constructing roof slab in slope or
by providing part slope in the roof slab and part in the terracing
material. In situations where thermal insulation is not essential ,
the slope for drainage of the roof is provided in d roof slab itself
and the roof surface is given adequate water proofing treatment
by using bitumen felts etc. In places where the terraced roof is to
be used for outdoor living the top surface of the terracing should
be made resistant to wear besides making provisions for efficient
water proofing and drainage for the roof.
Although flat roofs are comparatively expensive yet keeping view
their numerous advantages , they are commonly constructed
these days . The advantages and disadvantages of flat roof are
given below:
country tiles; Mangalore tiles, Quilon and other similar tiles. Tiles
are one of the old methods of roof covering but with the
introduction of asbestos sheets, its use is declining day by day.
The method of laying of a few types of tiles are given below
1.
Sheet should be laid with smooth side upward and the end
marked Top pointing towards the ridge.
2.
They are usually laid with an end lap of 15cmbut this lap
can be slightly varied to suit the purling space.
3.
The side lap for Big six and Trafford sheets consist of
half corrugation respectively.
4.
The holes for fixing accessories must be drilled and not
punched in the crown of the corrugations.
5.
The diameter of the hole should be 3mm greater than the
diameter of the screw or bolt to be used.
6.
8mm diameter hook bolts, crank bolts or coach screws are
insrerted in 11 mm diameter drilled holes and screwed lightly. A
bitumen washer must be provided under G.I. flat washer with
each bolt or screw. When 10 to 12 sheets have been laid, the nuts
of the screws or bolts are screwed tight. The screws or bolts on
purlin are not screwed very tight.
7.
Ridge capping should preferably be secured to the ridge
purling by the same kind of bolts which are used for fixing
sheeting.J bolts should be used for angle purlin and crank bolts
should be used for purlins made up of timber, rolled steel joist,
channel etc. coach screws may be used for timber purlins.
8.
Mitre (cut) is necessary to avoid gaps where four sheets
meet at lap.
(a) In big six sheets mitre may be defined as a cut formed at the
required corner by cutting the corner of the sheet for a length of
15cm or the length of end lap whichever is more along the
vertical edge and for a width equal to 5cm or length of the side
the surface becomes hard and the beater rebounds when struck
upon it . The surface is then plastered with mud cow-dung plaster
and finally finished with cement cow-dung plaster 1:4.
2. Brick jelly or MadrasTerrace roofing
It consists of a course thoroughly burnt terrace bricks 15 cm x 8
cm x 2 cm laid on edge in lime mortar 1:11/2 diagonally across
the joists of the timber roof. The bricks are immersed in water 24
hours before use and the thickness of joint is kept 10 mm. After
the bricks are completely set, a 10 cm. thick layer of brick
concrete 2:11/2 is laid over brick on edge course and beaten
down to 7.6 cm. thickness by wooden hand beaters. The beating
is continued till the beater makes no impression on the concrete
and gets readily rebound by the surface when struck upon it. The
whole surface is then cured for about a week by sprinkling lime
water. After the concrete has set, 3 courses of Madras flat tiles, 15
cm x 10 cm x 12 mm. are laid in lime mortar . The thickness of
the joints should not be broken. The joints of the top layer are left
open to afford key for the plaster.The top surface is then plastered
with 3 coats of lime mortar and finally rubbed to a polished
surface. The roof is usually laid to as lope of 1 in 36 . The slope of
the roof is given to the joists themselves and not by increasing
the thickness of terracing.
ROOF SYSTEM
Trusses are triangular frame works, consisting of essentially
axially loaded members which are more efficient in resisting
external loads since the cross section is nearly uniformly stressed.
They are extensively used, especially to span large gaps. Trusses
are used in roofs of single storey industrial buildings, long span
floors and roofs of multistory buildings, to resist gravity loads.
Trusses are also used in walls and horizontal planes of industrial
buildings to resist lateral loads and give lateral stability.
TYPES OF TRUSSES
1. Pitched roof trusses
Most common types of roof trusses are pitched roof trusses
wherein the top chord is provided with a slope in order to
facilitate natural drainage of rainwater and clearance of
dust/snow accumulation. These trusses have a greater depth at
the mid-span. Due to this even though the overall bending effect
is larger at mid-span, the chord member and web member
stresses are smaller to the mid-span and larger to the supports.
The typical span to maximum depth ratios of pitched roof trusses
are in the range of 4 to 8, the larger ratio being economical in
longer spans. Pitched roof trusses may have different
configurations.
In Pratt trusses web members are arranged in such a way that
under gravity load the longer diagonal members are under
tension and the shorter vertical members experience
compression. This allows for efficient since the short members are
under compression. However, the wind uplift may cause reversal
of stresses in these members and nullify this benefit.
Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high pitch roof,
since the web members in such truss are sub-divided to obtain
shorter members.
Fan trusses are used when the rafter members of the roof
trusses have to be sub-divided into odd number of panels. A
combination of fink and fan can also be used to some advantage
in some specific situations requiring appropriate number of
panels.
3. Trapezoidal trusses
In case of very long span length pitched roof, trusses having
trapezoidal configuration, with depth at the ends are used. This
configuration reduces the axial forces in the chord members
adjacent to the supports. The secondary bending effects in these
members are also reduced. The trapezoidal configurations having
the sloping bottom chord can be economical in very long span
trusses (spans > 30 m), since they tend to reduce the web
member length and the chord members tend to have nearly
constant forces over the span length. It has been found that
bottom chord slope equal to nearly half as much as the rafter
ECONOMY OF TRUSSES
As already discussed trusses consume a lot less material
compared to beams to span the same length and transfer
moderate to heavy loads. However, the labour requirement for
fabrication and erection of trusses is higher and hence the
relative economy is dictated by different factors. In India these
considerations are likely to favour the trusses even more because
of the lower labour cost. In order to fully utilize the economy of
the trusses the designers should ascertain the following:
Method of fabrication and erection to be followed, facility for
shop fabrication available, transportation restrictions, field
assembly facilities.