S7-P04

In Situ Measurement of the Liquefaction Potential of Soils

using a Shear-wave Vibrator
Tomio INAZAKI
Public Works Research Institute
ABSTRACT
An in-situ measurement method is proposed to evaluate the
liquefaction potential of near-surface soils under the strong motion.
The method utilizes a shear-wave vibrator as a dynamic loading
source and electrical cones to monitor the response of pore water
pressure at specific horizons and distances under the vibration. The
shear wave vibrator has a power to oscillate the ground surface
horizontally with 100 gal or more at 5 m to the vibrator.
Results of field measurements showed generation of the
excess pore water pressure during vibration accompanied with
squeezing of groundwater onto the surface. The pore water pressure
responses varied at depths and distances, which indicates the layered
structure of near surfaces strongly controls liquefaction phenomena.
It is very hard to take account of this stratification effect in the
conventional laboratory test using small specimen. Thus the test
results demonstrate the advantages of active monitoring or in-situ
measurement for direct evaluation of the liquefaction resistance of
near-surface soils.
KEYWORDS: in-situ measurement, liquefaction, S-wave vibrator,
dynamic oscillating source, pore water pressure.
INTRODUCTION
Liquefaction has commonly occurred during a number of
earthquakes in soft grounds mainly composed of fine to medium
grained sands. Soil liquefaction is a phenomenon deeply involving
the property of constituting material but also the stratified structure
of the ground. However, laboratory cyclic shear tests have been
widespread for evaluating the liquefaction susceptibility by means
of small specimen sampled from the ground with no regard to the
influence of spatial anisotropy of ground. Accordingly, a dogmatic
idea that liquefaction potential is mainly controlled by the grain size
distribution characteristics of soils has been widely believed
between geotechnical engineers. Namely, sands were considered to
be the only type of soil susceptible to liquefaction, but liquefaction
has also been observed in gravel and silt. Then they have been
trying to obtain larger specimens including coarser grained materials
without disturbing physical properties while sampling, but they have
been still paying a little attention to the layered structure of actual
ground. In current engineering practice, the liquefaction resistance
of sandy soil is assessed usually based on N-value of in-situ
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and grain size distribution data [1,
2]. However, this empirical way is also inadequate as exemplified in
Figure 1.
Soil liquefaction and ground failure was broadly identified
associated with the 1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake. Hanshin
Expressway, which ran through the disaster area of the earthquake,
was also severely damaged by the liquefaction. Check drilling and
sampling was carried out along the Hanshin Expressway to evaluate
the influence of grain size distribution characteristics to the
liquefaction. As shown in Figure 1, most of the test data for
liquefied points (solid circles) are plotted in a shaded zone, which is
empirically specified to have the high potentiality of liquefaction.
However the data for unliquefied points (open circles) are also
distributed in the shaded zone, which means the grain size
characteristics are not effective to evaluate the liquefaction
susceptibility. Furthermore, it seems geotechnical engineers do not
know that particle grading of soils usually change into a finer sorted

one during liquefaction, which has been revealed by the detailed

geological investigations of sand boils and liquefied grounds
associated with large earthquakes [4, 5]. Namely, grain size
characteristics for the liquefied point data drawn in Figure 1 are the
result of grain differentiation caused by liquefaction and do not
show the original state before liquefaction. Another important and
fatal problem concerned in Figure 1 is in the discrimination of
liquefaction. Soil liquefaction and ground failure are easily
recognizable when surface events are clear as sand boils, cracking
and ground flows, however, no evidence of such surface events does
not mean the ground is unliquefied. Because liquefaction originates
inherently in the ground under the control of spatial structure or
horizontal layering of the ground. Actually, subsurface liquefaction
without any surface evidences has been identified at many
archeological sites [5]. Therefore, it is quite superficial to evaluate
the liquefaction status based only on such the surface evidences.
An in-situ method has long been requested to measure the
response of actual ground, which is hard to reproduce in laboratory
tests. Vibrocone [6] is one of such in-situ tools for evaluating soil
liquefaction potential in a direct manner. The vibrocone is a family
of Cone Penetration Test (CPT). Two cones are penetrated into
ground under both static and dynamic excitation in paired side-byside soundings, and dynamic penetration with a vibrating shaker
induces liquefaction locally in the vicinity of the probe. In
comparison with both data, generation of cyclic excess pore pressure
at any depth is measured, however, the measured pressure values are
just transient. Time variant data at specific horizons are not
obtainable in this method.
Blasting can also induce liquefaction [7]. A large scaled field
test of blast-induced liquefaction was successfully carried out at a
harbor site, Hokkaido, Japan in 2001. Blasting is quite powerful to
cause liquefaction in ground, however, it is hard to control the
source energy.
The author has proposed to utilize a vibrator, a mobile source
used in the seismic reflection survey, for in-situ measurement of

