Anthros

FASTING and
SUSTAINABLE HEALTH
CONFERENCE 2010
THE SCIENCE OF FASTING
Editors
Rabindarjeet Singh
Ahmad Munir Che Muhamed
ISBN No : 978-967-10331-0-4
This book is printed on recycled paper
FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010
Contents
Invited Presentation
Science Of Fasting: Aspect From Islamic Perspective
5
6
The Science Of Fasting: Aspects From Christianity Perspective
10
Science Of Fasting: Aspects From Hinduism Perspective
29
Science Of Fasting: Aspects From Buddhism Perspective
36
Science Of Fasting: Aspects From Bahai Community
45
Fasting And The Military - Aspects From Defense Perspectives
48
Summary Of Fasting By Different Religion
53
FREE COMMUNICATIONS
Fasting and Medicine / Health / Wellness
57
Fasting And Oral Well Being
58
Scientific Aspects And Physiological Consideration Of Fasting
63
Effects Of Ramadan Fasting On Anthropometric Indices
65
Lipemic And Glycemic Changes During Fasting Condition In Hypercholesterolemic

And Impaired Glucose Tolerance Individuals
73
Comparison Of Amplitude Of Accommodation, Near Point Of Convergence And Fusion

Ability Of Islamic Fasters Before, During And After Respected Month Of Ramadan
76
Fasting, Health And Well Being
80
Preliminary Study On Polymorphisms Of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor

Alpha (Ppar) Gene In Fasting.
FREE COMMUNICATIONS
Fasting and Sports Performance
96
101
Fasting Heart Rate And Body Composition Responses During 2.4 Km Running Among
Competetive Endurance Athletes
102
Fasting And Aerobics: Female Muslim Students Perspectives
106
Glucose Level During Fasting Month Among Competetive Endurance Athletes
113
The Effects Of Ramadan Fasting On 90Min Of Endurance Cycling Performance

In Male Athletes
FREE COMMUNICATIONS
Fasting and Religion
Fasting - A Multidimensional Human Behavior
118
124
125
The Significance Of Sahur (Pre-Dawn Meal) During Fasting According To The Islamic
And Scientific Perspectives
131
The Philosophy Of Fasting In Preservation Of Health: An Islamic Perspective
139
The Spiritual Values Of Fasting From Christianity Perspective
145
Fasting And Ayurveda

Belief In Religiosity, Spiritual Well Being And Fasting
151
156
Preface
Fasting and Sustainable Health Conference was held in Penang, Malaysia from 20th to 21st of
December 2010. This is the first Conference organised in Malaysia which specifically addresses
various aspects of fasting ranging from religion to science. The Conference was organised by the
Healthy Lifestyle Cluster, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia. This
conference was endorsed by Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, and Ministry of Health,
Malaysia. This conference attracted about 100 participants from both local and international
participantsfrom7countries.
TheConferencethemewasScienceofFasting.DuringthetwodaysofConference,itfeatured8
keynote addresses and 10 oral presentation sessions covering various aspects of fasting from
religion, medical and health to military operation and sport performance. This proceeding book
compiledmostofthescholarlyworkpresentedattheconference.
Theorganisingcommitteesincerelyhopethatthisconferencehasprovidedvaluableinputtoallof
the participants, which contributed to the further development and collaborative work in research
onthescienceoffasting.
RabindarjeetSingh,Ph.D.
AhmadMunirCheMuhamed,Ph.D.
INVITED
PRESENTATIONS

SCIENCE OF FASTING: ASPECT FROM ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Ustaz Mohd Hussain Yee Abdullah#
Pertubuhan Al-Khadeem, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
#
Corresponding author; E-mail: alkhaadem.my@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fasting in Islam is not about abstaining from food, drink and sexual relation of husband & wife
but rather it is a self discipline program to train every individual who believe in Allah subhana wataala
on how to control themselves from their destructive desires to something positive in return ; develop
the power of self control and wisdom.
Fasting also trains individuals to enhance their body, mind & soul in order to become a more
creative and constructive person in their society. Our Prophet sallallahu alaihi wasalam had said that
how many people who fast but do not benefit from it except hunger and thirst. And Prophet
Muhammad sallallahu alaihi wasalam said that God will not accept the fasting of a person by
abstaining from food and drink but also of those who do not abstain from bad character, words and
deeds.
This has not just been obligated upon the Muslims, but it was also obligated or practiced on
the earlier prophets like Adam, Noah, Abraham, Musa and Jesus.We hope that by understanding the
true meaning & spirit of fasting, we will be able to become a believer and one that benefits his family
and the community at whole.
O you who believe! Observing As-Saum (the fasting) is prescribed for you as it was
prescribed for those before you, that you may become Al-Muttaqun Surah Al Baqarah verse 183, Al
Quran.
What is fasting?
The Islamic term for fasting is Siyam (Saum: a fast). It literally means abstaining. As
a term it refers to abstaining completely from eating, drinking, smoking, and sex from dawn
until sunset with the explicit intention of doing so for the sake of Allah. In addition it includes,
on a behavioral level, abstaining from falsehood, speaking ill of others, engaging in angry
talk, quarreling, indecency, and wrong behavior of any sort.
Fasting is not an ascetic or self-mortifying practice, observed as a penance for sins or
to appease Gods wrath, but it is an act of self discipline and obedience to God, aimed at
making a person ever conscious of God. It is an obligatory act of worship, and one of the
Five Pillars of Islam. It is a unique experience of self control, sharing and gratitude to God.
The Virtues of Fasting
The virtues of fasting are great indeed, and one of the things reported in thesaheeh
hadiths is that Allah subhanahu wata ala has chosen fasting for worshipping Him, and He
will reward it and multiply the reward without measure, as He subhanahu wata ala says (in
the hadith Qudsi): Except for fasting which is only for My sake, and I will reward him for it.
(Bukhari, Al- Fath, no. 1904; Saheeh al Targheeb, 1/407).

Fasting has no equal, (An-Nisa 4/165; Saheeh al Targheeb, 1/413), and The dua of
the fasting person will not be unanswered (Reported by Al Bayhaqi, 3/345; Al- Silsilah AlSaheeha, 1797).
The fasting person has two moments of joy: One when he breaks his fast and one
when he meets his Rabb and rejoices over his fasting. (Reported by Muslim, 2/807).
Fasting will intercede for a person on the Day of Judgment, and will say, O, Rabb, I
prevented him from his food and physical desires during the day, so let me intercede for
him. (Reported by Ahmad, 2/174. Al Haythami classed its isnad as hasan in Al Majma,
3/181. See also Saheeh al Targheeb, 1/411).
The smell that comes from the mouth of a fasting person is better with Allah subhana
wata ala than the scent of musk. (Muslim, 2/807).
Benefits of Fasting
There is much wisdom and many benefits in fasting, which have to do with the taqwa
mentioned by Allah subhanahu wata ala in the ayah:that you may become Al-Muttaqoon
(the pious). (Quran, Surah Al Baqarah verse 183.).The interpretation of this is that if a
person refrains from halal things hoping to earn the pleasure of Allah subhanahu wata ala
and out of fear of His punishment, it will be easier for him to refrain from doing haram
things.If a person is hungry, this will keep many of his other faculties from feeling hunger or
desire; but if the stomach is satisfied, his tongue, eye, hand and private parts will start to feel
hungry. Fasting leads to the defeat of Shaytan; it controls desires and protects ones
faculties.When the fasting person feels hunger, he experiences how the poor people feel, so
he has compassion towards them and gives them something to ward off their hunger.
Hearing about them is not the same as sharing their suffering, just as a rider does not
understand the hardship of walking unless he gets down and walks.
Fasting trains ones will to avoid haram desires and keep away from sins; it helps a
person to overcome his own nature and to wean himself away from habits. It also trains a
person to get used to being organized and punctual, which will solve the problem that many
people have of being disorganized, if only they realized.
Fasting is also a demonstration of the unity of the Muslims, as the Ummah fasts and
breaks its fast at the same time. Fasting also provides a great opportunity for those who are
calling others to Allah subhanahu wata ala. In this month many people come to the mosque
for the first time and so do those who have not been to the mosque for a long time, and their
hearts are open, so we must make the best of this opportunity by preaching them in a gentle
manner, teaching appropriate lessons and speaking beneficial words, whilst co-operating in
righteousness and good deeds. The daiyah should not be so pre-occupied with others that
he forgets his own soul and becomes like a wick that lights the way for others while it is itself
consumed.
Objectives of Fasting
The Quran addresses those who believe in it (i.e. the Quran) as the Divine revelation
and informs them of the promulgation of the compulsory fast for them. Verse 183 then goes
to point out that fasting was made compulsory not only for the Muslims who believe in the
Word of Allah revealed in the Quran and who are followers of the Prophet Muhammad
7

sallallah alaihi wassalam, but for all those religious communities which preceded this
community of believers. Thus the compulsory fast is to be found Judaism, Christianity,
Hinduism, Buddhism and others. The verse then ends by indicating that the objective for
which the compulsory fast was promulgated is the acquisition of piety and godliness (taqwa).
The Quranic viewpoint, therefore, is that fasting has always been an obligatory
feature of the religious way of life. By instituting the compulsory fast for the religious
community which followed the Prophet Muhammad sallallahu alaihi wassalam, the Quran
was simply bringing the Muslim community into a state of conformity with an essential
requirement of the religious way of life.
When the Quran went on to point out that the basic objective of fasting was the
acquisition of piety and holiness (taqwa), it followed that this must also have been the basic
objective of fasting in all previous religious communities established by the thousands of
Prophets and guides sent by Allah to every nation and tribe. (Quran Surah Ar Rad verse 7).
An immediate implication of this conclusion is that no religion which claims to be
found on the One Truth can or should condone the exploitation of the institution of fasting as
a political weapon or for of protest. And yet, in 1986, the Foreign Minister of Nicaragua, who
was a Catholic priest, completed three weeks of his fast-unto-death in a protest against the
policies of the government of the United States of America towards the Sandanista
government in Nicarague. In much the same way the Indian leader, Mahatma Gandhi, who
was a devout Hindu and a role-model of modern reformed Hinduism, used fasting as a
political weapon in his struggle against British rule in India.
Fasting is not at all harmful to a normal person, nor does it cause any disease. On the
contrary, it is medically recommended practice for maintaining good health. Fasting is valued
as one of the oldest forms of treatment in ancient civilization and it is gaining ground with
modern nature cure specialists, too. Though fasting cannot be claimed as the antidote to all
diseases, it helps the body by putting it in a state where all its energy is periodically directed
towards overcoming its ills, and therein lies its worth.
An Explanation of Inner Secrets of Fasting and its Characteristics
There are three levels of fastings: The general fast, the specific fast and the more
specific fast.As for the general fast, then it is the refraining of the stomach and the private
parts from fulfilling their desires.The specific fast is the refraining of ones gaze, tongue,
hands, feet, hearing and eyes, as well as the rest of the body parts from committing sinful
acts.As for the more specific fast, then it is the hearts abstention from its yearning after the
worldly affairs and the thoughts which distance one way from Allah, as well as its (the
hearts) abstention from all the things that Allah has placed on the same level.
From the characteristics of the specific fast is that one lowers his gaze and
safeguards his tongue from the repulsive speech that is forbidden, disliked or which has no
benefit, as well as controlling the rest of his body parts.
In a hadith reported by Al- Bukhaaree: Whosoever does not abandon false speech
and the acting upon it, Allah is not in need of him leaving off his food and drink. (Vol.3 p70,
no127). Another characteristic of the specific fast is that one does not overfill himself with
food during the night, Instead, he eats in due measure, for indeed, the son of Adam does not
8

fill a vessel more evil than his stomach. If he were to eat his fill during the first part of the
night, he would not make good use of himself for the remainder of the night.In the same way,
if he eats to his fill for Suhoor, he does not make good use of himself until the afternoon. This
is because excessive eating breeds laziness and lethargy. Therefore, the objective of fasting
disappears dues to ones excessiveness in eating, for what is intended by the fast, is that
one savours the taste of hunger and becomes an abandoner of desires.

THE SCIENCE OF FASTING: ASPECTS FROM CHRISTIANITY PERSPECTIVE
Elaine Goh Wei Fun#
A Lecturer in the Old Testament Studies & A Director in Theological Education by Extension
(Chinese),
Seminari Theoloji Malaysia, Lot 3011, Taman South East, Jalan Tampin Lama, Batu 3
70100 Seremban, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia.
Website: http://www.stm.edu.my
#
Corresponding author; Email:elainegoh@stm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Biblical fasting generally means deliberate abstinence from food and water for a period of time for
religious purpose. To fast primarily means not to eat, and it is often prompted by a perceived need
as a reaction to personal or communal occurrences. Fasting has significant value from both Old and
New Testament in the Christian Bible. In this paper it is thus demonstrated biblically that a fast may
be associated with private acts of piety and public event of prayer, an acknowledgement of disaster,
emotional disturbance, mourning, or repentance. On account of personal and communal spiritual
discipline, the Bible presents a reasonable attention to the subject of fasting despite having a greater
emphasis on prayer. In this paper also, a brief overview is presented on the subjects of types of
fasting, and more detailed illustrations on reasons of fasting from a Christian perspective. Fasting has
a long standing history from the early church and still has an on-going relevance in Christian churches
in general. The practice denotes a way for Gods people to express sorrow, repentance, humility,
eagerness in prayer while seeking Gods attention. Fasting is therefore an appropriate response to
sufferings, trials, petitions, dangers, repentance or sorrows.
INTRODUCTION
Biblical fasting generally means a deliberate abstinence from solid and liquid food for
a specific time for religious purpose. To fast primarily means not to eat,1 and it is often
prompted by a perceived need as a reaction to personal or communal incidents. In the Bible,
fasting was means of expressing a humble heart and a repentant spirit. It was a deliberate
denial of food during crisis experiences. Fasting occupies substantial attention in the Bible,
but intriguingly, the practice of fast has never been a commandment in Mosaic Law except
for once, nor is it a doctrine in Christian belief, nor has it entailed central discussion in the
construction of Christian theology. Then why do Christians fast? What are the important
issues involved? How significant is fasting to the overall outlook of Christian faith? This
paper attempts to answer those questions by defining what makes a biblical fast, and by
examining biblical texts with regards to fasting. It is also the intention of this paper to briefly
1The
term fasting has currently been developed by some into abstinence from something other than food per se, including
that of entertainment (e.g. movies and TV programs), communication devices (e.g. emails, facebook and blogs), and habits
(shopping, coffee consumption and newspaper reading) and so on. However, the literal and original meaning of fasting,
that is, abstinence from food in total or partial, is the subject matter for this paper.
10

inform the history of biblical fasts and to explore possible reasons of fasts that contributes to
the fundamental importance of fasting from a Christian perspective.2
Fasting : Definitions and Scopes
Food and water are essential to life. The idea of eating forms an inclusio in the
Christian Bible: humankind was told to eat the produce from Gods created world (Gen 1:29),
and Christians were told to anticipate the final feast in the new heaven and earth (Rev 19:9,
21:7). The sin of Adam and Eve involved food; the feasts and celebrations in biblical history
also involved food.3
Since meals occupied important aspects in activities of worship,
festivals and covenant-making, abstaining from eating and drinking too possessed a religious
significance.4
Fasting has significant value from both Old and New Testament in the Bible. The
word for fasting in the Old Testament appears in Hebrew, m as a verb and m as a
noun, often with expressions such as afflict oneself (Lev 16:29; Isa 53:3, 5), not to eat
bread(1 Sam 28:20) and humble oneself (1 Kings 21:29).5 The meanings do not denote the
intention to punish ones body, but to redirect attention to God. The word for fasting in the
New Testament appears in Greek, nsteu as a verb, nsteia and nstis as nouns.6 The
Greek term usually denotes abstinence from food as a religious rite but also can mean
simply hunger (Mat 9:15, 15:32; Mark 8:3; Luke 5:33; 2 Cor 6:5, 11:25).
In general, the
reason for Christian fasting always points to seeking Gods purposes, e.g. the Early Church
depicted in Acts 13:2-3 and 14:23 sought Gods will by fasting when facing important
decisions of appointing missionaries and leaders of the church. In particular, Christians
express grief, penitence or supplication through denial of food. Furthermore, fasting is also a
time for someone to humble oneself and to observe self-denial while drawing near to God.
On one incident, animals were made to fast as human did (Jonah 3:7). As an observation,
people depicted in the Bible did not fast to get results; they fasted in response to key
moments in lives.
2The
Christian perspective engaged in this paper is from an evangelical Protestant one, and this perspective entails several
convictions that are distinctive from the Roman Catholic Church. References to the practice of fasting in the Church
therefore, unless otherwise stated, are common among Protestant churches.
3 Lynne M. Baab, Fasting: Spiritual Freedom Beyond Our Appetites(Downers Grove: Baker Books, 2006), 102.
4Robert Banks, Fasting, inDictionary of Jesus and the Gospels(Edited by Joel B. Green and Scot McKnight; Downers
Grove: Inter Varsity Press, 1992):233-234, here 233.
5Roland K. Harrison, Fast, inThe International Standard Bible Encyclopedia(edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley et. al.; Grand
Rapids: William Eerdmans, 1982):284.
6H. A. G. Belben, Fasting, in New Bible Dictionary (third edition; edited by I. H. Marshall et. al.; Downers Grove, Illinois:
Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 364. See also Harrison, Fast, 284.
7Harrison, Fast, 284.
11

Fasts varied in length: from one day (1 Sam 14:24; 2 Sam 3:35) to one night (Dan
6:18), three days and nights (Esth 4:16; Acts 9:9, 17-19), seven days (1 Sam 31:13; 2 Sam
12:16-18), three weeks (Dan 10:3-13), or forty days (Exod 34:28; Deut 9:9, 18; 1 Kings 19:8;
Mark 1:13; Luke 4:2).8 There are no specific reasons for different length of fasts. Some
Bible characters fasted and sought God diligently until they obtained what they had pleaded,
as of Hannah (1 Sam 1:6-8, 17-18) and Paul (Acts 9:9, 17-19). Some others fasted long
enough but God made it evident that what they had requested simply would not be obtained,
as in the case of David (2 Sam 12:15-23).
Fasting In the Old Testament
The Genesis Account
Abstaining from food for essentially religious purposes was part of the framework of
ancient cultures.
The origin of the ancient practice of fasting and its motivations were
obscure, but the Hebrew Bible, namely the Old Testament, does introduce some particular
theological emphases.9 It has been suggested in the context of Genesis 2-3, that food is
used as a tool of discipline by God both before and after the fall.10 In the Garden of Eden,
God commanded Adam that he could freely eat of every tree of the garden, but not of the
tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for in the day that he ate of it he would die (Gen 2:1617). Food could possibly lead to human separation from God, therefore God called human to
disciplined obedience by abstaining from something that might appear desirable.11 After the
fall in Gen chapter 3, the disciplinary nature of food is heightened: the serpent would eat
dust, humankind would gain their food in toil (Gen 3:14-17).
The Pentateuch
There were kosher regulations on habits of eating instructed in the Mosaic Law,
perhaps due to concerns of ontological purity: the meat of certain animals is forbidden
because they are unclean (Lev 11; Deut 14).12 The Nazirite vow to abstain from any
product of the grapevine signified a special kind of abstinence altogether (Num 6:1-21); and
the whole collection of regulations in Numbers 6 suggests an unusual ascetic lifestyle, as of
Samson (Judg 13:5), where one observes a special calling to live a strictly disciplined
lifestyle before God.13Moses fasted forty days without food and water in the presence of God,
where he later emerged as a law giver to the people of God (Exod 34:28). And the Mosaic
Law established only one day of absolute fast, that is on the Day of Atonement or the Yom
8Harrison,
Fast, 284.
Kent Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach (Deerfield: Biblical Studies Press, 2003), 3.
10 Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 20.
13This was not mandatory for the entire community of God, but rather reflected a specific calling; seeBerghuis, Christian
Fasting: A Theological Approach, 31.
9
12

Kippur in Hebrew (Lev 16:29-31; 23:27-32; Num 29:7).14 In the Pentateuch, the Day of
Atonement represents the only annual and communal fast that is commanded to practise
with certainty.
The Historical and Prophetic Books
Apart from the established annual fast, God had once commanded his people to
observe an emergency fast in the prophetic book (Joel 2:12). In addition, the earlier record
in the book of Joel 1:14 narrates a corporate fast when prophet Joel instructed all people to
call a solemn assembly. Examples of another corporate fasting can also be seen in the book
of Judges 20:26, where Gods people wept and fast after being defeated in a civil war against
the Benjamites. In addition, there were also occasional fasts happened individually. King
David, for instance, fasted in hope that his child would survive an illness inflicted by God as a
result of his adultery and murder (2 Sam 12:16-22).15
Fasting in the Old Testament is closely related to prayer and reading of Gods Word,
like the instances of Hannah (1 Sam 1:6-8), Daniel (Dan 9:3, 20), Joel (Joel 2:12), Jonah
(Jonah 3:8) and Nehemiah, who wept, and mourned for days, fasting and praying before the
God of heaven (Neh 1:4 NRSV).
The prophetic books in general embraced a careful
assessment on the practice of fasting. The book of Isaiah in particular sends a violent
protest toward fasts that were practiced without a concern for social justice and
righteousness (Isa 58:1-14). After the Exile, four special days of fasting were mentioned. In
the book of Zechariah 8:19, three other annual fasts occur in the forth, fifth and tenth month
of Jewish calendar in addition to the Day of Atonement in the seventh month.
Fasting In the New Testament
From the book of Acts 27:9, the Day of Atonement still represents the annual fast
referred to in the New Testament. On individual level, some strict religious highflier, for
example the Pharisees, fasted twice a week as a common practice at the time of Jesus
(Luke 18:12).16 Devout believer like Anna fasted quite often, serving night and day with
fasting and prayer (Luke 2:37) while no indication that one is required to do so.17 In the New
Testament, the practice of fasting is often linked with prayer, although much is said about
prayer but relatively few about fasting.
The Yom Kippuris still set on the tenth day of seventh month of Jewish Calendar (around September and October).
Psalm 51, David expresses his personal confession of sin and repentance of this act.
16Belben, Fasting, 364.
17Curtis C.Mitchel, The Practice of Fasting in the New Testament, inBibliotheca Sacra 147 no. 588 (1990): 455-469, here
455.
14
15In
13

The Fasting of Jesus
The Lord Jesus fasted for forty days in the wilderness in preparation for his ministry,
where he was also tempted by the devil (Matt 4:1-11; Mark 1:12-13; Luke 4:1-4). As with the
Old Testament prophets, Jesus fasted when faced an intense period of trial. During the
public ministry of Jesus, he kept the Mosaic Law and thus would have fasted each year on
the Day of Atonement as well.18Nevertheless, Jesus was seen as one who feasted rather
than as one who fasted strictly (Matt 11:19).
The Teaching of Jesus on Fasting19
The subject of fasting did not appear to be a central issue in the teachings of Jesus,
and he had never commanded fasting or advocated detailed rules with regards to the
practice.20 Yet Jesus assumes his disciples to fast, for he utters, whenever you fast, do not
look dismal, like the hypocrites, for they disfigure their faces so as to show others that they
are fasting, not if you fast.(Matt 6:16 NRSV, emphasis mine).
The conjunctive
whenever presupposes a common practise of fasting, whereas the stipulation if,

supposedly used instead of whenever in the passage, introduces a possible situation of
fasting that may happen. Therefore the use of whenever in Matthew 6:16 does hold an
assumption of fasting as a common religious practise. Similarly, by the allusion of your
fasting that may be seen by your Father and in secret, Jesus had taught his disciples to
grasp a right motif behind fasting practices, that is, to seek Gods approval instead of putting
up a religious show (Matt 6:18). Taken together, Jesus reference to fasting in Matthew 6 is a
recognition of its congruity with prayer (Matt 6:5-15) and simplicity (Matt 6:19-34) in the
lifestyle of his disciples.21 Jesus emphasized the manner that fasting was to be carried out is
an expression of piety alongside charity and prayer. He pointed out the relative importance
of fasting to gain approval form God rather than from people. Yet, Jesus did not condemn
fasting itself, and he apparently expected his listeners to fast voluntarily.
A separate incident tells of Jesus followers did not seem to follow the common
customs of traditional Judaism: they did not fast like followers of John the Baptist and the
Pharisees did (Matt 9:14; Luke 5:33; Mark 2:18), instead they ate and drink with tax
collectors and sinners (Luke 5:30; Mark 2:16).22
The confrontational question was put
18Mitchel,
The Practice of Fasting in the New Testament, 456.

There are textual variants that add fasting to biblical texts in Mark 9:29 and Matt 17:21 pertaining to Jesus teaching on
prayer to cast out demons, he said to them, This kind can come out only through prayer [and fasting] (Mar 9:29 NRSV).
Many latest translations have omitted the word and fasting since the term is absent from earlier manuscripts. These biblical
texts therefore will not be discussed here as fasting is the case in point.
20Mitchel, The Practice of Fasting in the New Testament, 457.
21Banks,Fasting, 233.
22 In Jesus time, tax collectors were commonly perceived to be people who compromised the corrupted practice of Roman
taxation system, and people who drew wealth by means of oppressing the poor. Hence they were generally despised
alongside other sinners like that of leprous (believed to be stricken by God).
19
14

forward to Jesus as a challenge to Jesus religious practise. Jesus response signified his
attitude toward religious fasting: fasting should be practised in times of mourning which was
inconsistent with the joy of having the bridegrooms presence.23 Jesus presented a disparity
between wedding-like joy and funeral-like mourning; the main point is that fasting should not
be practised because a tradition demands it, rather because of a felt need in due time.24 It
appeared likely that Jesus disciples are not obliged to fast apart from the annual fast on the
Day of Atonement. However, Jesus discussion in point was not whether one fast or not as
to harden the division between sacred and secular, rather, being prepared for the coming of
the kingdom of God even if one has not fasted.25
The Early Church on Fasting
The book of Acts recorded a dramatic conversion of Saul en route to Damascus
where he was blinded and did not eat nor drank (Acts 9:1-9). The verb for fasting, nsteu
was not used here, bringing some to suggest that Saul did not think about food because he
was in a state of shock; however, it could be a voluntary abstaining from food and drink
directed by an inward urge.26 Later, the church at Antioch that fasted in their worship of God,
had subsequently commissioned Paul and Barnabas for the work of mission (Acts 13:1-3).
The early church fasted on that occasion to enable uninterrupted concentration to ascertain
Gods will.27 Further, as a result of mission work of Paul and Banabas, churches were
established bringing to the need of ordaining local leadership. Anticipating the immense
difficulties facing these young churches, Paul and Barnabas brought to the point of fasting.
Then with prayer and fasting they entrusted the leaders with church leadership (Act 14:23).
Therefore it is observable that fasting was practiced in the apostolic church and clearly it has
a place in Christian piety.28
Apart from the two references in 2 Corinthians (6:4-7, 11:27) where Paul recounts his
experiences of fasting alongside other hardships in ministry, the rest of the Epistles and the
book of Revelation do not explicitly mention fasting.29 Perhaps the practice was assumed,
and the texts in the Synoptic Gospels and Acts have served as a kind of substantial teaching
23And
Jesus said to them, "The wedding guests cannot mourn as long as the bridegroom is with them, can they? The days
will come when the bridegroom is taken away from them, and then they will fast. (Mat 9:15 NRSV; emphasis mine).
25Joseph Keller, Jesus and the Critics: A Logico-Critical Analysis of the Marcan Confrontation, inInterpretation 40 no.1
(1986): 29-38, here 33 and 35.
27 Charles W. Carter and Ralph Earle, The Acts of the Apostles (Minneapolis: Klock and Klock: 1979); see Mitchel, The
Practice of Fasting in the New Testament, 464.
29 There are textual variants that add fasting to sexual abstinence in 1 Cor 7:5 with regards to the subject on prayer, devote
yourselves to [fasting and to] prayer, and then come together again, so that Satan may not tempt you because of your lack
of self-control (1Cor 7:5 NRSV). Many latest translations have omitted the word fasting and to since the term is absent
from earlier manuscripts. 1 Cor 7:5 therefore will not be discussed here as fasting is the focal subject.
15

already.30
In addition, there were more crucial issues and controversies in the early
churches that demanded attention to be dealt with.

Fasting in Church History
As the early churches faced religious pressures both internally and externally, fasting
became a much developed practice in the post-apostolic church.
The Didache, an
instruction handbook dated from the second century, directs early Christians to fast for
enemies, before ones baptism and on days distinctive from Jew.31
During the Patristic
32
period (AD 100-500), Clement of Rome wrote that fasting enables one to identify with
others, to reflect righteousness of Gods people, and to intensify prayers.33 For Polycarp,
fasting disciplines the flesh to obey the spirit to avoid temptation.34 For Hermas, fasting is for
visions and righteous conduct.35 In the midst of intense persecution, Justine Martyr delivered
prophetic exhortations of fasting for repentance, especially of the Jews to turn to Christ.36
Tertullian advocates that fasting is a key element in Christian life and ritual, because fasting
disciplines Christians flesh.37 Almost all the Church Fathers encouraged the practice of
fasting, some with excessive emphasis and mandated periodical fasts, some even elevated
the fasts to the status of a church ordinance.38
Fasting during the Patristic period had added a noble intention of charity. Food that
would normally have been eaten was given to the poor.39 In his writings to the church,
Clement of Rome taught that fasting and almsgiving was a positive example of selfsacrifice.40 Origen encouraged those who fasted to nourish the poor, and Augustine taught
that denial of food as a way to chastise oneself would bear fruit, if the food is generously
given to another.41 For Augustine, fasting enables Christians to defeat temptation and to
Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 81-82. Synoptic Gospels refer to the first three books of Gospels in
the New Testament: Matthew, Mark and Luke that are distinct in style and genre from the fourth, the Gospel of John.
31The Didache contains three explicit references to fasting: 1.3, 7.4, and 8.1. Cited in Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A
Theological Approach, 83-86. Since the Jews fast on Mondays and Thursdays, the Didache teaches Christians to fast on
Wednesdays and Fridays; see Baab, Fasting: Spiritual Freedom, 54.
32 The Patristic period is the post-apostolic era range from 100 to about 500 AD, roughly from the time of the death of the last
Apostle,John, to the Middle Ages (more precisely ended with the council of Chalcedon in 451 A.D.). During this period the
church suffered severe persecution, and post-apostolic teachings in forms of letters were drawn from the Church Fathers.
34 For example, Polycarps Letter to the Philippians 7 (ca. 150); see Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 82.
35 Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 86-88.
38 Joseph F. Wimmer, Fasting in the New Testament (New York: Paulist Press, 1982), 52; cited in Mitchel, The Practice of
Fasting in the New Testament, 467-468.
39Baab, Fasting: Spiritual Freedom, 55.
40 Quoted in Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 82, is a part of Second Clement 16.4 concerning
almsgiving with respect to prayer and fasting.
41Baab, Fasting: Spiritual Freedom, 55-56.
30
16

create capacity for love and good works.42 The emphasis on fasting as a way to help and to
identify with the poor continued for many centuries.
During the Medieval period (AD 500-1500), fasting was a form of self-denial and
penance, a practice expected of devout Christians. The individual fasts at that time were
also tending to be more ascetic in practice,leading to a general negative perception of fasting
much later in church history.43The Monasticism during medieval period had even attempted
to regulate asceticism.44 Thomas Aquinas, on the other hand, encouraged fasting in order to
subdue the lust of the flesh but also suggested a balance between pleasure and discipline of
fasting.45
The development of fasting from monasticism through the Reformation period (AD
1517-1648)46 to the modern era had registered a swing from excessive to decline.47 As a
reaction against Catholicism, the reformers maintained the appropriate uses of fasting but
discarded its value to obtain merit.48 Martin Luther viewed fasting sceptically as a human
work that could undermine justification by faith in Christ, even though fastingmighthavesome
valueintrainingthebody.49 John Calvin tried to avoid abuses of fasting, he sought a middle
way to suggest that fasting represents an aid to prayer and to humble oneself before God.50
But John Wesley practiced and advocated fasting vocally. He encouraged Christians to
practice fasting regularly and as much as desired, while being careful not to set aside normal
Christian duties.51 He encouraged Methodists to fast on Wednesdays and Fridays, and he
would not ordain anyone who did not fast on those two days.52
The decline of fasting practices was evident in Western Christianity through modern
era. It is generally agreed that there is a lack of attention given to fasting in view of the
Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 108-112.

Wimmer, Fasting in the New Testament, 93.
44Monasticism (from Greek , monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone) is a religious way of life characterized by
the practice of renouncing worldly pursuits to fully devote one's self to spiritual work. The origin of the word is from Ancient
Greek, and the idea originally related to Christian monks.Christian Monasticism is a practice which began to develop early in
the history of the Christian Church, modelled upon scriptural examples and ideals, but not mandated as an institution in the
scriptures.
42
43
45Baab,
Fasting: Spiritual Freedom, 57; Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 129.
Reformationperiod is alternately called the Protestant Reformation. It was the European Christian reform movement
that established Protestantism apart from the Roman Catholic Church. It began in 1517 when Martin Luther published The
Ninety-Five Theses, and concluded in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended years of European religious wars.
46The
17

decline across Monasticism and Protestantism.53
However, a handful of names in later
church history that often appeared in Christian literatures, practised fasting as Christian way
of piety. Jonathan Edwards were among those who had fasted regularly and had testified of
its value to shape revival and Christians spirituality.54 In his presidency, Abraham Lincoln
called for national prayer and fasting three times during the American Civil War.55
The late twentieth century has marked important Christian movements that
emphasized prayer and fasting alongside gifts and power of the Holy Spirit. The Pentecostal
movement that began in 1900s expressed a concern for walking in the power of the Holy
Spirit for revival, healing and deliverance from the evil spirits, had also widen the emphasis
on fasting.56 Later movements like that of charismatic, informed by the emphasis on moving
in the power of the Holy Spirit, practise prayer and fasting to break the power of the devil in
Christians lives.
Fasting in the Contemporary Christian Churches
Since fasting is grounded in the Bible and is informed by church history, it is not
difficult to envisage how it is practised both individually and communally today. Fasting
marks a renewal in certain Christian traditions. The Eastern Orthodox tradition offers a longterm witness to fasting and grounds the practice of fasting theologically in their doctrine of
theosis, or divinization, as part of the sanctification process.57 Without the turbulence of the
effect of Reformation that had affected Western Christianity, the Orthodox Churchs
treatments of fasting begin with Scriptures, move through patristic teachers of authority, and
then make fairly direct applications for the church.58
The Roman Catholic Church has revaluated many of its longstanding fasting
practices, and established renewed meanings to the practice since the Second Vatican
Council. Development in fasting in modern Roman Catholicism, therefore has moved from
legalistic forms to a theology of community worship and solidarity.59 The Catholic Church as
well as some liturgical churches have long practised Lenten60 fasts as part of religious
disciplines in Christian Calendar.
Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 147-150.