Figure 1. Grain size characteristics of sands sampled along

Hanshin Expressway damaged by the 1995 Hyogo-ken
Nanbu Earthquake. No significant difference is identified
between liquefied and unliquefied samples. (drawn from
the data listed in Matsuo & Ninomiya [3])

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liquefaction potential of the ground [8]. Because of its high mobility
and high power of oscillating ground, it was expected to be a
suitable loading source compared with explosives. The idea of
utilizing vibrator for liquefaction measurement has been followed by
the research group at the University of Texas at Austin (UTA) [9].
Field tests were performed at three sites in Japan from 1996
through 1998. Generation of the excess pore water pressure during
vibration was measured accompanied with squeezing of
groundwater onto the surface. The pore water pressure responses
varied at depths and distances, which indicates the layered structure
of near surfaces strongly controls liquefaction phenomena.
OUTLINE OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
The in-situ measurement technique is proposed to observe
responses of pore water pressure at depths associated with the
surface oscillation by means of a vibrator. The main instruments
used for the measurement consist of an S-wave vibrator, a cone
penetrator and measuring probes. The advantages of making use of
S-wave vibrator are in the continuous oscillation which enables to
reveal the time varying response of pore pressure and the
predominance of SH-waves. The time varying response of pore
water pressure is measured using pore pressure sensor incorporated
in the measuring probe, which is previously penetrated into the
target depth in a test site using cone penetrator. In contrast to the
conventional Cone Penetration Test (CPT), the purpose of which is
to obtain a log profile of each point, the measuring probes used for
this technique are stayed at specific depth after usual log profiling.
The measuring probes also have three component accelerometers
within them so as to record the waveforms and amplitudes of ground
vibration at stayed depths.
S-wave vibrator
We have introduced an S-wave type vibrator to generate strong
SH-wave motion in the limited small area. A photograph of the Swave vibrator is shown in Figure 2, and its main specifications are
listed in Table 1.
Vibrators have been widely used in seismic reflection survey,
however, the major is P-wave type and S-wave generation type has
Table 1. Main specifications of the S-wave vibrator.
ITEM

Specifications

Type:
Maker:
Hold Down Weight:
Reaction Mass:
Total Moving Mass:
Baseplate:
Peak Force:
Frequency Range:
Max. Stroke:

M18LF/V623
Mertz Inc.
26.7 ton
2.7 ton
5.4 ton
2.41.4m
133 kN
5-100 Hz
8 in

been rarely used as an exploration source. The S-wave vibrator we

introduced was specially tuned to generate low frequency of 5 Hz,
and characterized as buggy-mounted, hydraulically driven, and offroad type. It can generate both sinusoidal and sweep waves
controlled under an electro-hydraulic system with feedback
equipments composed of LVDTs and accelerometers mounted on a
valve, reaction mass and a baseplate. The LVDT sensors detect
every 1 msec the displacement of the valve and mass,
accelerometers monitor the phase and force of mass and baseplate
movements, which would vary momentarily due to the change in
coupling condition between the baseplate and ground surface, then
the electro-hydraulic system simultaneously controls hydraulic
pump system to keep constant shape of waveform to be transmitted
to the ground. The synthetic signal and ground force waveform can
be outputted to a recorder. The maximum force output is 133 kN,
about 50 % of the hold down weight.
Measuring probe and recording system
The measuring system for in-situ liquefaction test mainly
consists of a cone penetrator, measuring probes, and a data
acquisition system. The cone penetrator we have is featured as a
crawler type, having the capability to work even on the soft ground,
twin hydraulic pistons which reciprocally hold and push the rod
down into the ground in order to keep constant and continuous
penetration. Total weight of the penetrator is about 7.5 ton.
Two types of probes were used for measuring vibration response
in place; one is a common electrical cone of 36 mm diameter for tip
resistance, sleeve friction, and pore water pressure measurement.
The other is a seismic cone of 44 mm diameter in which three
component accelerometers and a pore water pressure sensor are
incorporated. Frequency response of the accelerometer is set to flat
in range from 1 to 400 Hz. Data from several probes were recorded
over several minutes continuously using digital data recorder with
high sampling rate less than 1 millisecond. The stored data in digital
tapes were re-sampled and transferred to a PC for the following
analysis.
FIELD LIQUEFACTION TESTS
As mentioned above, liquefaction measurement tests were
performed at three fields from 1996 through 1998. Due to some
regulations, we had to set the field in riverbed terrace, and in the
premises of our Institute, far from buildings. The outline of test and
setting at each field is described below.
Sawara TRR96L2 test
The first liquefaction measurement test was conducted in 1996
on the river terrace at right bank side of Tone River, near Sawara
City, about 30 km southeast of Tsukuba.
Prior to the liquefaction measurement, we conducted dense

Figure 3. Geologic section of Sawara TRR96L2 Site interpreted

from dense CPTs. Solid triangles correspond to the horizons
where probes were placed to measure in-situ pore pressure.
Log curves besides each column represent tip resistance (qt)
and pore pressure (ud), respectively.
Figure 2. S-wave vibrator used for in-situ liquefaction
measurement.
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CPT at 10 m grid down to about 10 m depth as shown in Figure 4 in
order to clarify the near surface geological structure. Next, we
penetrated four probes of each pore pressure and seismic into the
ground at the center of the square shaped site, and stayed them at
different four depths, namely, -1.7, -3.0, -4.5, and -6.0 m for the
pore pressure cones, and -3.0, -4.5, -6.0, and -16.0 m for the seismic
cones. Figure 3 shows an interpreted geologic section on the
diagonal along NE-SW of the site, reconstructed from CPT logs.
Uppermost two meters of the surface is covered with flood origin
sand which constitutes a river terrace. A thin clay bed occurs below
the sand bed. Water table is found within or just beneath this clay
bed. Another thin clayey bed, which is intercalated in fluvial sand
layer, occurs about 4 m in depth. It is inferred that the clay bed at 2
m in depth is impermeable from the characteristic CPT pattern; very
low tip resistance (qt) and high apparent pore pressure (ud) as drawn
in Figure 3. The solid triangles in Figure 3 indicate the horizons
where pore pressure probes were stranded. These four probes were
closely located, as shown in Figure 4, so as to represent response of
the same point. Penetration points of four seismic cones were also
shown in Figure 4 as solid squares.
The water level at the center of the test site was estimated about
-2.0 m from the ground level (GL) within the clay bed, and the top
probe was set just on this clay bed. Initial value of pore pressure at
this horizon was measured as 1 kPa, slightly high to the static pore
pressure calculated from the water level. It may be due to the
impermeable clay bed. The probe at GL -3.0 m was located at the
bottom of fluvial sand bed, and directly on an intercalated clayey
bed. Static pore pressure at the level before shaking was 12 kPa,
slightly higher than that calculated from the water level. These
values are labeled on the left end of each curve in Figure 5. Probes
at GL -4.5 m and -6.0 m were settled in underlying fluvial sand
layer, but the CPT profile suggests that a thin silty bed was
interbedded at about GL -4.5 m, just above the probe.
Figure 4 shows the layout of liquefaction measurement test at
Sawara TRR96L2 Site. Representative four vibration points are
illustrated with notes indicating the locality of baseplate from the
center of probe array. Because the baseplate shakes in a longitudinal
direction, transverse component would dominate for Shake 42 and
43; radial component for Shake 41 and 46 at the cone array. We
tuned the vibrator controller electronics (VCE) to generate
waveform of constant frequency of 10 Hz (Shake 43, 41, and 46), or
10 to 40 Hz up sweep waves (Shake 42), both lasting 20 seconds,
and repeated the shaking 10 to 15 times intermittently. Totally the
ground was oscillated for 3 to 5 minutes.
Figure 5 shows the time histories of pore water pressure

Figure 4. Layout of liquefaction measurement test at Sawara

TRR96L2 Site. Prior to shaking, pore pressure and
seismic cones were pushed in to the ground at the center
of the site. After that the ground of the site was shaken
using S-wave vibrator. Representative four vibration
points are illustrated as the baseplate of the vibrator in
the same scale. (revised from Inazaki [10])

Figure 5. Time histories of pore water pressure responses observed at different four depths during the shaking at different four
vibration points. The ground was oscillated for 3 to 5 minutes intermittently with 10 Hz sinusoidal waves (Shake 43, 41, and
46) or 10 to 40 Hz up sweep waves (Shake 42), both lasting about 20 seconds. Remarkable change in the static pore pressure
was observed as well as synchronized sinusoidal response to the surface vibration. Highest or lowest points of base line
change are marked with arrows on the curves with their values, along with residual pore pressure if remained. Peak to peak
values of dynamic response are also cited.