Arthur Wallis, Gods Chosen Fast(Eastborne: Kingsway Publication, 1968), 10-11.
57 Sanctification can be replaced with the word salvation here; it is viewed as more of a dynamic process, a restoration to
the right path for humanity that has deviated from it. See Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 156.
60 The word Lenten depicts an old English Lent, in Latin Quadragesima, meaning 40, thus refers to the 40 days of fast
preceding Easter. Lent is a time of penance, prayer, preparation for recollection of baptism and celebration of Easter. Lent
53
54
18

A renewed desire to engage in spiritual disciplines has awakened among evangelical
Protestants in recent decades, and the Protestant churches have also emphasized the
importance of fasting as spiritual discipline, especially in repentance and for revival.61 Many
Protestants have also incorporated fasting into a broader understanding in the life of the
believer to remember Christ and to imitate Christ.62 A general understanding is that this
evangelical emphasis in fasting is handed down from a broader heritage of church tradition
including monasticism.63
In general, the dynamics of fasting is encouraged, though is not commanded, in
churches. This voluntary practice is regarded as a healthy discipline in a materialized world
where one can easily become indulgent and self-absorbed.64 The most widely observed
fasts are Lent and Advent,65 both of which are preliminary to seasons of great rejoicing,
namely the Easter and Christmas. The Catholics also abstain from food and drink for an
hour prior to receiving Holy Communion.66
In the Protestant churches, the practices of
fasting vary among distinctive denominations and churches. Some Christians fasted once
weekly throughout the ecclesiastical year. Some Christians fast in the midst of personal
suffering, or when seeking Gods guidance in making crucial decisions. Some Christians fast
occasionally and voluntarily in the events of international or national significance, for
instance, while praying for victims of natural disasters like that of Tsunami in Indonesia and
earthquake in China. Many Christians in Malaysia pray and fast annually for the nation, the
government and the Malaysia society forty days before the National Day.67 Some Christian
churches organise vigils accompanied with fasting on New Year eve, or for a special sociopolitical concern. Some churches practise annual corporate fast during Lent season and
begins on Ash Wednesday, the 40th day before Easter. See "Lent," The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2008.
Available:http://www.encyclopedia.com. (Accessed: 15 Nov. 2010 ) [online source].
61Kent D. Berghuis, A Biblical Perspective of Fasting, inBibliotheca Sacra 158 (Jan-March 2001): 86-103, here 87.
62 This is large part due to wide publications of Christian literatures on the subject of fasting in the latter half of the twentieth
century, while some maintain theological approaches and others maintain more pastoral and practical orientation. See
Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 156, 165, 170-171.
63Dallas Willard, The Spirit of the Disciplines: Understanding How God Changes Lives (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988),
130-150.
65 Advent means coming in Latin, and refers to season of Christian ecclesiastical year preceding Christmas. Advent begins
from the Sunday nearest to 30th Nov until Christmas Eve. The Catholic Church considered the Advent as a season of
penitence and fasting to hold vigil for the celebration of Christmas. See "Advent," The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2008. Available:http://www.encyclopedia.com. (Accessed: 15 Nov. 2010 ) [online source].
66"Fasting," The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Available:http://www.encyclopedia.com. (Accessed: 15 Nov.
2010 ) [online source].
67 The National Evangelical Christian Fellowship (NECF) in Malaysia organises a 40 days of fast-and-prayer event around
the National Day (31st August) and the Malaysia Day (16th September) annually, where churches in Malaysia participates
both individually and collectively. Offerings are collected from the money saved during these periods of fasting for purposes
of national and international charity. The most recent 40 days of fast-and-prayer was organised from 8th August to 16
September, 2010. For more information see the website of NECF Malaysia, http://www.necf.org.my/index.cfm?menuid=173.
19

especially the Holy week68 when Christians commemorate the Passion of Jesus Christ on
Good Friday. Others may have also practised more vicarious fasts, i.e. for a long period of
weeks or a month when interceding for some people so that they may know God and
experience Gods grace and love.
Categories of Fasting
The Normal Fast
A normal fast takes its form from the example of Lord Jesus himself: abstaining from
all forms of food, solid or liquid, but not from water. In Luke 4:2, Lord Jesus ate nothing for
forty days which made him feeling hungry. There was no indication that Jesus did not drink
during those forty days.
The Absolute Fast
An absolute fast goes further to abstain from drinking in addition to no eating. Such
form of fasting normally does not go beyond three days for the benefit of physical health,
since a human body can go long periods without food but only for a very short time without
water.69 The Bible records that Ezra, overcome by anguish, spent a night eating no bread or
drinking water, for he was mourning over the failure of Gods people in keeping religious
practices(Ezra 10:6). The overwhelming concern of Gods people compromising their faith
on which their priests and temple officials had taken part as well, drove Ezra to a total fast.
The Bible records another absolute fast on the account of Esther on the verge of a
crisis that had threatened the survival of Gods people, hold a fast on my behalf, and neither
eat nor drink for three days, night or day. I and my maids will also fast as you do
(Esth 4:16 NRSV). In addition, Acts 9:9 tells of Paul the apostle, who was named Saul then,
neither ate nor drank for three days when he was blinded by his encounter with the risen
Jesus Christ. One can conclude from these passages that, absolute fasts are sometimes
normal responses in desperate circumstances in order to seek Gods will in states of sorrow
and distress.
Some absolute fasts, however, had taken longer period of time. Moses was in the
presence of God for forty days and forty nights, where he neither ate bread nor drank water,
and
there
he
wrote
on
the
tablets
the
words
of
the
covenant,
the
ten
commandments(Exod 34:28; Deut 9:9). When he got down from the mountain with Gods
commandment written on stone tablets, he found that Gods people were sinning by
68Holy Week refers to the week before Easter, whose primary days are Palm Sunday (the Sunday before Easter Sunday),
Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday. In Christian church it is a week of devout observance, commemorating
Jesus death on the cross.
See "Holy Week," The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008.
Available:http://www.encyclopedia.com. (Accessed: 15 Nov. 2010 ) [online source].
69 Wallis, Gods Chosen Fast, 15.
20

worshiping a golden calf image. After smashing the commandment tablets, again Moses
fasted forty days and forty nights to plead for forgiveness on behalf of the people (Deut 9:18).
In a separate historical account, after eating from an angel a baked cake and a jar of water,
Elijah got up in the strength of that food and went for forty days and forty nights to the mount
of Horeb (1Ki 19:8), where he had a conversation with God in a cave.
The narratives
depicted on Moses and Elijah where they held absolutes fasts as long as forty days, could
have supernatural power involved.
These narratives should therefore be regarded as
descriptive rather than normative, when extraordinary situations called for absolute fasts for a
rather long period.
The Partial Fast
A partial fast suggests a restriction of certain food on daily, normal meals. This form
of fasting is practised for religious factors in the Bible, while it is practised by many outside
Christian circles for health reason alone. Daniel represents a classic example of a partial
fast when he and his friends were taken into Babylonian royal court to serve a foreign king
during the Exile. Rather than eating food and wine decreed by the king, they decided to eat
vegetables and to drink water only in order to observe self purification (Dan 1:8-12). They
later appeared better and fatter than others who had been eating the royal rations(Dan 1:15).
Several chapters later in the same book, Daniel told of himself eating no rich food, meat nor
wine when he was mourning for three weeks (Dan 10:2-3).
It is recorded in the dairies of John Wesley that he observed a bread diet during an
earlier period of his life, where he lived exclusively on dry bread alone.70 Others like Rees
Howells had adopted a partial fast by omitting a certain meal each day to limit the intake of
food.71 By omitting dinner everyday for a period of time in preparation for a new work, Rees
Howells spent the hours with God in prayer.72 For the importance of partial fasts, Arthur
Wallis comments,
The partial fast is of great value, especially where circumstances make it impossible
or inconvenient to undertake a normal fast. Certainly it requires no less self-discipline. It is
most suitable for elderly persons or those with a weak constitution who could not manage a
normal fast. It can be used as a stepping stone to the normal fast by those who have never
fasted before.73
N. Churnock (ed.), Wesleys Journals, Vol. 1; quoted in Wallis, Gods Chosen Fast, 20.
Grubb, Rees Howells, Intercessor (C.L.C.: Lutherworth Press) cited in Wallis, Gods Chosen Fast, 20.
70
71Norman
21

Possible Reasons of Fasting
For Spiritual Discipline
Spiritual Formation
Common human problems like that of pride, hatred, unforgiveness and prejudice
have affected all people including Christians who are redeemed through Christs salvation.
Fasting is a corrective discipline to deal with these human problems, and is often
commenced by individual Christian as a personal exercise of spiritual formation. For this
purpose, some Christians fast in a regular basis following weekly, monthly or yearly cycles;
others fast occasionally when needs arise, for mourning, repentance or supplication. The
Gospels gives us glimpses of fasting among pious individuals such as Anna the prophetess
(Luke 2:37).74 It is important to note that individual fasting, whether regular or occasional, is
a voluntary and personal matter to discipline the body for a greater spiritual advantage.
Christians also practise fasting on a collective manner for the purpose of community
discipline. Some Churches have traditions of observing regular partial fast, i.e. abstaining
from meat, on Fridays. The Holy Week, the week that commemorates Jesus crucifixion on
Good Friday and Jesus resurrection on Easter Sunday, marks another regular fast practised
by most churches annually. Some others add on regular fast and pray on every New Year
eve in the church calendar. Regular communal fasts have biblical evidences and embrace
similar reasons as personal spiritual discipline: to remember Christ and to identify with Christ.
To Concentrate on Prayer
Prayer and fasting often occurred together in a handful of biblical texts. Some Bible
characters often fasted while in intercessory prayer for others (2 Sam 12:16-23; Neh 1:8-10;
Ps 35:13; Dan 6:18; 9:15-19) or for their own needs (1 Sam 1:7-11; Neh 1:11; Ps 109:21-24;
Dan 9:3; 1-:1-3).75 The eagerness to pray for an important and urgent matter often drove
leaders to fast as well, as one can see from the appeal for success in battle (Judges 20:26; 1
Sam 7:6; 2 Chron. 20:3), for relief from famine (Jer 14:1-12; Joel 1:14; 2:12-15), for success
in the plan to return home safely (Ezra 8:21-23) and in the plan to implore mercy from a king
for survival (Esther 4:16).76 In addition, the biblical texts from 1 Kings 12:27-29 and Jonah
3:5 suggest fasting in occurrence of prayer to demonstrate keenness on the part of
74Banks,Fasting,
233.
A Biblical Perspective of Fasting, 93.
76Berghuis, A Biblical Perspective of Fasting, 93.
75Berghuis,
22

individuals to commune with God, as a sober dedication.77 In short, people denied food for a
specific time so that they could pray more fervently for deliverance, guidance or protection.78
Repentance
Mourning over personal sin is an inevitable means in the process of sanctification,
and it is often made possible by fasting. King David (2 Sam 12:16-23; Ps 51) and Ahab (1
Kings 21:27-29) fasted in repentance for their own sin. Fasting is seen as a remedial
exercise to humble ones soul, as King David had also yearned, I humbled my soul with
fasting(Ps 69:10).
Several references to fasting in the Bible involve repentance from
national or corporate sins. Samuel (1 Sam 7:6), Ezra (Ezra 9:1-10:17), Nehemiah (Neh 9:1)
and Zechariah (Zech 8:16-19) called for public fast as an expression of humility and
repentance.79 Some like Daniel (Dan 9:3-14) and Nehemiah (Neh 1:4-7) had also fasted
personally over the collective sin of the people. Similarly, the contemporary Church moves
beyond mourning in a personal level to mourn over sins of the Church, the nation, and even
the world. This form of collective fasting is still observed by churches at large till today.
A Sign of Sorrow
When tragic events occurred in biblical accounts, fasting was often a natural
response to express sorrow. These events include defeat in a battle (Judges 20:26), death
of a leader (1 Sam 31:13; 2 Sam 1:12; 3:35), impending crisis (Esth 4:3), disasters like
drought (Jer 14:1-12) and plagues (Joel 1:14; 2:12-15), personal suffering like that of Hannah
(1 Sam 1:7-8), Job (Job 3:24) and the psalmists (Ps 42:3; 102:4; 107:17-18).80
These
biblical records established that, for contemporary Christians, fasting became a common and
natural human response of sorrow to express great losses.
For Special Needs
The book of Ezra tells of a special need that gave rise to fasting: a safe journey for
Gods people to return to home land after the Exile (Ezra 8:21). Ezra the priest then
proclaimed a fast at the river Ahava where the people humbled themselves before God. In
addition to regular fasts, churches also fast in the event of special needs arise i.e. for greater
church growth, overcoming threats of survival, in the midst of natural disasters, for peace and
integrity in national election and so forth. In times of these special needs, churches called for
Gods action by means of fasting.
Daniel L. Smith-Christopher, Fasting, in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (edited by David Noel Freedman et. al.; Grand
Rapids: William Eerdmans, 2000), 456. See also Banks, Fasting, 233.
78Baab, Fasting: Spiritual Freedom , 53.
77
23

To Plead for Gods Intervention
Fasting is conducted in hope of receiving healing (1 Sam 1:5-11, 18-20; 2 Sam 12:1516, 22-23; Isa 58:8; Acts 9:9, 17-19). In the postexilic period, fasting was used as a means
to call on Gods direct assistance when the community was in great danger (Ezra 8:21-22,
31; Esth 4:15-16; Dan 6:17-25; 9:3).81Fasting along with wearing sackcloth and weeping,
was a part of rituals calling for Gods deliverance.82 The acts of wearing sackcloth and
weeping symbolized a weakened state on the part of people who fasted. Where appropriate,
personal distress was also poignantly included as well, as in Psalm 109:24.83
To Plead for Gods Mercy
Much has been said about Moses fasting of forty days in petitioning God to withhold
judgment against Gods people (Deut 9:18,25).
The book of Jonah recounts another
occurrence where fasting reverses a proclaimed condemnation unto a wicked nation. The
reluctant prophet, Jonah, had proclaimed an oracle of doom against the Assyrian in the
capitol of Nineveh that would came about in forty days. The people of Nineveh believed in
Jonahs prophecy, and the king proclaimed a nation wide decree of fasting that includes
everyone from young to old (Jon 3:5-7). All human beings and animals were covered with
sackcloth, there they cried out greatly to God and determined by heart to turn from their
violence (Jonah 3:8). They observed an absolute fast in hope that God might relent and
change his mind and turn from his earlier wrath that had called for their downfall (Jonah 3:9).
The Bible then tells of a dramatic turn, When God saw what they did, how they turned from
their evil ways, God changed his mind about the calamity that he had said he would bring
upon them; and he did not do it.(Jon 3:10 NRSV)
One can say from this incident that
judgment was put off because even wicked people as Assyrian were prepared to humble
themselves with fasting. The repentance of the people, expressed in prayer and fasting, and
often in accompany with earnestness, moved God to change the decree of judgment he had
announced against them.
Nevertheless, one has to approach changing Gods mind by means of fasting with a
caution: the outcome does not always assure a desired result. King David, for example,
despite having fasted for seven days, did not obtain what he had asked for: survival of his
ailing baby son who was born of Bethsheba (2 Sam 12:15-19). King David knew that God
had stricken the child due to his acts of adultery with Bethsheba and his murder of Uriah,
Bethshebas husband (2 Sam 11). He also knew that if there was anything he could do to
81Smith-Christopher,
Fasting, 456.
Fasting, 456.
83Banks,Fasting, 233.
82Smith-Christopher,
24

alter the decree of Gods judgment, it was intense prayer and fasting. He recounted later,
"while the child was still alive, I fasted and wept; for I said, 'Who knows? The LORD may be
gracious to me, and the child may live.' (2 Sam 12:22 NRSV) We knew from the passage
well that the son of King David died of the God-stricken illness nonetheless.
To Ask for Special Guidance
Judges 20:26-28 tells of Gods people fasted in great anxiety to inquire of God
whether to go out to battle, and God gave a positive reply. In a separate incident, King
Jehoshaphat was fearful when confronted in a war against allied army; there he set himself
to seek God and proclaimed a fast throughout all Judah (2 Chron 20:3). Elsewhere in the
Bible, there is a familiar connection between the practise of fasting and the receiving of
Gods revelation in forms of dreams and visions. As mentioned earlier, Daniel was one who
observed partial fast as a way for self sanctification (1:12; 10:1-3) and one who prayed
regularly (6:10-11).
On numerous accounts, he was able to interpret dreams and visions
(Dan 2:17-19; 4:18ff; 5:13ff; 7:1ff; 8:1ff). Twice in the book of Daniel tell of him receiving
answers of his petitions and more revelations of things to come (Dan 9:3ff; 10:1ff). One can
therefore say that fasting is associated with preparation for revelations and visions.84
To Prepare for a Mission
In 1 Kings 13:1-22, an Old Testament prophet was commanded to fast while on a
specific mission. Jesus forty days of fast came at the commencement of his public ministry.
Later, the commissioning of Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:2-3) and of elders (Acts 14:23) were
accompanied by fasting.85 It can be concluded that fasting appears to be a reasonable
preparation for an important task that lies ahead, and it express the same attitude of
seriousness told in the Bible.
For Preparation for the Return of Jesus Christ
Once, Jesus was confronted with a propelling question from the followers of John the
Baptist, why do we and the Pharisees fast often, but your disciples do not fast? (Mat 9:1)
And Jesus replied, the wedding guests cannot mourn as long as the bridegroom is with
them, can they? The days will come when the bridegroom is taken away from them, and then
they will fast(Mat 9:15 NRSV). Jesus was referring to himself as the bridegroom and
possibly his death as a short departure from his disciples. Jesus death on the cross was a
time when the bridegroom was not with the disciples, when they should naturally mourn
Such kind of fast had increased in popularity during the Hellenistic period. Some inter-testament writings had shed light on
this connection of fasting in association with preparation for revelations and visions, for example, 2 Bar 12:5; 21:1-3 and
Apoc. Elijah 1:21. SeeSmith-Christopher, Fasting, 456.
84
25

and fast, until they saw the resurrected Jesus again three days later.
In addition, Christs
ascension should be in mind by means of the bridegroom being taken away. The days of
his absence hence point to the period from his ascension to the Father until the time of his
second coming, meaning, the messianic age one calls now. It was until after the ascension
of Jesus the resurrected Christ that we read of his disciples practiced fasting (Acts 13:2-3),
not when Jesus was with them.86
Hence Jesus statement in Matthew 9:14 has been
interpreted as making fasting a legitimate, though not obligatory, function of the Christian
life.87 In this messianic age, since Christ has returned to his Father in heaven, fasting can
become a way of both remembering him and anticipating his presence.88 The followers of
Jesus therefore fast as an act of preparing for His return, when they will finally meet him in
anticipation, 'Look! Here is the Bridegroom! (Mat 25:6; cf. Rev 19:7; 20:2-4).
Warnings about Fasting Practices
Like any spiritual exercise, there is a danger of fasting that is practised in its form
without its spirit. Any religious act could be deprived of its value however godly it may seem,
if it is done with a wrong motive. Fasting with an underlying motive other than seeking God
is seen as hypocritical. As mentioned, Lord Jesus cautions the practice of fasting for the
purposes of self-righteousness and public approval. The Old Testament also warns of selfserving motives behind a fast in Isaiah 58:1-14, when Gods people who fasted had actually
oppressed their workers on their fast day, and the prophet rebuked them of such act as
serving their own interest (Isa 58:3). In this matter God asked furiously in the mouth of the
prophet, Is such the fast that I choose, a day to humble oneself? Is it to bow down the head
like a bulrush, and to lie in sackcloth and ashes? Will you call this a fast, a day acceptable to
the LORD? (Isa 58:5 NRSV). It is therefore advisable, during a fast, for one to examine
elements of wickedness, lusts, hatred or strives; and not to indulge in pleasures of life to
substitute the pleasure for food.
Salvation cannot be obtained through fasting much as salvation cannot be obtained
through religious works and good deeds (Luke 18:9-14).89 Fasting does not guarantee that
ones petition will be granted. Moreover, fasting is improper without a right relationship with
God.90 It is not an ascetic practice for self-punishment, neither is it a way attempting to
manipulate God to do what human intended. Similarly, when a fast is intended for one to
lose weight, it loses the essence of Christian fasting. Some people have experienced
Wallis, Gods Chosen Fast, 25.

Fast, 284.
89 David W Cloud (ed.), Biblical Fasting, in Way of Life Encyclopedia of the Bible & Christianity (Oak Harbour: Way of Life
Literature, 1994: 32-41, here 32.
90 Cloud, Biblical Fasting, 33.
86
87Harrison,
26

physical benefits after a prolonged fast: a brighter vision of the eyes, purer breath, clearer
skin and noticeable physical wellbeing. Even so, biblical fasting has always been done for
religious intend rather than for health reason. Nevertheless, Christians do not discard at all
the practice of regular fasting as a result of the cautions above. One should not therefore
stereotype fasting as completely negative, irrelevant or hypocritical.91
CONCLUSION
Fasting and prayer often linked together. On account of personal and communal
spiritual discipline, the Bible presents a reasonable attention to the subject of fasting despite
having a greater emphasis on prayer. It has been demonstrated through this paper that a
fast associates with private acts of piety and public event of prayer with an acknowledgement
of disaster, emotional disturbance, mourning, or repentance. The paper has also attempted
to reflect on the practice of fasting in conversation with the Christian community. In the
contemporary world of recurrent disasters and obsession in consumerism, fasting still has an
on-going relevance in Christian churches, where it denotes a way for Gods people to
express sorrow, repentance, humility, eagerness in prayer and to exercise spiritual discipline.
Fasting is therefore a legitimate practice and an appropriate response to sufferings, trials,
petitions, and dangers. As the height of this subject matter, the practice of fasting has
always been aimed at seeking Gods purpose, presence, attention or approval, as in the
words of the prophet, When you fasted and lamented...., was it for me that you fasted?
(Zech 7:5 NRSV) It is a wish that this paper will locate fasting in a proper, biblical and
applicable Christian framework so that its significance might be embodied by people at large.
Works Consulted:
Baab, Lynne M. (2006). Fasting: Spiritual Freedom Beyond Our Appetites. Downers
Grove:Baker Books
Baker, A. (1965). Fasting to the World. Journal of Biblical Literature 84(3): 291-294.
Banks, R. (1992). Fasting: Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. (Joel B. G. and
ScotMcKnight Eds.). Downers Grove: Inter Varsity Press, 233-234.
Belben, H. A. G. (3rd Eds.). (1996). Fasting: New Bible Dictionary. (Marshall I.H. et. al, Eds.)
Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press, 364.
Berghuis, K.D. (2001). A Biblical Perspective of Fasting. Bibliotheca Sacra 158(629): 86-103.
Berghuis, K. D. (2007) Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach. Deerfield: Biblical Studies
Press.
Brueggemann, W. (1998). Isaiah 40-66. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press.
91Berghuis,
A Biblical Perspective of Fasting, 90.

27

Cloud, D. W. (1994). Biblical Fasting. Way of Life Encyclopedia of the Bible & Christianity.
Oak Harbour: Way of Life Literature, 32-41.
Foster, R. J. (1988). Celebration of Discipline: The Path to Spiritual Growth. New York:
Harper San Francisco.
Harrison, R. K. (1982). Fast. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. (Geoffrey W. B.
et. al., Eds.). Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans, 284.
Keller, J. (1986). Jesus and the Critics: A Logico-Critical Analysis of the Marcan
Confrontation. Interpretation 40(1): 29-38.
Lambert, D. (2003). Fasting as a Penitential Rite: A Biblical Phenomenon? Harvard
Theological Review 96(4): 477-512.
McKnight, S. (2009). Fasting.Nashville: Thomas Nelson.
Mitchel, C. C. (1990). The Practice of Fasting in the New Testament. Bibliotheca Sacra
147(588): 455-469.
Smith-Christopher, Daniel L. (2000). Fasting. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. (David N. F.
et. al., Eds.). Grand Rapids: William Eerdmans, 456.
Wallis, A. (1968). Gods Chosen Fast. Eastbourne: Kingsway Publication, 81.
Willard, D. (1988). The Spirit of the Disciplines: Understanding How God Changes Lives.
San Francisco: Harper & Row.
Advent. Holy Week. Lent. (2008). The Columbia Encyclopaedia, (6thEds.). Retrieved on 15
November 2010 from http://www.encyclopedia.com.
Suggested Internet Resources for more reading:
A beginners
guide:http://www.pwoc.org/Prayer/Prayer_Download/BiblicalOverviewOfFasting.pdf
Simple introduction:http://www.jentezenfranklin.org/fasting/fastingbasics.php
The purpose, principles and promise of biblical
fast:http://www.getgreaterlife.org/userFiles/751/the_purpose_principles_and_promise_of_
biblical_fasting.pdf
Testimonies of fasting
experiences:http://www.freedomyou.com/fasting_book/Biblical_fasting.htm
More study of the Bible on fasting:http://www.dianedew.com/fasting.htm
Fasting in the Holy Scripture:http://bible.org/seriespage/appendix-2-fasting-scripture
For Christians to probe
further:http://solascripturatt.org/VidaDosCrentes/ComDeus/BiblicalFasting-Cloud.htm
28

SCIENCE OF FASTING: ASPECTS FROM HINDUISM PERSPECTIVE
N.S. Rajendran#
President, Malaysia Hindudharma Mamandram and Aminuddin Baki Center for Global Education,
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjung Malim, Malaysia.
#
Corresponding author; E-mail: nsrajendran@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fasting controls passion. It checks the emotions and senses. It is a great penance. Fasting in
Hinduism indicates the denial of the physical needs of the body for the sake of spiritual gains.
Hinduism believes in purification of the mind and body. Regular fasting ensures purification, as it
monitors the five senses of the body. Thus the tenets of fasting are devised very scientifically, spread
all through the year. Fasting is not only a part of worship, but a great instrument for self-discipline too.
It is a training of the mind and the body to endure and harden up against all hardships, to persevere
under difficulties and not give up. According to the scriptures, fasting helps create an attunement with
the Absolute by establishing a harmonious relationship between the body and the soul. This is thought
to be imperative for the well-being of a human being as it nourishes both his/her physical and spiritual
demands. Hindus believe it is not easy to unceasingly pursue the path of spirituality in one's daily life.
Fasting in Hinduism requires abstention. Abstention may assume various forms, including abstention
from partaking of food, abstention from drinking water, abstention from speech and abstention from
sexual activity. The concept of fasting in Hinduism cannot be viewed in isolation. For Hinduism it is
intricately woven with the two unquestioned citadels of ancient health care or alternative medical
systems. All of these have their origin in Vedic philosophy and are firmly rooted in scientific principles.
There are also different kinds of fasting. This paper will deal with the concept of fasting from the
perspectives of Hinduism with references to the spiritual texts, the benefits of fasting, the different
kinds of fasting, and brief account of how it is perceived and practiced in the modern times.
INTRODUCTION
Fasting, known as Vrat or Vratam, is an integral part of Hindu religion. Each day of a
week is dedicated to a particular deity in the Hindu pantheon and depending on personal
choice a devotee can fast on any day. The main aim of all fasting associated with Hinduism
is to rise above the mundane materialistic nature and understand the all encompassing and
blissful nature of Brahman.
Fasting in Hinduism indicates the denial of the physical needs of the body for the
sake of spiritual gains. According to the scriptures, fasting helps create an attunement with
the Absolute by establishing a harmonious relationship between the body and the soul. This
is thought to be imperative for the well being of a human being as it nourishes their physical
and spiritual demands.
Hindus believe it is not easy to unceasingly pursue the path of spirituality in one's
daily life. We are harangued by a lot of considerations, and worldly indulgences do not allow
us to concentrate on spiritual attainment. Therefore a worshipper must strive to impose
29

restrains on himself or herself to get his mind focused. And one form of restraint is fasting.
This paper will attempt to provide some perspectives of fasting from Hinduism.
Fasting: From the Perspectives of Hinduism
Hindus believe that fasting is a means of showing that one can deny ones physical
needs for the sake of spiritual gains. The scriptures reveal that fasting brings about an
attunement with God by bringing about a harmonious relationship between the body and the
soul. This is therefore absolutely necessary for the individual since it takes care of his
physical and spiritual demands.
Hindus believe that the world is too full of distractions that keep people away from
pursuing the path of spirituality. So, one must strive to put restraints on oneself to focus ones
mind. One way of focusing is fasting. In most religions, including Hinduism, fasting means
abstinence from food in observance of a holy ceremony or religious ritual. The popular belief
that fasting is only for attaining spiritual well-being is partially true. There are various benefits
of fasting backed up by health experts.
Abstention may assume various forms, chief of which are abstention from partaking
of food, abstention from drinking water, abstention from speech and abstention from sexual
activity.
The concept of fasting in Hinduism cannot be viewed in isolation. Hinduism is
intricately woven with the two unquestioned citadels of ancient health care or alternative
medical systems YOGA and AYURVEDA. All of these have their origin in Vedic philosophy
and are firmly rooted in scientific principles. Besides, the doctrine of HINDU ASTROLOGY
also influences the ritual of fasting.
Fasting is not only a part of worship, but a great instrument for self-discipline too. It is
a training of the mind and the body to endure and harden up against all hardships, to
persevere under difficulties and not give up. According to Hindu philosophy, food means
gratification of the senses and to starve the senses is to elevate them to contemplation. It is
the belief that, "When the stomach is full, the intellect begins to sleep. Wisdom becomes
mute and the parts of the body restrain from acts of righteousness."
30

The practice of fasting is pretty much flexible. Advocated for the well-being of the
family and enrichment of the self, fasting is optional. However, if fasting is done sincerely it
can generate the desired results like salvation or attainment of an objective.
The ritual of fasting is a part of almost every devout Hindu household. Though chiefly
undertaken by the women folk, fasting is also undertaken by men. The premise being that
fasting contributes to a clean living as the persons fasting are expected to indulge in
exemplary behavior, moral thinking, and make sacrifices.
Hinduism believes in purification of the mind and body. Regular fasting ensures
purification, as it monitors the five senses of the body. Thus the tenets of fasting are devised
very scientifically, spread all through the year, to enable a simple fasting plan as per
convenience. In fact, this proves more effective than any new-age dietary plans.
Different Kinds of Fasting
There are some variations in the way people observe the fast. Some might only eat one
vegetarian meal in the evening whilst others will not eat any food at all other than fruit/nuts
and milk. Many Hindus will also fast all year round on certain days of the week, depending on
their beliefs.
There are different kinds of fasting from the perspectives of Hinduism.
x
A common fasting ritual may mean avoiding "tamasic" foods like fish and meat for a
couple of days. This is applicable to non-vegetarians only. Most Hindus abstain from
eating such foods for more than one day.
Moderate fasting involves avoiding solid foods and adopting a liquid diet consisting of
vegetable juice or fruit juice. Moderate fasting is more prevalent during festivals.
Some follow a strict fasting ritual by consuming only water or avoiding any form of
liquid for a set number of days. The Karva Chauth fasting ritual among women is the
best example of abstinence from liquids. (Source : The Himalayan Academy)
According to the Ayurveda, the ancient Hindu medical system, when a person fasts,
the digestive organs get cleansed and corrected. Fasting also controls emotional
imbalances of the body and prevents acidity and flatulence.
Fasting in Hinduism is closely linked to the religious festivals. Hindus, even if they do not
practice fasting on a regular basis, most of the time observe fasting strictly during these
festivals.
31

Some of the major kinds are:
x
Hindus fast on certain days of the month such as Purnima (full moon) and
Ekadasi (the 11th day of the fortnight).
Certain days of the week is also marked for fasting, depending on individual
choices and on one's favorite god and goddess. On Saturday, people fast to
appease the god of that day, Shani or Saturn. Some fast on Tuesdays the
auspicious day for Murugan or Hanuman. On Fridays devotees of the goddess
Santoshi Mata abstain from taking anything citric.
Hindus observe fast on festivals like Navaratri, Shivratri and Karwa Chauth.
Navaratri is a festival when people fast for nine days. Hindus in West Bengal fast
on Ashtami, the eighth day of the festival of Durga Puja.
Another common kind of fast is to forego taking cereals when only fruits are
eaten. Such a diet is known as phalahar.
There are also other specific festivals and rituals related to fasting. For example, on
Monday, they will fast for Lord Shiva and Goddess Durga. Some people will only have milk
and lumps of crystallized sugar. In the morning, unmarried women will go to Lord Shivas
temple with offerings of flowers, ghee, incense, special leaves, milk, honey, sugar and tulsi
leaves.
The major sects in Hinduism too promote fasting. For example, in Shaivism, Maha
Shivratri, also knwon as Maha Sivaratri, Shivaratri, or Sivaratri, translates as "Night of Shiva"
or "Great Night of Shiva." Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th night
and 14th day in the Krishna Paksha during the waning of the moon. The festival is principally
celebrated by offerings of bael leaves to the Lord Shiva, and all day fasting and an all night
long vigil.
For Vaishnavism, on the other hand, there are a number of contemporary Vaishnavite
celebrations that include fasting, including Vaikunta Ekadasi, Rama Navami, and
Janmashtami. Vaikunta Ekadasi occurs for one day in the month of Dhanurmasa, which is
roughly December and January on the Gregorian calendar. This event emphasizes the
importance of devotion and austerity in service of Vishnu. In reference to this, Vaishnavites
enter into strict fasting on this day, along with prayer and meditation. Devotees consider their
asceticism to be among the most important means in reaching Vaikuntha, a place of eternal
bliss that is the ultimate destination of the soul.
32

Rama Navami is another important Vaishnavite festival that involves fasting.
Dedicated specifically to Vishnu's avatar Rama, it is widely celebrated by all Vaishnavas.
This festival occurs on the ninth day of the month of Chaitra (during March and April) to
commemorates
Vishnu's
birth.
Another
celebration
is
the
Janmashtami,
which
commemorates the birthday of the deity Lord Krishna. Janmashtami is celebrated on the
eighth day of the month of Bhadon (August and September), primarily in Northern India. As
in other Vaishnava festivals, devotees observe a strict fast for the entire day. In the evening,
songs are performed in honor of Lord Krishna, ending at midnight, the time of his birth. At
this time, a lavish ritual replicates the birth of Lord Krishna and those fasting eat after the
ceremony is finished.
Benefits of Fasting on Spiritual Level
In Hinduism, the health benefits of fasting follow a two-fold approach. Firstly, fasting is
a great channel for self-discipline. Secondly, it keeps an individual healthy and active. The
fasting ritual in Hinduism follows two concepts: living in a clean environment and having
moral thoughts. Generally, a Hindu fasts on certain days of the month, especially lunar days
(during a full moon or waning moon) and weekdays.
Fasting lets the body desalt. Research has proved that people over consume salt
than the normal requirement of the body. This can cause water logging, and become a major
factor in elevating blood pressure and affecting the cardiovascular system. Some Hindus fast
by avoiding salt completely on a particular day of the month. One of the key benefits of
fasting is improving muscular performance. Fasting eliminates lactic acid, which reduces
muscle fatigue. It also improves blood circulation and ensures a healthy heart.
However, not everyone is a good candidate for fasting. Many factors need to be
considered before a fast is undertaken. Not every condition will respond optimally to fasting
and conservative care alone. Occasionally, medical care may be necessary. So, it is very
important to fast under medical supervision only. If you are not a good candidate for fasting,
it would be advisable to follow your doctors advice before acting.
The underlying principle behind fasting is found in Ayurveda. This ancient Indian
medical system sees the basic cause of many diseases as the accumulation of toxic
materials in the digestive system. Regular cleansing of toxic materials keeps one healthy. By
fasting, the digestive organs get rest and all body mechanisms are cleansed and corrected.
A complete fast is good for heath, and the occasional intake of warm lemon juice during the
period of fasting prevents the flatulence.
33

Since the human body, as explained by Ayurveda, is composed of 80% liquid and
20% solid, like the earth, the gravitational force of the moon affects the fluid contents of the
body. It causes emotional imbalances in the body, making some people tense, irritable and
violent. Fasting acts as antidote, for it lowers the acid content in the body which helps people
to retain their sanity.
It is also the belief that, fasting purifies the mind, controls passion, checks emotions,
and controls the senses. For many it is also a sort of penance as it provides a window to
escape from sins. Interestingly, fasting controls the tongue, which when let loose is the
greatest enemy of man.
Benefits of Fasting to the Physical Body
Besides the benefits discussed above, it is also the belief that fasting overhauls the
respiratory, circulatory, digestive and urinary systems. Besides, impurities and poisons from
the body are removed as a fast performs the much needed cleansing. This provides
adequate rest to internal organs and time for cleansing.
CONCLUSION
Fasting is an important aspect in Hinduism. It brings both spiritual and physical
benefits to the followers. Hindus are encouraged to fast because the main aim of all fasting
associated with Hinduism is to rise above the mundane materialistic nature and understand
the all encompassing and blissful nature of Brahman, an attunement with the Absolute by
establishing a harmonious relationship between the body and the soul, which in Hinduism is
the ultimate goal of all its followers.
REFERENCES
Chiam, H. K., Chang L. H., Othman, L., Rajendran, N., Ambikavathi P., Zarin, I. and
Zaimuariffudin, S. N. (2006). Research on Knowledge and Practice of Human Rights in
Secondary Schools (ISBN983-2523-37-0). Kuala Lumpur: SUHAKAM.
Crawford, S, C. (1982). The evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals. Hawaii: The University Press of
Hawaii.
Fasting in Hinduism: Whats the truth behind it?
http://www.brighthub.com/health/diet-nutrition/articles/31900
(2010).
Retrieved
from
Flood, G. (1996). An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fredricks, R. (2009). Fasting: An Exceptional Human Experience.
Hinduism and Food. (2010). Retrieved from http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_food.asp
Paliwal, B,B. (2006). Message of the vedas. New Delhi: Diamond Books.
Rajendran, N.S. (2009). Hinduism and Governance. In: Chandra Muzaffar. Religion and
Governance (ISBN: 978-967-323-110-2). Kuala Lumpur: Arah Publications.
34

Rajendran, N. (2010). A universal spiritual-moral vision: Challenges and prospects. In: Chandra
Muzaffar. (Ed.). Religion Seeking Justice and Governance (ISBN: 978-983-861-443-6).
Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Subramuniyaswami, S, S. (2000). Tirukural: Ethical masterpiece of the Tamil people. New Delhi:
Abhinav Publications.
35