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responses observed at different four depths for the shaking at
different four vibration points shown in Figure 4. It is remarkable
that the hydrostatic pore pressure changed during the surface
vibration associated with synchronized sinusoidal response. It is
noticed that the probe at GL -3.0 m showed quite large responses
both of the fluctuation in hydrostatic (long period) pores pressure
and of the hydrodynamic response synchronic to the vibration
compared with data of other three depths. The response of the top
probe was small because it was located just on the original water
table. Nevertheless, static shift amounted to 1.0 kPa concurrently
with the shaking even at the top probe. The pore pressure responses
at the lower two depths were also small, maximum increase or
decrease in static pressure were +0.7 kPa or -0.4 kPa, 1.2 kPa (peak
to peak) for synchronic dynamic pressure at most. Time response
curves for the data at GL -3.0 m show irregular shapes. For instance,
they suddenly descended concurrently with shaking, followed by
rebound and gradual decrease, which indicates the generation and
dissipation of excess pore pressure. Pre-eventual increase
recognized in Shake 46 might be due to a residual pressure of
previous shaking.
The amounts of decline and buildup in hydrostatic pore pressure
increased with bringing the vibrator close to the array. Vibration
levels of each shaking test are listed in Table 2. Because the S-wave
vibrator was set to shake in N-S direction at all shaking points, the
N-S component should have the maximum values. However, the
peak ground accelerations were recorded occasionally in other
components. Especially in Shake 46, which was the last shake in the
site, very large amplitude of acceleration was recorded in U-D
component. It might be due to change in coupling of probes with
ground or a local ground failure near the vibration point. The
amplitude of hydrodynamic pore pressure was large when shaken in
the radial direction (Shake 41 and 46) in contrast to transversal
shaking (Shake 42 and 43). It was also identified the pore pressure
response decreased with increasing shaking frequency (Shake 42).

Maximum buildup of hydrostatic pore pressure reached 4.4 kPa for

Shake 43 at GL -3.0 m, but it was still low compared with the
effective overburden pressure that was estimated to be about 30 kPa
at that depth. However, we observed some surface evidences
indicating liquefaction such as degassing from the ground,
squeezing of significant amount of groundwater onto the surface,
and sand boils as exemplified in Figure 6.
The response of groundwater pressure to the surface vibration
shown in Figure 5 indicates that the groundwater reacts in an open
system in the field when the ground is shaken locally. Some
constraints for lateral migration of groundwater are therefore
requested to assess the behavior of groundwater in natural
earthquake conditions. It is well known that the areas close to
retaining structures and quay walls are susceptible to liquefaction.
Actually, the Port Island, a huge reclaimed land entirely enclosed
with seawall, suffered severe liquefaction damage by 1995 Hyogoken Nanbu Earthquake [11]. It was characteristic that liquefaction
intensively occurred near the seawall surrounding the Port Island.
This fact suggests such artificial structures play an important role as
a barrier against the groundwater flow or dissipation of excess pore
pressure in liquefaction.
Sawara TRL97CA test
The second liquefaction measurement test was conducted in
1997 on the river terrace at left bank side of Tone River, near
Sawara City, about 30 km southeast of Tsukuba.
Prior to the liquefaction measurement, we pushed into six
seismic cones at three depths, next a number of steel sheet piles

Table 2. Vibration levels of each shaking test recorded

at three depths. Bolds are the largest amplitudes
among three components corresponding to the peak
ground acceleration (PGA). Unit in gal.
Shake No.
Depth/Direction

41

42

43

46

-3.0m/E-W
/N-S
/U-D
-4.5m/E-W
/N-S
/U-D
-6.0m/E-W
/N-S
/U-D

12
64
56
56
41
38
12
26
31

11
29
15
6
24
7
10
22
10

33
145
31
11
69
23
7
48
20

30
26
77
15
19
49
12
14
54

Figure 6. Squeezing of groundwater and sands onto the

surface caused by vibrator shaking.

Figure 7. Layout of liquefaction measurement test at Sawara

TRL97CA Site. Three sides of seismic cone array were
walled with steel sheet piles to constrain groundwater flow.