SCIENCE OF FASTING: ASPECTS FROM BUDDHISM PERSPECTIVE
Surya Dharamdass#
Hon. Principal, Mahindarama Sunday Pali School
No, 2, Kampar Road, 10460 Penang
#
Corresponding author; E-mail: surya_dg2001@yahoo.co.uk
ABSTRACT
The Buddha, as is well known, emphasized moderation, the Middle Way that avoids extremes in all
things.
The Buddhas spiritual awakening is directly related to fasting, but from the reverse,meaning, only
after the Buddha stopped fasting did he realize his great awakening.
The founding story of the Buddhist faith relates how the Buddha was cultivating the Way in the
Himalayas, having left his affluent life as a Prince of India. He sought teachers and investigated a
variety of practices in his search for liberation from the suffering of old age, death and rebirth. In the
course of his practices, he determined incorrectly that if he stopped eating, he could end desire and
gain liberation from suffering. Over time, he got so thin that he could touch his spine by pressing his
stomach. He realized that he would die before he understood his mind. At that point of time, a young
herds maid offered him a meal of milk porridge which he accepted. He regained his strength,
renewed his meditation, and realized Buddhahood. So essentially, by quitting fasting, and eating in
moderation, he realized the central tenet of Buddhist practice, moderation.
In Buddhism, fasting is recognized as one of the methods for practicing self-control. The Buddha
advised monks not to take solid food after noon. Lay people who observe the eight codes of conduct
on selected days also abstain from taking any solid food after noon to practice self-control. The Eight
Codes of Conduct are: 1. I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures; 2. I
undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not given; 3. I undertake the precept to
refrain from sexual activity; 4. I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech; 5. I undertake
the precept to refrain from intoxicating drinks and drugs which lead to carelessness; 6. I undertake the
precept to refrain from eating at the forbidden time (i.e., after noon); 7. I undertake the precept to
refrain from dancing, singing, music, going to see entertainments, wearing garlands, using perfumes,
and beautifying the body with cosmetics and 8. I undertake the precept to refrain from lying on a high
or luxurious sleeping place.
In Buddhism, fasting is an initial stage of self-discipline to acquire self-control.
INTRODUCTION
Definition of Fasting
Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all food,
drink, or both, for a period of time - partial or temporary.An absolute fast is
normally defined as abstinence from all food and liquid for a defined period,
usually a single day (24 hours), or several daytime period. Other fasts may be
partial in scope of food and drink, such as restricting only meat. The fast may
36

also be intermittent, spanning an irregular set of days. Fasting practices may
preclude sexual and other activities as well as food.
.
How did the Buddha's own experience influence the Buddhist approach to
fasting?
The founding story of the Buddhist faith relates how the Buddha was
cultivating the Way in the Himalayas, having left his affluent life as a Prince of
India. Fasting, even extreme fasting, formed a part of the self-mortification
(attakilamathana yoga) practiced by ascetics during the Buddhas time. During
the six years the Buddha (or more correctly, the Bodhisatta) was learning from
other teachers and experimenting with various ascetic practices and he to
underwent long fasts where he ate only a grain of rice and a sesame seed per
day.
Some of thesefasts as described by him in the MahasihanadaSutta
included eating only once every seven days, eating only one kola fruit a day
(M.I,78). The kola is the fruit of Zizyphus jujube, a small fruit with nutritional
value (see picture).
He sought teachers and investigated a variety of practices in his search

for liberation from the suffering of old age, death and rebirth. In the course of his
practices he realized that desire was the root of mortality. He determined,
incorrectly, that if he stopped eating he could end desire and gain liberation from
suffering. As a result of these and other fasts the Buddhas body became
extremely emaciated (extremely thin). Because of eating so little my ribs stuck
out like the rafters of an old hut, my eyes sunk into their sockets and their gleam
looked like the gleam on the water in a deep well, my stomach touched my back
bone so that when I tried to touch my stomach I got my backbone and when I
touched my backbone I got my stomach, all because I eat so little (M.I,80).The
famous Fasting Buddha in the Lahore Museum. (see picture)
37
He no longer had the strength to meditate.He realized that he would die

before he understood his mind; further, that desire does not end by force. At that
point a young herds maid offered him a meal of milk porridge which he
accepted. He regained his strength, renewed his meditation, and realized his
great awakening. So by quitting fasting, and eating in moderation, he realized
the central tenet of Buddhist practice, moderation.
The Buddha's spiritual awakening is directly related to fasting, but from
the reverse. That is to say, only after the Buddha stopped fasting did he realize
his great awakening.
Beyond the core principles of the Four Noble Truths and the Noble
Eightfold Path there are many ideas as to what the practicing of Buddhism
means. Fasting thus is not considered a core principle or idea of its teachings.
6 t h Code of Conduct - Not to eat food between noon and the following dawn
Even so, traditionally Buddhism is a practice that teaches moderation and
austerity as part of living what is called the Middle Way. Siddh rthaGotama did
also suggest that monks, or bhikkus as they are called, should limit their diet
after noontime.
In the the sixth code of conduct, it states that one will refrain from food in
the vikala. What time is kala and what time is vikala? From dawn to midday
(noon) is called kala (proper time) or the time that Buddhas and Ariyas take their
meal. From midday to the dawn of the following day is vikala or the improper
time for meals.
Thus in some traditions, devout Buddhist monks, live in communities that
observe strict rules designed to focus attention on the Noble Truths and Noble
Eightfold Path and food is only consumed in the morning, before noon, and
fasting is practiced from noon until the following morning.
38

After real izing his great aw
A
wakening there
t
is no
n record
d of the Buddha
B
fasting himself or recom
mmending fasting. Monks an
nd nuns a
are expec
cted to
n from foo
od from no
oon to sun
nrise the next
n
day, too
t
short tto be cons
sidered
abstain
fasting . Also, du
uring that time the y are allo
owed to ta
ake fruit jjuices and
d other
ncluded in the prohi bition aga
ainst food at night.
liquids . Milk is in
Lay peoplle keeping
L
g the 8 c odes of conduct
c
w also ab
will
bstain fro m food
from no
oon to sun
nrise the next
n
day.
Monks are
M
e not allow
wed to hoa
ard food. Nor
N are th
hey allowe d to cook . So, in
order t o survive they have
e to go outt in the mo
orning to receive
r
foo
od from B uddhist
ers. When they com e back, th
hey sort th
hrough the
e food. Som
me food th
hey will
followe
eat strraight awa
ay for brea
akfast. Ot her food they
t
will save
s
for t heir last meal
m
of
the dayy at 11 a.m
m. The foo
od that is left over is
s not wastted. Some
e may be given
g
to
the nun
ns or child
dren who help
h
out around
a
the
e temple. Other
O
food
d is given to poor
people who com
me to the temple att mid-day.. Any left--over food
d is given to the
d cats.
temple dogs and
IIt was the practice in the Bud
ddha's tim
me for the monks to go to the village
with th
heir bowlss to colle ct food. To
T avoid disturbing
g the villa
agers morre than
necesssary, the Buddha
B
orrdered hiss monks to
o make th is visit on
nce a day , in the
early morning.
m
T
This
would
d allow the
e villagers
s to be fre
ee to cond
duct their day to
day afffairs witho
out being disturbed
d
b the mo nks requirring food.
by
The Budd has recom
T
mmendatio
on to mon ks and nu
uns to abs tain from food at
night seems
s
to have been
n for rea
asons of health.
h
He said, I d
do not eatt in the
evenin g and thu
us am free
e from illn
ness and affliction
a
a
and
enjoy health, s trength
ase (M.I47
73).
and ea
The interp
T
pretation of
o the ruless, howeve r differs between
b
th
he Mahaya
ana and
Theravvada tradittions.
39

The Mahayana monks interprets the rule not to take food at an
inappropriate time as not meaning fasting from noon to sunrise but to refrain
from eating between mealtimes. The fasting rule would be inappropriate, from a
health angle, for the monks living in cold climates such as China, Korea and
Japan.
Long fasts would contravene the Buddhas concept of talking a middle way
(majjhimapatipada) and avoiding extremes.
Buddhist monks observe a strict code of conduct in order to discipline the
body and mind. Food is regarded simply as a means of keeping the body alive
so that the spiritual path may be followed. Food is not taken in order to beautify
the body or because it has a pleasant taste.According to the rules, a meal
should be taken before noon.
A meal in the evening may cause drowsiness and make the practice of
meditation difficult. Monks discipline themselves to be satisfied with very few
material things, including food. Also by eating only one meal a day, they reduce
the burden on the lay community which supports them.
An exception to the rule of not eating after noon is made during an illness.
The Vinaya also stipulates that monks and nuns can eat honey, sugar, oil and
ghee in the evening if they are ill (Vin.III,51).
Sri Lankan monks participating in all-night chanting will consume a
mixture of these four substances. This mixture is called catumadhura.
5 t h Code of Conduct - Not to take intoxicating drinks and drugs which lead to carelessness
The rules state that a monk should only eat what is offered to him and he
should accept any item without showing pleasure or displeasure. The offering of
food to the monks has been the tradition from the days of the Buddha.
Monks from the Theravada tradition hold that it is necessary to accept
without exception whatever the lay donors put in their alms bowls. If the
donation includes meat, many Theravada monks will eat it, regardless. Monks
are not allowed to request particular types of food.
The fifth code of conduct deals with intoxicants (sura and meraya). How
many types of intoxicants are there? What are they? There are ten types of
intoxicants, five of sura and five of meraya.
40

Alcohol (sura) made from flour, made from sweets, made from rice, made
from yeast, made from a combination of ingredients.
Fermented (meraya) made from flowers, made from fruit, made from
honey, made from sugar-cane, made from a combination of ingredients.
In the fifth code of conduct, no mention is made of drugs such as opium
and marijuana. If one is observing the Eight Codes of conduct or the FiveCodes
of Conduct as a permanent practice and indulges in these substances, does one
break the precept? The precept is broken with the use of opium and marijuana.
Brandy, champagne and other spirits (even though not specifically mentioned)
are included in sura and meraya; if used for medicinal purposes in small
amounts, not causing one to become inebriated, then the precept is not broken.
Any type of food (not containing alcohol), which is normally taken by lay people,
is suitable for offering to monks.
Alcohol or other forms of intoxicating drugs taken even in moderate
quantities affect the mind. Keeping the mind clear and pure at all times is most
important in Buddhist practise. Those who are following the path of purification
should avoid them altogether.
Vegetarianism
The Buddha did not advise his followers to abstain from eating meat. He
was aware that prohibition would make it difficult for people in certain cultures to
survive as Buddhists. For example, for an Eskimo the only food available might
be meat or fish. On such matters, Buddha left the choice up to the individual.
One should be aware that killing an animal, even for food, has its kammic
consequences. Buddhist monks will refrain from eating meat if they are aware
that an animal has been specially killed for the offering. Bear in mind, many
monks refer to be vegetarian.
Mahayana monks and nuns on the contrary feel that compassion should
be the priority and it is a monk's duty to inform the laity that meat eating breaks
the code of conduct against killing.
Killing obviously involves suffering in the animal killed for food; at the
same time it harms the seeds of compassion in the heart of the one who kills or
eats the animal's body. This principle informs the monastic's approach towards
the alms that he or she accepts from laity.
41

Laypersons following the Mahayana tradition, who have taken a
Bodhisatta vow, will also follow a strictly vegetarian diet. This is not so much an
additional code of conduct but a strengthening of the first code of conduct; To
undertake the training to avoid taking the life of beings. The eating of meat
would be considered a contribution to the taking of life, indirect though it may
be.
One should not judge the purity or impurity of man simply by observing
what he eats.
In the AmagandhaSutta, the Buddha said:'Neither meat, nor fasting, nor
nakedness, Nor shaven heads, nor matted hair, nor dirt, Nor rough skins, nor
fire-worshipping, Nor all the penances here in this world, Nor hymns, nor
oblation, nor sacrifice, Nor feasts of the season, Will purify a man overcome with
doubt.'
Taking fish and meat by itself does not make a man become impure. A
man makes himself impure by bigotry, deceit, envy, self-exaltation,
disparagement and other evil intentions. Through his own evil thoughts and
actions, man makes himself impure. There is no strict rule in Buddhism that the
followers of the Buddha should not take fish and meat. The only advice given by
the Buddha is that they should not be involved in killing intentionally or they
should not ask others to kill any living being for them. However, those who take
vegetable food and abstain from animal flesh are praiseworthy.
JivakaKomarabhacca, the doctor, discussed this controversial issue with
the Buddha: 'Lord, I have heard that animals are slaughtered on purpose for the
Buddha, and that the Buddha, knowingly eats the meat killed on purpose for him.
Lord, do those who say animals are slaughtered on purpose for the Buddha, and
the Buddha knowingly eats the meat killed on purpose for. Do they falsely
accuse the Buddha? Or do they speak the truth? Are your declaration and
supplementary declarations not thus subject to be ridiculed by others in any
manner?'
'Jivaka, those who say: 'Animals are slaughtered on purpose for the
Buddha, and the Buddha knowingly eats the meat killed on purpose for him', do
not say according to what I have declared, and they falsely accuse me. Jivaka, I
have declared that one should not make use of meat it is seen, heard or
suspected to have been killed on purpose for a monk. I allow the monks meat
that is quite pure in three respects: if it is not seen, heard or suspected to have
been killed on purpose for a monk.' (JivakaSutta)
42

Though the Buddha did not advocate vegetarianism for the monks, He did
advise the monks to avoid taking ten kinds of meat for their self respect and
protection. They are: humans, elephants, horses, dogs, snakes, lions, tigers,
leopards, bears and hyenas. Some animals attack people when they smell the
flesh of their own kind. (VinayaPitaka)
When the Buddha was asked to introduce vegetarianism amongst His
disciples, the Buddha refused to do so. As Buddhism is a free religion, His
advice was to leave the decision regarding vegetarianism to the individual
disciple. It clearly shows that the Buddha had not considered this as a very
important religious observance. The Buddha did not mention anything about
vegetarianism for the lay Buddhists in His Teaching.
Nutriment
ALL BEINGS subsist on nutriment this, according to the Buddha, is
the one single fact about life that, above all, deserves to be remembered,
contemplated and understood.The laws of nutriment govern both biological and
mental life, and this fact was expressed by the Buddha when speaking of four
kinds
of
nutriment:
edible
food,
sense-impressions,
volitions,
and
consciousness. It is hunger that stands behind the entire process of nutrition,
wielding its whip relentlessly. The body, from birth to death, craves ceaselessly
for material food; and mind hungers as eagerly for its own kind of nourishment,
for ever new sense-impressions and for an ever expanding universe of ideas.
Living being needs nourishment. We eat to live. As such a human being
should supply his body with the food it needs to keep him healthy and to give
him energy to work. However, as a result of increasing wealth, more and more
people, especially in developed countries, eat simply to satisfy their palates. If
one craves after any kind of food, or kills to satisfy his greed for meat, this is
wrong.
Practising Self-Restraint
But if one eats without greed and without directly being involved in the act
of killing but merely to sustain the physical body, he is practisingself restraint.
Sages in various countries who practised self-control began with a system
of regulated fasting and succeeded in attaining unbelievable heights of
spirituality. An ascetic was kicked and tortured, and then his hands and feet
were severed on the orders of a rakish king. But the ascetic, according to the
Buddhist story, endured the torture with equanimity and without the slightest
anger or hatred. Such religious people have developed their mental power
through restraining from sensual indulgence.
43

In Buddhism, fasting is recognized as one of the methods for practising
self-control. The Buddha advised monks not to take solid food after noon. Lay
people who observe the eight Codes of Conduct also abstain from taking any
solid food after noon.
In Buddhism, fasting is an initial stage of self-discipline to acquire selfcontrol. In every religion, there is a system of fasting. By fasting and sacrificing
a meal once a day or for any period, we can contribute our food to those who are
starving or who do not have even a proper meal each day.
CONCLUSION
'A man who eats too much', writes Leo Tolstoy, 'cannot strive against
laziness, while a gluttonous and idle man will never be able to contend with
sexual lust. Therefore, according to all moral teachings, the effort towards selfcontrol commences with a struggle against the lust of gluttony, commences with
fasting just as the first condition of a good life is self-control, so the first
condition of a life of self-control is fasting.'
REFERENCES
Somdet P. B. (1996-2010). UposathaSila, The Eight-Precept Observance. (Translated)
Bhikkhu Kantasilo. Retrieved from
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nanavara/uposatha.html
The Four Nutriments of Life, An Anthology of Buddhist Texts. (Translated) from the Pali with
an Introductory Essay by Nyanaponika Thera. Buddhist Publication Society, Wheel
Publication No. 105/106, 1981 Buddhist Publication Society. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nyanaponika/wheel105.pdf
(Nutriments)
The Buddhist Schools of Thought. (2008). Retrieved from http://buddhanet.net/elearning/buddhistworld/schools1.htm (The Buddhist schools of thought)
London Buddhist Vihara. (No Date). QUESTIONS and ANSWERS on Buddhist Practices.
Retrived from http://www.londonbuddhistvihara.org/qa/qa_practices.htm (meat,
alcohol, not to eat after noon)
Dhammika,
S.
(2010)
Mussings
of
Dhamma.
Retrieved
from
http://sdhammika.blogspot.com/2010/01/fasting.html(pictures of jujube and
fasting)
Rev. Heng Sure. On Fasting From a Buddhist's Perspective. Retrieved from
http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma9/fasting.html (Buddhist perspective)
The Eight Precepts attha-sila (John T. B. Eds.). Retrieved on 26 May 2010
fromhttp://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/atthasila.html(eight codes
of conduct)
44

SCIENCE OF FASTING: ASPECTS FROM BAHAI COMMUNITY
M.M. Sreenivasan#
No. 73 SS 24/12 Taman Megah, 47301, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
#
Corresponding author; E-mail: mmsv29@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
God or whatever name you choose to name this Almighty Power, this Infallible Lawmaker, this AllLoving Creator of the universe; including human beings; this God would not have revealed in every
Age, spiritual and social laws that are intertwined in His Teachings if not to ensure the stable and
smooth passing through in time and space of all that He created! Fasting is also that law which He
revealed to enable human beings to obey and within the ambit of such obedience, to know Him and
worship Him. It is within this knowing and worshiping Him, that human beings who choose to make
and live right choices, reflecting in their deeds obedience to their Creator, can contribute towards
making this body of humankind enjoy the beauty of unity in diversity, stress-less peace, prosperity
from abundance and being engulfed in a feeling of happiness! Bahais; the followers of the
Messenger of God for this Age; Bahaullah; The Glory of God, observe fasting every year between
March 2nd and March 21st. During the 19 days, we do not eat or drink anything from sunrise to
sunset. We get up at dawn to partake of food before sunrise and pray to God thanking Him for all His
favors and blessings. Having fasted during the day until sunset, we break our fast after prayers.
Bahais consider these days of fasting as glorious days fortified with the knowledge that this is an
opportunity to obey God unconditionally! Besides a yearly servicing of the visible body-vehicle which
has been designed to transport the invisible soul in this visible material dimension, fasting also
enables the obedient to know and to live in deeds a lifestyle that will enable the soul to acquire and
develop spiritual virtues so necessary for attaining the shores of Paradise in the world to come. There
is no power on earth to know and deflect a thought except through the conscious will of the individual
thought-maker. In like manner no sane power will attempt to force any human being to observe the
fast as intended by the Creator! Mankind has now come to a stage of adolescence and whatever
tantrums mankind as a youth has indulged in, in the past will have to be sacrificed on the altar of
change!
INTRODUCTION
Bahais all over the world observes fasting every year between March 2nd and March
21st. During the 19 days, we do not eat or drink anything from sunrise to sunset. We get up
at dawn to pray to God thanking Him for all His favors and blessings. We then eat our food
before sunrise. Having fasted during the day until sunset, we break our fast after prayers.
The BahaI Teaching spell out very clearly the fact that if religious Teachings do not
conform to scientific knowledge, it should be looked at as mere superstition.
Fasting is a religious Teaching. It is a command from God that every human being
once a year must observe fasting. If we study the effects of fasting from the scientific point of
view we discover that the human body undergoes positive changes that result in optimal
health which contributes to boost our immune system which acts as a buffer to prevent,
challenge and manage diseases.
45

The Almighty Creator we refer to as God and others who call Him by many other
Names have given mankind His commandment to observe the Fast, To Fast or not to Fast
becomes a choice given to all humankind.
The Messenger of God, Bahaullah in His revealed Writings have clearly commanded
His followers thus: We have commanded you to pray and fast from the beginning of maturity;
this is ordained by God, your Lord and the Lord of your forefathers. He has exempted from
this those who are weak from illness or age, as a bounty from His Presence, and He is the
Forgiving, the Generous. BahaI Writings
Observing the Fast is enjoined upon all Bah's. It has a very beneficial effect both
physically and spiritually, and the friends should realize that God through His Messenger
Bah'u'llh never would have instituted it if it was detrimental to health and well-being."
This quote, mirrors forth the true meaning of Fasting: For this material fast is an outer
token of the spiritual fast; it is a symbol of self-restraint, the withholding of oneself from all
appetites of the self, taking on the characteristics of the spirit, being carried away by the
breathings of heaven and catching fire from the love of God. BahaI Writings
Let me talk a little about the imperative wanting to obey the commandment of God
once any human being comes to know of such a commandment.
Children who come into this world absolutely ignorant of the knowledge of who they
are, why are they born into this material dimension somewhere in some part of the world;
what is the purpose for which they travel from birth to the death of the body and what should
be their expected destination in the world to come; which we know as the spiritual world;
these essential knowledge must be taught by their parents and especially by the mother who
is the first teacher of her child.
There is an enormous responsibility a human being must shoulder in order to fulfill
ones purpose of creation. It begins with obedience to instructions from parents even as a
child. Some children obey and some do not. Obeying ones parents and transforming such
understanding into deeds is crucial! How much more then, it is to obey the commandments
of God! In their early days, the children might not and most of the time they cannot
understand why they have to obey their parents; why they are told to live lifestyles. This
obedience to parents wishes and guidance might mean to children, to be forced to do what
they might not like to do, but as time passes by, there will come a time when they will
understand the wisdom behind such guidance. In the same way if God, who is All-Knowing
has commanded mankind; His children, to observe the Fast, it is imperative that everyone
should do exactly that!
The period of fasting is essentially a period of meditation and prayer. This is also the
time for spiritual recuperation. During this period the one who observes the Fast must strive
to make the necessary readjustments in his inner and outer life. Fasting also enables one to
refresh and reinvigorate the spiritual forces latent in ones soul. Its significance and purpose
are, fundamentally spiritual in character. Fasting is symbolic. It is a reminder of the necessity
to abstain from selfish and carnal desires.
Children of all countries, nationalities and classes, who, when they reach fifteen years
old are under this obligation to Fast.
46

In the BahaI Faith the observance of the Fast has been made by God the sole responsibility
of the individual believer. No one and no powers on earth have the right to enforce it on
anyone or hold anybody responsible for not observing it. If however one has to according to
certain unavoidable circumstances wish to conscientiously break such Fast there is enough
guidance given in the Writings of The Cause of God for anyone to read, understand and
follow it.
We must observe fasting because:
When we fast, it is the cause of obedience in deeds to our Almighty Creator.
When we Fast, this act develops, strengthens, revives and purifies our souls.
When we fast we strengthen our capacity to overcome material desires and attachments.
When we fast we develop powers to achieve optimal health.
When we fast we exercise our souls to withstand and control of our animal senses.
When we fast we immerse our mind in the guidance of God: Fasting is the cause of the
awakening of man. The heart becomes tender and the spirituality of man increases. BahaI
Writings
When we fast we exercise our resolve to abstain from selfish desires, from negligence, and
from satanic animalistic traits.
When we fast we live in deeds the following words of our prayer: I have desired only what
Thou didst desire, and love only what Thou doest love. BahaI Writings
When we fast we know that it becomes a reason to protect and preserve us from
tests and tribulations.When we fast it not advisable to expect anything in return except to do
what we are told to do and in doing so we go closer to His Will. This understanding is clearly
mirrored in this quote: Exaggerated fasting destroys the divine forces. God has created man
in a way that cannot be surpassed; we must not try to change his creation. Strive to attain
nearness to reality through the acquisition of strength of character, through morality, through
good works and helping the poor, through being consumed with the fire of the love of God
and in discovering each day new spiritual mysteries. This is the path of intimate approach.
BahaI Writings
47

FASTING AND THE MILITARY - ASPECTS FROM DEFENSE PERSPECTIVES
M.Z. Bidin1#, M. Kassim1, and N. A. Che Roos2
1
Faculty of Medicine and Defence Health, National Defence University of Malaysia, Kem Sungai Besi,
57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
#
Corresponding author; E-mail: zinbidin@upnm.edu.my
2
Faculty of Science and Defence Technology, National Defence University of Malaysia, Kem Sungai
Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, E-mail: mohar@upnm.edu.my
3
Faculty of Medicine and Defence Health, National Defence University of Malaysia, Kem Sungai Besi,
57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, E-mail: nuraishah@upnm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Ramadan fasting is one of the most appreciated rituals in Islam. It is practised by all Muslims except
the sick and the weak. Muslim soldiers observe fasting while on active duty unless it is absolutely
impossible to do so. This study explored military cadets' views towards Ramadhan fasting from
physiological, psychological and sociological perspective. Self-administered questionnaires comprising
of 20 questions were randomly distributed to 237 male Muslim Cadet Officers age 18-22. Each
question was given a Likert scale of 1 to 5 to quantify their likes and preferences. These subjects
carried out their daily activities comprising of lectures, marching, games, jogging and self defence
training while fasting. Survey was done on the 25th day of Ramadhan at night after breaking fast.
Questionnaires were collected and analysed using SPSS version 16. The findings of this study
revealed that Cadet Officers preferred to fast during fasting month. It showed that fasting is not a
hindrance to training and that physical activities can be safely conducted during fasting month. This
presentation will explore the various areas of military activities as practised by the Army, Navy and Air
Force during the fasting month. It also proposes recommendations with regard to fasting and military
deployment. Further research is required in order to understand the effects of fasting from
physiological and biochemical dimension.
INTRODUCTION
Ramadhan fasting is one of the most appreciated rituals in Islam. Muslim soldiers
observe fasting while on active duty, unless it is absolutely impossible to do so. Fasting can
be very stressful physically, mentally and emotionally. While most soldiers prefer to fast, one
is constantly challenging himself physically and mentally in the hardest way possible.
Fasting during Ramadhan is ordered by Allah, thus it is expected to bring spiritual and
mental benefits to the fasting soldiers. The battle of Badr during the first era of Islam was
fought during the month of Ramadhan and it has been said that fasting soldiers showed
great performance during the fight.
A study on fasting and exercise (Al-Qadi, 2004) carried out on twenty healthy
volunteers showed that the duration of exercise the volunteers have endured on the walking
machine has increased from 10.2 (7.3) minutes before Ramadhan to 16.8 (14.4) minutes
during Ramadhan; cardiac pulse speed has decreased from 170 (17.7) pulse per minute
before Ramadhan to 159 (22.3) pulse per minute during fasting which means that their
fitness levels have improved; the degree of leg fatigue sensation has decreased from 6.1
(2.5) degree before Ramadhan to 4.5 (2.5) degree during fasting which showed increased
in muscular performance.
48

Our study explored Military Cadets views towards Ramadhan fasting from
physiological, psychological, and sociological perspective. It also proposes recommendations
with regard to fasting and military deployment.
METHODS
Over a period of one month during the last Ramadhan (10th August to 10th
September 2010) military cadets aged 18 to 22 were being followed up in the university
campus with regard to their fasting and physical activities. These subjects carried out their
daily routine activities comprising of lectures, marching, games, jogging and self defence
training during the whole fasting month.
On the 23rd day of fasting, 237 male Muslim Military Cadets were recruited. Self
administered questionnaires comprising of 20 questions were randomly distributed to the
Cadets after breaking fast. Each question was divided into a Likert scale of 1 to 5 (1=strongly
disagree, 5= strongly agree) according to their likes and preferences. Some questions were
repeated to check if cadets were telling the truth. Respondents were required to choose one
of the five descriptors ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Questionnaires were
collected and analysed using SPSS version 16.0.
For analysis purposes, grades of 1 and 2 were classified as "Disagree", grades of 4
and 5 as "Agree" while grade 3 was classified as "Neutral" or "Unsure".
RESULTS
A total number of 237 Muslim Military Cadets who have fasted for 23 days were
recruited for the study. Results showed that the majority of the Cadets (57.8%) disagreed to
continue the same intensity of exercise during fasting month. Most of them (67.1%) agreed
that the duration of physical training should be conducted for 30 to 45 minutes per day and it
should only be conducted in the morning (70.1%). Contrary to popular belief that physical
training should be conducted at night, 68.8% of Cadets disagreed. About half of the Cadets
(52.3%) felt that physical activities during fasting is fun and 45.5% preferred games as they
enjoyed it more. About forty five percent (45.9%) of Cadets disagreed that physical activities
can endanger their health. In contrary, most of them (59.5%) thought that continuing physical
activities during fasting month were essential to maintain their fitness levels. Majority of them
(63.3%) agreed that fasting is not a hindrance to physical activities.
Percentages (%)
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Questions
Continue physical training during fasting month
No necessity to reduce intensity of physical activity
Physical training conducted only for 30 to 45 minutes
Physical training conducted either in the morning or
evening
No need for any physical activity during fasting
1
2
3
(Disagree) (Unsure) (Agree)
39.7
22.4
38.0
57.8
19.4
22.8
17.3
15.6
67.1
19.9
25.3
54.8
39.2
22.8
37.9
49

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Physical activities during fasting is great fun

Conduct only theoretical aspect of training during
fasting month
Physical training only conducted in the morning
during fasting month
Physical training conducted only in the evening
during fasting month
Physical training conducted only at night during
fasting month
Running activity only for short duration during fasting
month
Games activity only during fasting
Stop physical activities during fasting
Interested to continue physical training during fasting
month in order to maintain fitness level
Physical activity can endanger health during fasting
month
Performance increase if physical activities continued
during fasting
Dislike having physical activities during fasting
Fasting is not a hindrance to physical activities
Doing physical activities during fasting month is
stressful
Physical activities during fasting does not effect
performance
52.3
34.2
13.5
28.3
17.7
54.1
16.1
13.9
70.1
57.0
22.8
20.2
68.8
13.1
18.1
28.7
28.3
43.1
20.2
38.4
34.2
26.2
45.5
35.4
14.8
25.7
59.5
45.9
27.0
27.0
27.0
33.8
39.2
43.1
15.7
24.5
21.1
32.4
63.3
39.7
26.2
34.2
43.0
19.8
37.1
Table 1. Percentage of Military Male Muslim Cadets who had positive (agree) and negative
(disagree) attitude towards physical training during fasting month.
DISCUSSION
Research into fasting began as early as 1880. Fasting as one of the oldest known
therapies, has been used since the stone age (Goscienki, 2005). Fasting has been found to
help in the treatment of diabetes (Allen,1915), hypertension (Goldhamer et al., 2002), obesity
(Wechsler et al., 1984), cardiovascular disease (Muhlestein et al., 2003), and gastrointestinal
disease (Kanazawa & Fukudo, 2006).
In this study, it is found that Military Cadets feel that physical training must be
continued but intensity and duration of activity must be reduced. Contrary to popular belief
that physical training should be conducted at night, 68.8% of the Cadets disagreed. This is
because at night they needed the time to perform Tarawih prayer or to study. They prefer to
carry out physical training in the morning as it is believed that their energy levels are at their
peak after taking Sahur, a meal taken before dawn during the month of Ramadhan.
The study showed that the majority of Cadets felt that fasting is not a hindrance to
physical activities. More than half (59.5%) of them thought it was necessary to continue
physical training during fasting month in order to maintain fitness levels. Most of them felt
that fasting during Ramadhan does not endanger their health.
50

In the military scenario, most soldiers prefer to fast during training or deployment.
The majority of participants agreed that fasting is not a hindrance to training and that physical
activities can be safely conducted during fasting months. However, it is worth mentioning
that certain groups of soldiers under certain circumstances should not fast if it is going to
endanger their health or the health of those under their care. Such circumstances may
include the followings:
1. War is declared and soldiers need to be in excellent physical condition to defend their
country.
2. Soldiers are deployed to combat zones.
3. Soldiers on long journeys.
4. Soldiers under extreme environmental exposures.
5. Soldiers under strenuous physical activities.
6. Soldiers under severe hunger or thirst.
7. Soldiers whose job requires them to be extremely attentive to details.
8. Pilots flying an aircraft. For safety reasons, they should take the month of Ramadhan
off if they want to fast.
9. Air traffic controllers working in late afternoon handling busy airports.
10. Divers who need to do prolong and repeated dives for rescue operations or other
special missions.
11. Submariners who need to be fully attentive while being underwater.
12. Guards or sentries of critical posts who need to be on full alert for a long duration of
time.
13. Parachuters who has to be dropped and sent for special operations.
14. Injured soldiers who sustain major injuries.
15. Soldiers are being forced-fed while under captive by enemies
Breaking fast during the day in Ramadhan is permissible if one has legitimate
excuses. It was narrated by Abu Sa'eed al-Khudri (Siddique, 2005) that the messenger of
Allah (pbuh) said: "You have drawn near to your enemy, and breaking the fast will make you
stronger." In surah Al-Baqarah and surah Al-Maaidah, Allah says: "Allah burdens not a
person beyond his scope" (The Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:286). "Allah does not want to
place you in difficulty" (The Holy Quran, Al-Maaidah 5:61).
Indonesia has very strict rules on fasting for Civil Aviation Workers (Thomas, 2010).
Its Directorate of Civil Aviation ruled that all safety-sensitive aviation personnel must eat
while on duty during Ramadhan. The ruling affects air-traffic controllers, flight attendants,
pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, airport maintenance personnel, airport ramp
personnel, baggage and freight dispatch controllers and security personnel.
This study has gone through an extensive data collection process and yielded
findings that add to the literature on physical training activities during fasting month. It has
discussed the relationship between cadets endurance and training processes and it is the
first research of its kind in the country. There is a need to conduct further studies to provide
further details concerning the physical training that has taken place in other military camps
and the problems faced by the soldiers during fasting month. Future research may want to
embark on a study using laboratory or experimental analysis. If this can be done, theoretical
model can be developed as a guide to fasting and physical activities from military
perspectives.
51

CONCLUSION
The present study set out to make a contribution to current understandings of
physical endurance during fasting by providing theoretical insights and empirical evidence
related to the physical, psychological, physiological and medical components of the military
cadets. It is the purpose of this study to elucidate the process of military training and how it
has taken place in the context of fasting. It is hoped that our understanding of the training
process can be evaluated and perhaps improved. This study has shown that military cadets
have positive attitudes towards fasting and physical activities. However, it must be noted
that the reality of warfare and military deployment under extreme environmental conditions
may require soldiers to break their fast. It is up to the individual and the organisation to
decide. It is recommended that the National Fatwa Council endorse the recommendations
under which soldiers may break their fast.
REFERENCES
Allen F.M. (1915). The Treatment of Diabetes.
173:743-744.
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal
Al-Qadi, A. (2010) A New Proof on the Scientific Miraculousness of Fasting. Retrieved on 5