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pore water pressure is estimated to be 6.5 kPa. This value was
roughly equal to the effective overburden pressure. Hydrodynamic
responses ranged from 0.5 kPa peak to peak for cone 6, to 2.7 kPa
for cone 1, the deepest one. The peak ground accelerations ranged
from 230 gal at the farthest cone 2, to 1150 gal at the nearest cone 4.
Concurrent pressure drop at the starting stage identified in the
TRR96L2 test was not measured in this test, which indicates this
decline phenomenon was due to the characteristic response of
groundwater in the open system.
CONCLUSIONS
An in-situ measurement method is proposed to evaluate the

Figure 8. Hydrodynamic pore pressure response of Cone 6

in relation to the peak ground acceleration for a
liquefaction test at Sawara TRL97CA Site.
were hammered down to 6 m in depth around the cone array to form
a barrier to the near surface groundwater. After that we operated the
S-wave vibrator at the open side as shown in Figure 7.
In contrast to the test results at TRR96L2 Site, buildups in
hydrostatic pore pressure associated with vibration were not clear,
whereas the concurrent hydrodynamic responses were obvious at the
site. This was likely to be caused by the constraint of pore pressure
dissipation by means of the sheet pile barrier. Figure 8 shows
positive correlation between the amplitude of hydrodynamic pore
pressure and the peak ground acceleration that was controlled by
changing vibration point as shown in Figure 7. It is to be noted that
the data for initial shaking, marked by pale color, deviated from the
main trend. Either way, maximum value of hydrodynamic pore
pressure amplitude was only 2.0 kPa under the 10 Hz sinusoidal
vibration of 200 gal.
Tsukuba PWRI98TP test
The last liquefaction measurement test at the first research
phase was conducted in 1998 in the premises of Public Works
Research Institute (PWRI) using an artificial ground model.
First, we dug a 3.33.33 m test pit within an experimental
facility in PWRI. The test pit was lined with PVC sheets to be sealed
from the surrounding ground, and backfilled with loose sand. After
manual compaction, seismic cones were inserted to 1.0 m or 1.25 m
in depth to form a cross array with 1.0 m spacing each other as
shown in Figure 9. Water level in the model ground at initial state
was set to 25 cm to the surface by recharging water into filling
pipes. Before the vibration, we measured the initial value of S-wave
velocity by plank hammering at 3.0 m east to the center cone 6. We
then operated the vibrator at 3.2 m north and 1.5 m east to the center
of the array and observed the responses of water pressure. Loading
pattern was as same as those of previous field tests.
Figure 10 shows the time histories of the excess pore pressure
buildups. Especially at cone 4, the nearest one to the vibrator, peak
values of the water pressure reached to a plateau and saturated,
which indicates the excess pore pressure built up equal to the
effective overburden pressure. Actually, squeezing of the water was
observed at 7th cycle (about 150 seconds) onto the surface near the
filling pipe at the corner close to the vibrator. Liquefaction within
the reconstituted sands was inferred to begin at 120 seconds in
elapsed time, when a surge in pore pressure curve took place due to
a sudden settlement of the cone. At the end of shaking, water level
rose to +01 cm and +07 cm in the filling pipes and it overflowed
onto the test pit surface. For cone 4, maximum value of the excess

Figure 9. Layout of liquefaction measurement test at Tsukuba

PWRI98TP Site. A 333 m test pit was dug and filled
with reconstituted sands. After manual compaction,
seismic cones were pushed to 1.0 m deep. Vibration
point was set as close as it can to the test pit. (revised
from Inazaki [10])

Figure 10. Time histories of pore water pressure responses

observed at PWRI98TP Site. The ground was oscillated
for about 6 minutes intermittently with 10 Hz
sinusoidal waves lasting about 20 seconds.
Liquefaction occurred about at 120 sec in elapsed time
after starting vibration. Surges marked with arrows
were due to sudden settlement of cones. The excess
pore pressure buildup reached a plateau at 200 sec for
the nearest cone (C4).

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liquefaction potential of near-surface soils under the strong motion
directly in the field. Because the conventional laboratory testing for
liquefaction evaluation cannot take account of spatial
inhomogeneity of the ground, which is inherent and essential feature
subjecting liquefaction, an in-situ method has long been requested to
measure an actual ground response. The proposed method utilizes
an S-wave vibrator as a dynamic loading source and electrical and
seismic cones to monitor the response of pore water pressure at
specific horizons and distances under the vibration.
Liquefaction measurement tests were performed at three fields
from 1996 through 1998. Generation of the excess pore water
pressure during vibration was successfully measured accompanied
with squeezing of groundwater onto the surface. The major results
of the field measurements are as follows; first, pore water pressure
response varied at depths and distances, especially it was large at a
sand bed bounded by impermeable clay or silt layer. This indicates
the layered structure of near surfaces strongly controls liquefaction
phenomena. Second, decline concurrent with shaking followed by
rebound in pore pressure was characteristic during vibration, which
means the groundwater reacts in an open system in the field when
the ground is shaken locally. Some constraints for lateral migration
of groundwater are required to simulate the behavior of groundwater
in natural earthquake conditions. One of such constraints is to make
a barrier at a target site, analogous to retaining structures, because it
is well known that liquefaction has been prone to occur near
underground walls. Another constraint is to make use of two or
more vibrators with synchronized operation. Walling with steel
sheet pile was adopted to make a barrier in the field. It worked
successfully to suppress dissipation of pore pressure, however,
maximum buildup was still low to the effective overburden pressure.
Third, despite of deficit of excess pore pressure, we observed some
surface evidences indicating liquefaction such as degassing from the
ground, squeezing of significant amount of groundwater onto the
surface, and sand boils. This indicates partial liquefaction occurred
in the ground. These results demonstrate the availability of S-wave
vibrator for in-situ measurement of liquefaction potential.

[7] Charlie, W.A., Jacobs, P.J., Doehring, D.O., Blast induced

liquefaction of an alluvial sand deposit, Geotechnical Testing
Journal, vol.15, no.1, 14-23, 1992.
[8] Inazaki, T., In-situ testing of the liquefaction potential of soft
ground using an S-wave vibrator, Proc. 94th SEGJ Conference, 7982, 1996, in Japanese.
[9] Stokoe,II, K. H., Rathje, E. M., Chang, W. J., and Cox, B. R.,
Development of an in-situ test for direct evaluation of the
liquefaction resistance of soils, Proc. U.S.-Taimwan Workshop on
Soil Liquefaction, 22p, 2003.
[10]Inazaki, T., Field measurement of nonlinear property of the soft
ground using a shear wave vibrator, Proc. 2nd Intl. Symp. on the
Effect of Surface Geology on Seismic Motions, 809-814, 1998.
[11] Hamada, M., Wakamatsu, K., and Ando, T., LiquefactionInduced Ground Deformation and Its Caused Damage, Proceedings
of Sixth Japan-US Workshop on Earthquake Resistant Design of
Lifeline Facilities and Countermeasures Against Soil Liquefaction,
Technical Report NCEER- NCEER-96-0012, National Center for
Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo, 137-152, 1996.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to thank T. Tanaka of Sofih Corporation,
Tokyo, and A. Pettigrew of formerly Mertz Inc., Ponca City for their
help of operating the S-wave Vibrator during field tests. Additional
thanks are expressed to T. Kurahashi and T. Ohtani of PWRI for
their supports. Research works using a vibrator was started in 1996
at PWRI until 1998, and regretfully hang up for years. Recently, it
has been revived associated with institutional reform of PWRI.

REFERENCES
[1] Tokimatsu, K, and Yoshimi, Y., Empirical correlation of soil
liquefaction based on SPT N-value and fines content, Soils and
Foundations, vol. 23, no. 4, 56-74, 1983.
[2] Seed, H.B., and De Alba, P., Use of SPT and CPT tests for
evaluating the liquefaction resistance of sands, Proc. of In-Situ '86,
ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication, no. 6, 281-302, 1986.
[3] Matsuo, O. and Ninomiya, Y, Soil liquefaction and ground flow,
Jour. Res. PWRI, vol. 33, 107-133, 1997.
[4] Tohno, I, and Shamoto, Y., Liquefaction damage to the ground
during the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu (Japan Sea) Earthquake in Aomori
Prefecture, Tohoku, Japan, Jour. Natural Disaster Science, vol.8,
no.1, 85-116, 1986.
[5] Sangawa, A., Paleoliquefaction features at archaeological sites in
Japan, Jour. Geography, vo.l.108, no.2, 391-398, 1999, in Japanese.
[6] Sasaki, Y., and Koga, Y., Vibratory cone penetrometer to assess
the liquefaction potential of the ground, Proceedings, 14th U.S.Japan Panel on Wind and Seismic Effect, NBS Special Pub. 651,
541-555, 1982.

Tomio INAZAKI
Public Works Research Institute, Minami-hara 1-6, Tsukuba,
Ibaraki, 305-8516 JAPAN, E-mail: inazaki@pwri.go.jp

The Proceedings of IWAM04, Mizunami, Japan