October 2010, from http://www.imanway.com/vb/archive/index.php/t-745.html
Goldhammer, A.C., Lisle, D.J., Sultana, P., Anderson, S.V., Parpia, B., Hughes, B. and
Campbell, T.C. (2002). Medically supervised water-only fasting in the treatment of
borderline hypertension. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8(5):
643-650.
Goscienski, P.J. (2005). Health secrets of the stone age. Concord, Ontario: Better Life.
Kanazawa, M., Hongob, M. and Fukudo, S. (2006). Fasting therapy for functional
gastrointestinal disorders. International Congress Series 1287: 309-312.
Muhlestein, J.B., Anderson, J.L., Horne, B.D., Lavasani, F., Maycock, C. A., Bair, T.L.,
Pearson, R. R., and Carlquist, J.F. (2003) Intermountain Heart Collaborative Study Group.
Effect of fasting glucose levels on mortality rate in patients with and without diabetes
mellitus and coronary artery disease undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention.
American Heart Journal 146(2): 351-358.
Siddique, A.H. (2005). Translation of Sahih Muslim. Retrieved on 17 August 2010, from
http://www.iium.edu.my/deed/hadith/muslim/006_smt.html
The Holy Quran, Surat Al-Baqarah 2:286
The Holy Quran, Surat Al-Maaidah 5:61
Thomas, G. (2010) Indonesia Rules on Fasting for Civil Aviation Workers. Retrieved on 17
August 2010, from http://atwonline.com/international-aviation-regulation/news/indonesiarules-fasting-civil-aviation-workers-0729
Weschler, J.G., Wenzel, H., Swobodnik, W., Ditschuneit, H.H. and Ditschueit, H. (1984).
Nitrogen balance studies during modified fasting. Postgraduate Medical Journal 60(Suppl
3): 66-73
52
Meaningof
fasting
Speakers
Islamic
UstazHussainYee
Abdullah
SiyamorSaum
Adeliberateabstinencefrom
solidandliquidfoodfora
specifictimeforbiblical
purpose
OldTestament:Som
NewTestament:nesteia
Christianity
PastorElaineGohWeiFun
Indicatesthedenialofthe
physicalneedsofthebody
forthesakeofspiritualgains.
Fastingisnotonlyapartof
worship,butagreat
instrumentforselfdiscipline
too.
Hinduism
Prof.Dr.N.SRajendran
Bahai
Dr.Sreenivasan
viewedasatimeof
spiritualpreparationand
regenerationforthe
comingnewyears
activities(Nawruz).
SummaryofFastingbyDifferentReligion
Involvesactofwillingly
abstainingfrom
food,fruitjuiceswith
fibre,milkandand
intoxicatingdrinksand
drugswhichleadto
heedlessnesshowever
duringthattimeoneis
allowedtotakeother
drinks.Oneshouldnot
makeuseofmeatifitis
seen,heardor
suspectedtohavebeen
killedonpurposefora
monkaswellasisto
avoidtakingtenkindsof
meat(humans,
elephants,horses,dogs,
snakes,lions,tigers,
leopards,bearsand
Buddhism
SisterSurya
Dharamdass
Livingalifeof
moderationwithlittle
needstopreparethe
foundationofthe
Buddhistpracticeofthe
actofselflessgiving,
concentrationand
strivingforwisdom
53
54
Compulsory
dawnuntilsunset
2930Daysin
Ramadhan
Flexibility
SpecificTime
Length
Varies;nospecificreason
given
x oneday(1Sam14:24;2
Sam3:35)
x onenight(Dan6:18)
x threedaysandnights
(Esth4:16;Acts9:9,17
LentSeason(the40
daysprecedingEaster)
x TheHolyWeek(the
weekbeforeEaster
thatcommemorates
ChristsPassionand
Resurrection)
Advent(thetimefromthe
fourthSundaybefore
Christmas)
Yearly(practicedbymost
churches):
Daily:Morecommonfasting
countsonmealsskipped.
Optional
Notspecific
19days
Sunrisetosunset
FromMarch2toMarch
20inclusiveeveryyear.
x
Hindusfastoncertain
daysofthemonthsuch
asPurnima(fullmoon)
andEkadasi(the11th
dayofthefortnight).
Certaindaysoftheweek
o Saturdays
Shanti/Saturn
o Tuesdays
Murugan/
Hanuman
o FridaysSantoshi
Mata
Hindusobservefaston
festivalslikeNavaratri,
ShivratriandKarwa
Chauth.
Compulsory
Optional
Fromdawnto
midday(noon)is
calledkala(proper
time)orthetime
thatBuddhasand
Ariyastaketheir
meal.
Frommiddaytothe
dawnofthe
followingdayis
vikalaorthe
impropertimefor
meals.
Practisedduring
observanceoftheEight
CodesofConduct,which
areobservedduring
NewMoon,FullMoon
Days,meditation
hyenas)theirself
respectandprotection.
Optional
Abstainfromfoodfrom
noontosunrisethenext
day
Purposes/
Reasons
19)
sevendays(1Sam31:13;
2Sam12:1618)
threeweeks(Dan10:313)
fortydays(Exod34:28;
Deut9:9,18;1Kings19:8;
Mark1:13;Luke4:2)
Itisanobligatoryact
1. ForSpiritualDiscipline
ofworship,andoneof
x SpiritualFormation
theFivePillarsof
x ToConcentrateon
Islam
Prayer
x Repentance
x ASignofSorrow
2. ForSpecialNeeds
x ToPleadforGods
Intervention
x 2ToPleadforGods
Mercy
x 3ToAskforSpecial
Guidance
x 4ToPreparefora
Mission
3. ForPreparationforthe
ReturnofChrist
4. Thepracticeoffastinghas
alwaysbeenaimedat
seekingGod
x
x
Hinduismbelievesthat;
x Regularfastingensures
purification,asit
monitorsthefive
sensesofthebody
Mainaimofallfasting
associatedwithHinduismis
toriseabovethemundane
materialisticnatureand
understandtheall
compassingandblissful
natureofBrahman.
TheBahaIFastisviewed
asatimeofspiritual
preparationand
regenerationforthe
comingnewyears
activities.
BahaIFaithseesgreat
valueinthepracticeof
fastingasadisciplinefor
thesoul.
BahaIbelievesthesoul
isfastingnotthebody.
Alsobyeatingonlyone
mealaday,theyreduce
theburdenonthelay
communitywhich
supportsthem.
Buddhistsbelievein
moderation.
Monksdiscipline
themselvestobe
satisfiedwithveryfew
materialthings,
includingfood.
retreatsandnovitiate
programmesforlay
peoplewhichvaryinthe
numberofdays
however,formonksitis
adailypractice.
55
Benefitsof
Fastingas
believed
56
apersonrefrains
fromhalalthings
willbeeasierfor
himtorefrain
fromdoingharam
things
Fastingleadsto
thedefeatof
Shaytan;it
controlsdesires
andprotectsones
faculties.
Developempathy
iftheyexperience
otherssufferings
Fastingisgoodfor
thehealth.It
amountstoan
annualservicing
forthedigestive
system.It
eliminatesfatty
andtoxic
substancesfrom
thebodyand
decreasesthe
harmfulactivityof
intestinal
microbesanduric
acid.
Occasionally,offeringsare
collectedfromthemoney
savedduringtheseperiodsof
fastingforpurposesofcharity
To counter obsession in
consumerism
To react appropriately in the

contemporary world of
recurrent disasters to express
sorrow, repentance, humility,
eagerness in prayer
SpiritualDisciplineand
formationbothindividually
andcommunally.
SpiritualBenefits
Selfdiscipline
Purifiesthemind
Controlsemotions
Controlspassion
Controlssenses
Actsasawindowto
escapefromsins
Controlstongue,for
whichifletlooseis
thegreatestenemy
ofmankind
PhysicalBenefits
Itkeepsanindividual
healthyandactive
Thedigestiveorgans
getrestandallbody
mechanismsare
cleansedand
corrected
Occasionalintakeof
warmlemonjuice
duringtheperiodof
fastingpreventsthe
flatulence
Overhaulsthe
respiratory,
circulatory,digestive
andurinarysystems
Adequaterestto
internalorgansand
timeforcleansing
*Cleansingor
detoxificationofthe
body
*Energizesrepairofcells
*Adjustsorganfunctions
tooptimallevels
*Intensifiesgeneration
ofenergylevels
*Sharpensbetter
memory
*Enablesrecuperative
sleep.
Ifoneeatswithout
greedandwithout
directlybeinginvolved
intheactofkillingbut
merelytosustainthe
physicalbody,heis
practisinganinitialstage
ofselfdisciplineto
acquireselfcontrol
Amealintheevening
maycausedrowsiness
andmakethepractice
ofmeditationdifficult.
Keepingthemindclear
andpureatalltimesis
mostimportantin
Buddhistpractise.
Foodisregardedsimply
asameansofkeeping
thebodyalivesothat
thespiritualpathmay
befollowed.Foodisnot
takeninorderto
beautifythebodyor
becauseithasa
pleasanttaste.
Tobefreefromillness
andafflictionandenjoy
goodhealth
FREE COMMUNICATIONS
Fasting and Medicine / Health / Wellness
57

FASTING AND ORAL WELL BEING
Aastha Sobti#
Dr. H.S. Judge Institute of Dental Science and Hospital, Panjab University, South Campus, Sector 25,
Chandigarh, India.
#
Corresponding author; Email: aasthasobti_2003@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
Fasting is thought to be helpful as a preventive measure to improve overall health, vitality and
resistance to disease. It has also been considered as method of mental & spiritual well rejuvenation. It,
however, may also lead to adverse effects like weakness, fatigue, poor concentration and decreased
work ability. Fasting significantly decreases the secretion rate of saliva along with decrease in
concentration of phosphate and sialic acid in stimulated whole saliva. Thus there is a decrease in the
ratio of sialic acid to protein, indicating a disturbance of glycoprotein synthesis. Decrease in salivary
rate also leads to accumulation of bacteria in the oral cavity especially on the tongue inducing the bad
breath (halitosis) and taste during fasting. In fasting saliva, the decrease in thiocyanate concentration &
lysozyme activity are statistically significant. There is no significant change in lactoperoxidase activities
and the amount of IgA, IgG, IgM. Fasting, also leads to an increased rate of plaque formation. As the
oral hygiene measures are most commonly ignored during fasting and oral problems such as swollen
and bleeding gums are visible. Sudden intake of high glycemic index foods might lead to more
incidences of dental caries. All this can be prevented by following simple care of oral cavity as in
brushing twice a day, drinking lots of water and avoiding dry mouth for a long time. Oral hygiene
measures, thus, form an integral part of not only normal day to day life, but also during special days
such as fasting.
INTRODUCTION
Fasting is thought to be helpful as a preventive measure to improve overall health,
vitality and resistance to disease. It has also been considered as method of mental and
spiritual rejuvenation. It is an effective means of maximizing the bodys self healing
capacities, speedy recovery and overcoming addictions.
However, there are a lot of side effects of fasting due to the range of physiological
changes that take place in the body. These include headache, nausea and muscle aches.
Each of us responds differently to detoxification, depending on the levels of toxicity in the
body. It may also lead to adverse effects like weakness, fatigue, poor concentration and
decreased work ability.
If one has long periods of abstinence from water or liquids, as in water fast the
hazards of fasting can be intensified. The loss or deficiency of water and electrolytes causes
dehydrations that is more likely in warm countries as Qatar. Dehydration Symptoms may
include dizziness, nausea and diarrhea, dark urine or inability to urinate and dryness of the
mouth and nose. Children can have additional symptoms such as depression or abdominal
skin that does not hold its shape to be compressed or crushed.
An effort to lose weight by fasting results in nutritional deficiencies, a feeling of
weakness, and muscle cramps due to mineral deficits such as sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and phosphorus. The blood pressure could drop, leading to fainting spells
especially while trying to sit up or stand after lying down. So prolonged fasting may lead to
rise in uric acid levels causing severe attacks of gout or a uric acid kidney stone.
During fasting retention of some most important constituents of the body's stored
material takes place even more efficiently than when on an inadequate diet. For, while the
fast compels the body to draw upon its reserves, the denatured or unbalanced diets draw
58

excessively upon certain of these stores and compel their more rapid utilization. Indeed, the
more of the elements supplied by the diet are given, the greater is the demand made upon
the stored material not supplied by the diet. It is largely for this reason that death can be
produced quicker by a diet of white flour, or white sugar, or meat soup etc., than by
starvation. During the fast the body can regulate the expenditure of its stored materials in its
own best interest and can conserve these in such a manner as to make them hold out
longest. On a denatured diet, the demand for stored material is such that this regulation is
impossible. The stored reserves are soon exhausted by those elements contained in the diet
and become as denatured, or inadequate, or unbalanced, or deficient as the diet itself.
Saliva is the first biological fluid to encounter any change in eating habits as well as
any environmental or physical changes. Saliva influences oral health both through its nonspecific physico-chemical properties, as well as through more specific effects (Dodds, 2005).
Saliva is well known for its highly protective functions against deleterious agents such as
microorganisms, toxines and various oxidants (Lebanthal, 1987, Tabak et al., 1982). The
antioxidant capacity and reducing power of saliva may diminish to a high degree due to
various factors (Kohen, 1992). It has been shown that in vitro exposure to cigarette smoke
could significantly decrease some enzymatic activities, both in plasma and in saliva (Nagler,
2000; Zappacosta, 2002).
During the holy month of Ramazan, Muslims fast every day from dawn to sunset.
Although the effect of Ramazan fasting on general health has been widely studied, the
impact of fasting on oral health and possible changes in salivary biochemicals, such as
glucose, has not received much attention. Salivary glucose was measured using an
enzymatic method based on oxidation of glucose by glucoseoxidase followed by
determination of resulting H2O2 in the presence of peroxidase. A reduction in mean
concentration of glucose was observed in the saliva of all fasting subjects as compared to
the control group. It was concluded that reduction in salivary glucose is mostly due to
reduced food intake and may be beneficial to dental health.
There is 20-25% reduction in salivary glucose during the first 10 days of Ramazan
fasting. This reduction could be compensated by gluconeogenesis in middle of month.
The ill effects of fasting also include oral hygiene related problems. These are
basically due to additive negligence, which occurs while fasting regime is carried out
especially when done for religious motives.
Fasting is associated with decrease in salivary rate. This occurs due to general body
dehydration. The effect of fasting and salivary rate decrease was studied by Johansson et al.
(1984).
They subjected 11 females of normal constitution to a standardized fasting diet for 8
days. Saliva and blood samples were collected before, during and after the fasting period.
Serum analyses were made for some parameters often studied during under nutrition. As
expected, values for creatinine and uric acid were increased. Secretion rate, pH, buffer
capacity, electrolytes, total protein, carbohydrates, some antibacterial substances, the
amount of Streptococcus mutans, total streptococci, and lactobacilli were determined in the
saliva samples. The rate of plaque formation was also estimated. Although the effect of
fasting on the measured parameters greatly varied among the individual, there was a
significant decrease in secretion rate, concentration of phosphate and sialic acid in
stimulated whole saliva. The decrease of the ratio of sialic acid to protein indicated a
disturbance of glycoprotein synthesis. The ratio between total protein and carbohydrates
conjugated to glycoproteins were increased. The decrease in thiocyanate concentration and
lysozyme activity were statistically significant. Lactoperoxidase activities did not change
significantly.
59

When the secreted amounts in saliva per minute were calculated for each day almost
all measured parameters showed a typical pattern with a continuous reduction during fasting
and a return to the prefasting values shortly after the fasting period.The means were
significantly reduced for potassium, calcium, phosphate, hexoses, fucose, hexosamine and
sialic acid.
A tendency to increased numbers of lactobacilli and total streptococci was observed
during the experiment. Since secretory IgA support the clearance of bacteria from the mouth,
it should be noted that five out of eight subjects had a decreased concentration of secretory
IgA while three had an increased concentration.
The rate of dental plaque formation also increased duringfasting. The plaques thus
formed appeared as thin, solid bacterial deposits, and when the teeth were stained with
disclosing solution after 24 hours, the whole teeth were covered, including the occlusal
surfaces.
An increased risk of dental caries was seen with fasting. This was attributed to an
increased bacterial count especially of S. mutans.As the oral hygiene measures are most
commonly ignored during fasting and oral problems such as swollen and bleeding gums are
visible. Sudden intake of high glycemic index foods might lead to more incidences of dental
caries.
In animal models a relationship between caries activity and diet was studied. Caries
activity on each of three caries-test diets was directly related to length of time that food was
available to the animal and not due to the amount of food consumed. Increased caries
activity was also demonstrated following the injection of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid
(EDTA). These results suggest that increased oral retention, whether resulting from changes
in the feeding regimen or changes in the biologic status of the animal, may be the common
causative factor associated with increased caries activity.
The relationship of fasting and dental caries was studied by Zelvya et al., (2009).
Thirty nine School children from Pondok Pesantren Al-Kenaniyah Jakarta Indonesia
participated as the subjects on the clinical trial. Plaque and saliva samples were taken with a
sterile cotton swab along the buccal gingival margin of upper, lower and the fissures of the
molars.
Results showed that caries activity on the plaque tend to beat pH 5.4 (36.84%) and
pH 4.7 (63.16%) and caries activity in saliva tend to beat pH 6.1 (2.63%), pH 5.4 (31.58%)
and Ph 4.7 (65.79%). On the other hands the caries activity in the plaque of the high risk
tend to beat pH 6.1(6.25%), pH 5.4 (6.25%), pH 4.7 (81.25%) and pH 4.0 (6.25%).
It can be concluded that during fasting the caries activity of mutans streptococci in
plaque in the high risk of caries active is higher as compared with in the saliva.
Another oral problem during fasting is bad breath as it is a very common experience
for those who are fasting. It is because during fasting the body's digestive juices are still
attempting to multiply and process, even without any food there to be digested. As fasting
also results in reduction in salivary flow in the mouth leading to dryness of the oral cavity that
can end up causing a smell. This is due to the bacterial build up that occurs as the saliva is
not present to swill out the bacteria from the surfaces of the teeth and the tongue. This
coupled with the rise of digestive juices adds up to the terrible odor emanating from the
breath.
When a person goes without eating for a long time, the absence of food causes the
body begins to break down the fat reserves. This breakdown of fat causes release of
ketones which are pushed out along with the breath and give a foul odor that resembles the
stench of sour apples.
60

When a person is about to go for a special occasion or if he/she is under a lot of
stress and fasting for a long time, there is an increase in the drying of the mouth and
increased release of digestive juices because of the stress that will lead to bad breath.
Fasting for a long time is not a good idea, as it can have harmful effects on the
digestive tract and also cause the breakdown of body fat reserves, all of which lead to a very
smelly breath. Fasting and bad breath can be avoided with a simple combination of
treatments and lots of water.
Thus, it is clear that oral health is also disturbed with fasting. To avail healthy benefit
of fasting, proper care of oral hygiene is very important. Simple and basic care if carried out
can benefit one with oral well being even during fasting.
Certain simple steps like
Brushing teeth after every meal whenever possible. Bacteria begin attacking the
teeth minutes after eating a meal. By brushing teeth after every meal one minimizes the
bacterial chances of getting a foot hold on your teeth.
x
x
x
x
x
If you cant brush your teeth after a meal, at the very least, brush your teeth in the
evening before bed (while you sleep, your saliva production is lessened and bacteria act
more readily) and again in the morning before sunrise.
With every brushing of teeth, brushing the tongue to refresh breath. Remember to clean
near the back of the tongue where most of the bacteria reside but be careful not to gag
oneself.
Flossing teeth with every brush.
Use mouthwashes containing chlorine dioxide after sunset.
Drink plenty of water after sunset to stimulate saliva flow, wash away left-over food
particles, and moisten the mouth making it less hospitable by decay causing bacteria.
Oral hygiene measures, thus, form an integral part of not only normal day to day life, but also
during special days such as fasting.
REFERENCES
Dodds, M.W.J., Johnson, D.A. and Yeh, C.K. (2005). Health benefits of saliva. Journal of
Dentistry. 33(3): 223-233.
Johansson, I., Ericson, T. and Steen, L. (1984). Studies of the Effect of Diet on Saliva
Secretion and Caries Development: The Effect of Fasting on Saliva Composition of
Female. Journal of Nutrition114 (11): 2010-2020.
Kohen, R., Tirosh, O. and Kopolovich, K. (1992). The reductive capacity index of saliva
obtained from donors of various ages. Experimental Gerontology27(2): 161- 168.
Lebanthal, E. (1987). Role of salivary amylase in gasteric and intestinal digestion of starch.
Digestive Diseases and Sciences32(10): 1155-1157.
Nagler, R., Lischnisky, S., Diamond, E., et al. (2000) Effect of cigarette smoke on salivary
proteins and enzyme activities. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics379(2): 229236.
Rachel, H. L., Rubin, A. M. and Zipkina, I. (1962). Frequency of eating as a factor in
experimental dental caries. Archives of Oral Biology 7(4): 463-468.
Tabak, L.A., Levine, M.J., Mandel, I.D. and Elison, L.A. (1982). Role of salivary mucins in the
protection of the oral cavity. Journal of Oral Pathology&Medicine. 11(1): 1-7.
Zappacosta, B., Persichilli, S., Mordente, A., Minucci, A., Lazzaro, D., Meucci, E. and
Giardina, B. (2002). Inhibition of salivary enzymes by cigarette smoke and protective
role of glutathione. Human & Experimental Toxicology21(1): 7-11.
61

Zelvya, P., Agustina, S., Vidya, A., Hendrarlin, S., Retno, H., Heriandi, S. and Mangundjaja,
S. (2009). Effect of Fasting on Caries Activity level of mutans streptococci of
schoolchildren Subjects, In: The 5th FDI-INDONESIA DENTAL ASSOCIATION (IDA)
Joint meeting 14 15 November 2009 Inn Grand Bali Beach Sanur BaliIndonesia.
62

SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION OF FASTING
Arun Khodaskar#
Yoga Federation of India, H.V.P. Mandal, Amravati (Maharashtra), India.
#
Corresponding author; Email: v.khodaskar@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Fasting is a process of purifying the body, mind and soul. It is not only pathy to check or cure the
disease but it keeps spiritual significance also. Abstention from all types of food in the form of solid or
liquid for few hours, few days or few months is called fasting. Fasting develop the equilibrium among
the various systems of body. It gives relaxation to the digestive system. Bring the balance in metabolic
process and also increase the appetite. The function of elimination is greatly enhanced during fasting
and frequently. Fasting develop the equilibrium in blood circulation. Formation of new cells takes place
effectively. It keeps body temperature in normal condition. Fasting brings remarkable improvement in
the faculty of sight, sharpening of the sense of touch, improvement of the sense of smell. Develop the
concentration of mind and sense of well being. Fasting is not applicable in high or low blood pressure
condition, heart patients, diabetics and in pregnancy period.
INTRODUCTION
Fasting is a process of purifying the Body, Mind and Soul. Purification of body is
greatly influenced by fasting. There is elimination of waste matter, accumulated toxins,
excess nutriment and diseased tissues also.
One of the most prevalent effects of fasting occurs in relation to the mind and its
various faculties. In the mental sphere, concertnation is found to be easier and recollection
the more complete and for reaching ideas flow more smoothly and thought becomes more
Logical.
Apart from a sharpening of the intellect there is also a change in the spiritual and
emotional realms. Develop the greater capacity of affection, fellowship, benevolence
compassion etc.
Physiological Significance of fasting
Fasting develop the equilibrium among the various systems of body. During the first
stage of a fast the level of metabolic activity is rapidly reduced. It gives the relaxation to the
digestive system.
Respiratory function is greatly improved by fasting. The lungs may very obviously
become vacarious channels of elimination during fasting as evidence by the fowlness of the
breath due in part to pulmonary exretion. Asthma patients gets more relief in fasting. Healing
of lungs tissues takes place more rapaidly. The function of elimination is greatly enhanced
during fasting.
Secretion of and Excretions
Generally the secretions are curtailed during fasting consistent with the actual
requirements of body and the excretions are in creased. During fasting the secretion of
saliva is diminished. In many cases saliva has an unplesent taste and has been known to
cause vomiting. There is a reduction in secreation of gastric juice pancreatic and intestional
juices. During the early part of a fast the urine smells strong and foul and its colour is dark.
63

Organic and chemical changes
Heart - The work of heart, calculated on pulse rate, is cut by about 25% during
fasting. Heart receives much benefit and its tissues are greatly regenerated. The is a
reduction in its work-load and cessation of toxic stimulation.
Kidney function is improved during fasting owing to the removal of toxic material.The
glycogen content of the liver is almost entirely consumed during the first two days of fast.
Voluntary muscles are affected sooner and more extensively than the involuntary
ones by a period of fasting. Skin is rejuvenated by fasting, wrinkles, pimples and other
blemishes tend to disappear and texture and colour are greatly improved.
64

EFFECTS OF RAMADAN FASTING ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICES
Abdolreza Norouzy1, Mahta Salehi1, Hamid Arabi1, Farshid Shiva1, Sahar Mehrnoosh1, Seyed
Mohammad R. Mohajeri1, Maryam Sabery1, Gary Frost2, Mohsen Nematy*#
*
Nutrition research center and Dept. of Nutrition, Mashad Medical School, Mashad University of
Medical Science, Mashad, 91779-48564, Iran
#
Corresponding author; E-mail: NematyM@mums.ac.ir
1
Department of Nutrition, Mashad Medical School,Mashad University of Medical Science, Mashad
91779-48464, Iran
2
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Hammersmith Hospital, London
ABSTRACT
Ramadan is a holy month for Muslims during which they abstain from eating, drinking and smoking
from dawn to sunset. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Ramadan fasting on
anthropometric changes. Data gathered from 240 adult subjects (158 male and 82 female) who fasted
at least 20 days during Ramadan. Body weight, BMI fat mass, fat-free mass and total water volume,
skinfold thickness in 4 sites (biceps, triceps, subscapula, suprailiac), waist and hip circumferences
were measured during a week before Ramadan and a week after Ramadan. This study showed that
there was a significant reduction in weight, waist and hip circumferences, BMI, bioimpedance
variables, skinfold thicknesses except subscapula (p=0.3) after Ramadan fasting (p<0.001). Data also
revealed that there has been a reduction in both fat and fat-free mass. We concluded that Ramadan
fasting may lead to weight reduction. It is warranted to consider measures to reduce loosing fat-free
mass in Ramadan fasting e.g. sufficient physical activity.
Keywords :Ramadan fasting, anthropometrics, body composition, skinfold thicknesses, bioelectrical
impedance analyser.
INTRODUCTION
Ramadan fasting means abstinence from food, drink, injection and smoking from
sunrise till sunset in Ramadan, the 9th month of the lunar Islamic year (Benaji et al., 2006;
Azizi et al., 2003). Depends on season of Ramadan month the period of fasting differ from
10 to 19 hours (AlHourani et al., 2007). Food habits are very different from other months,
food and fluid intake are mainly nocturnal and usually frequency and quantity of food,
physical activity during the day and night sleep are reduced (Ziaeeetal.,2006). The ratio of
macronutrients intake may differ with other months. For example there is a large tendency to
consume foods and water drinks which are richer in carbohydrate during this month (Ziaeeet
al.,2006) In addition, there is a tendency to consume foods that are richer in fats, particularly
those high in mono-and polyunsaturated fatty acids (Iraki et al., 1997; Lamine et al., 2006;
Haghdoost & Poorranibar 2009). People who go on fast are different in terms of age, starting
from adolescent to elderly age if they are able to fast.There are controversial reports
regarding the effects of Ramadan fasting on weight control during this month. Furthermore
there are concerns regarding weight gain during Ramadan month as there are some reports
saying that Ramadan may lead to weight gain, while in recent years over weight and obesity
are growing up worldwide. In some countries there is possibility to gain a bit fat due to
significant changes in life style. Middle aged people are more susceptible to earn more
weight.
During fasting people often lose weight, first fat then muscle. It is not known whether
Ramadan fasting leads to lose fat or fat-free mass. Indeed it is not well understood that
Ramadan fasting may cause body dehydration in short or long term. This study aims to
measure this using bioelectrical impedance analyses.
65

There were some reports of increasing weight in subjects in Ramadan (Frost & Pirani
1987). Another research revealed that the body weight was not significantly changed in this
month (El Ati et al., 1995).
As previous studies were not conclusive, this research was carried out to find out the
effect of Ramadan fasting on weight, fat mass, total body water, fat free mass, BMI, waist
and hip circumference, and also changes in skinfold thicknesses in 4 sites of body (biceps,
triceps, subscapula and suprailiac).
METHODS
Study design
This was a prospective cohort study, which was performed in a group of volunteers
who fasted for more than 20 days. The study was approved by Research Ethics Committee
of Mashad University of Medical Sciences (approval number 87224),and an informed written
consent was taken prior to participation in the study from all volunteers.
Study subjects
This study was conducted in the month of Ramadan 1429A.H (September, 2008).
Participants were recruited via local advertisement in Mashad Iran. 291 subjects were
recruited for this study. Mean age for subjects were 40 y (18-70). Fifty one subjects dropped
out from the study for personal reasons and fasting less than 20 days.
This research was performed in two stages, the week before the month of Ramadan
and the week after Ramadan between 08.00 A.M and 02.00 P.M. We aimed to recruit three
hundreds volunteers to make up participants trim off.
Measurements
Height was measured using a portable stadiometer (OTM, Tehran, Iran). Height
measurement was taken to the nearest 0.1 cm, without shoes, with the subject stretching to
the maximum height and the head positioned in the Frankfort plane. Waist circumference
was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm by measuring the distance around the smallest area
below the rib cage and above the umbilicus (belly button) with the use of a no stretchable
tape measure. Hip circumference was measured at the widest visual circumference of the
pelvis. The waist to hip ratio was evaluated by dividing waist to hip circumference (Mahan&
EscottStump, 2004). Skinfold thicknesses were measured in 4 sites on the right side of the
body. Biceps: anterior aspect of the arm over the belly of the biceps muscle. Triceps: overthe
mid-point of the muscle belly, mid-way between the olecranon and the tip of theacromion.
Subscapular: just below the tip of the inferior angle of thescapula. Suprailiac: just above the
iliac crest in the mid-axillary line (Edwards et al., 1955). The skin was pinched at the location
site and the fold of skin was pulled away from the underlying muscle then subcutaneous fat
was evaluated nearest to 0.1 mm. The instrument used was the Harpenden skinfold calipers
(Asset Creative Co, UK).
Bioelectrical impedance analyser
Bioelectrical impedance analyser (BIA) is a non-invasive, popular, portable and
sensitive device which measures fat free mass, fat mass, body water and weight and it is
able to evaluate the body composition by passing an electrical current through the body
(Mahan&EscottStump,2004).
66

BIA (Jawon Plus Avis 333, Seoul, Skorea) was used to evaluate weight, BMI, total body
water, fat mass and fat free mass. Subjects were asked to take off their shoes, socks, and
any metallic objects accompanied with them. Measurements were performed while
participants wearing light clothes and were announced previously not to have extraneous
exercise 8 hours before the test. Volunteers were instructed to wet their feet with alcohol
wipe and empty their bladder before the test.
Statistics
Quantitative data were expressed as mean SD for normally distributed parameters
and median with 25th and 75th percentiles for not normally distributed parameters.
Differences between results were analyzed, using paired samples t test for normal
distributed parameters and Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test for not normally distributed
parameters. Statistical significance was considered at P<0.05 for all tests. These statistical
analyses were conducted by using SPSS statistical software (version 11.5, SPSS Inc.
Chicago, IL).
RESULTS
Two hundred and forty volunteers comprising 158 male and 82 female (age 18-70 y)
completed the study. Table 1 shows changes in anthropometric indices and BIA variables
before and after Ramadan. As it is indicated in Table1 all indices decreased after Ramadan
(P<0.001) except the skinfold of the subscapular region which didnt show any significant
change (p= 0.3).
Table 1: changes in anthropometric indices and BIA variables before and after Ramadan in 240
participants.
Before Ramadan
After Ramadan
mean SD
mean SD
Weight (kg)
71.79(13.26)
70.72(13.03)
<0.001
BMI (kg/m2)
26.28(3.85)
25.9(3.84)
<0.001
Fat mass (kg)
20.68(6.14)
20.48(6.29)
<0.001
*Biceps (mm)
8(6-11)
7(5-10)
<0.001
*Triceps (mm)
13(10-17)
12(9-17)
<0.001
Scapula (mm)
17.30(6.00)
17.09(5.53)
0.3
Suprailiac (mm)
19.91(7.26)
19(6.30)
<0.001
Waist circumference (Cm)
92.07(11.10)
90.71(10.94)
<0.001
Hip circumference (Cm)
102.31 (6.77)
100.9 (6.94)
<0.001
Water volume (kg)
36.93(6.75)
36.47(6.65)
<0.001
Fat free mass (kg)
51.21(9.25)
50.56(9.06)
<0.001
Variables
P value
*not normally distributed data

Note: Wilcoxan test was used for no normally distributed variables and paired t-test for the rest
(Mean values and standard error of means for normal distributed parameters and median with
25th and 75th percentiles for not normally distributed parameters)
67

Table 2: Evaluation of the effect of sex on anthropometric indices before and after Ramadan
Before
Ramadan
Subgroup
Male
After
Ramadan
No.
158
P value
Mean(SD)
Mean(SD)
76.53(11.20)
75.27(11.08)
<0.001
Weight (kg)
Female
82
62.67(12.16)
61.95(12.04)
<0.001
Male
158
20.58(5.43)
20.01(5.61)
<0.001
Female
82
20.88(7.35)
20.68(7.45)
0.09
Male
158
102.52(5.67)
100.72(5.82)
<0.001
Female
82
101.91(8.52)
101.24(8.74)
<0.001
Male
158
95.74(8.90)
94.01(8.91)
<0.001
Female
82
84.99(11.53)
84.35(11.72)
0.01
Male
158
21.56(7.45)
20.06(6.46)
<0.001
Female
82
16.75(5.69)
16.96(5.47)
0.191
Age: <30
---
19.35(7.46)
18.87(7.36)
0.008
Age: 30-40
---
20.33(5.07)
19.58(5.36)
<0.001
Age: 40-50
---
21.58(6.19)
21.29(6.32)
0.029
Age: >50
---
21.33(5.76)
21.18(6)
0.425
Fat mass (kg)
Hip
circumference
(cm)
Waist
circumference
(cm)
Suprailiac
skinfold (mm)
Fat mass (kg)
68
Fasting
effect
P<0.001
F=137
Subgroup
effect
---
P<0.001
P=0.067
F=16
F=39.3
P<0.001
P=0.96
F=113
F=0.002
P<0.001
P<0.001
F=67
F=57
P=0.001
P=0.001
F=11.79
F=11.44
P<0.001
P=0.03
F=16.46
F=2.89

The most decrease in weight occurred among the men including 1.26 kg reduction
while it was 0.72 kg among women. Generally, there was 1.07 kg reduction in weight
including, 0.44 kg fat mass and 0.63 kg fat free mass.
The age was divided into 4 groups (<30 y, 30-40 y, 40-50 y, >50 y). Fat mass
decreased in men during Ramadan (p<0.001) and had no significant change in women
(p=0.09). Also this change was significant in all different age categories except for those who
were more than 50 years old (p>0.05). In this study it was also showed that there was
relation between changes of fat mass and BMI ( p=0.014 ,r=0.15 ). BMI was almost reduced
equally in both genders during Ramadan (p=0.305).
BMI changes during Ramadan had direct association with age (p=0.04,r=0.13). Hip
circumference was decreased significantly in both genders (p<0.001 for both male and
female). Waist circumference was reduced significantly in both genders (p<0.001 for male
and p=0.01 for female). The skinfold thickness in three regions (biceps, triceps and
suprailiac) decreased. However, the results showed that skinfold in suprailiac region reduced
significantly only in men (p<0.001).
The skinfold changes in suprailiac region were correlated with age (p=0.005, r=-0.18)
and in suprailiac region correlated with BMI (p=0.03, r=-0.13).
DISCUSSIONS
To the best of our knowledge this was the first study that assessed the effect of
Ramadan fasting on weight using a multi-disciplinary approach including anthropometric
measurements, skinfold thicknesses and BIA in a cohort with a fairly large sample size.
Our study showed a significant reduction in weight during Ramadan and this is in
agreement with some previous studies (Ziaee et al., 2006; Fedail et al., 1982; Gumaa et al.,
1978; Husain et al., 1987; Rahman et al., 2004; Salehi & Neghab 2007), may be due to
limited food intake during Ramadan fasting which often leads to reduce energy intake and
weight loss that reported by Larijanis study in Iran (2003). Although tow study revealed no
significant change in weight during Ramadan (Yucel et al., 2004; Finch et al., 1998). On the
other hand, weight gain was reported during Ramadan by Frost& Piranis study (1987) which
compared the nutritional intake and meal pattern during and after Ramadan in small sample
group of 15 young Saudis .
This study showed that men lost more weight than women which is consistent with
findings of previous study (Takruri, 1989). This difference in weight loss between men and
women may be explained due to higher basal metabolic rate and physical activity level in
men (Takruri, 1989). Also the difference in body water content in male and female and effect
of dehydration during Ramadan may explain this difference (Watson et al., 1980). There is a
report that showed more weight reduction in women (Husain et al., 1987; Navaei et al.,
2001), which is in conflict with our results. There is another report from Iran which showed
more weight loss in women during Ramadan month. This discrepancy maybe due to
different participants in our study whom, they were healthy subjects while; in Navaei et al.,
(2001) study volunteers were diabetic.
The present study didnt show any correlation between weight loss and the range of
BMI, while more decrease in weight has been reported in people with higher BMI, in
comparison with people who had normal and low BMI (Takruri, 1989). Our study revealed a
decrease in body water during Ramadan fasting similar to previous study (Al-Hourani &
Atoum, 2007).
Results from our study showed that fat mass generally decreased during Ramadan.
According to the data showed in Table 2 this reduction in male subjects was significant
which is in parallel with Bouhlel study in 9 Tunisian male (Bouhlel et al., 2008) and Ramadan
69

study in 16 male Kuwaities (Ramadan et al., 1996), but fat mass reduction in female subjects
was not significant that is in agreement by findings of Al-Hourani in Jordan (Al-Hourani &
Atoum, 2007) and El Ati et al., study in Tunisia (1995). These finding may be explained by
dissimilar BMR or difference adaptive mechanism between two genders. Results from BIA
revealed that men had more reduction in fat mass and it could be due to lower physical
activity in women.
Result showed there is relation between age range and decrease in fat
mass.According to table 2 fat mass reduction in people older than fifty is not significant while
in under fifty participant we have significant changes. It may be due to lower physical activity
and basal metabolic rate.
Results from this study showed also a significant decrease in waist circumference
which is in consistent with the results of previous studies (Tajruri, 1989; Azizi, 1978; Poh et
al., 1996; Saleh et al., 2005). This reduction is more significant in men than women, which
could be because of more weight loss during Ramadan. Previous studies have clearly
shown the abdominal fat accumulation is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and related
death (Lapidus et al., 1984; Larsson et al., 1984), hence this waist circumference reduction
during Ramadan might have positive effect on health. Hip circumference showed a
significant reduction in our investigation. This reduction had no correlation with age
categories (p>0.05).
Our study showed that the skinfolds including biceps, triceps and suprailiac were
significantly reduced during Ramadan, also the subscapular region didn't show any
significant change which is in line with Husain's et al., study (1987). Results from this
research showed that skinfold in suprailiac region had significantly reduced during Ramadan
that is similar to Hallak report (Hallak & Nomani, 1988) but Yucel et al., (2004) study
revealed no significant change in subcoutaneus abdominal fat, which was assessed by
Computed Tomography.
BIA results revealed volunteers' weight loss consisted of 22 percent fat and 78
percent of fat free mass. The much higher fat free mass reduction in Ramadan month may
be explained by accelerated water loss due to dehydration.The study had some limitations.
The measurements were performed only at the beginning and at the end of Ramadan, we
didn't have any measurements few weeks after Ramadan to see if the observed changes
still persistent.
It appears that Ramadan month led to a moderate weight reduction in our study and
many previous studies. There is an average 250 gr weight gain yearly after age of twenty
(Shils et al., 2006), this modest weight loss during Ramadan may help to prevent weight gain
in long term.
CONCLUSION
Results from this study showed Ramadan fasting caused a reduction in weight, BMI,
waist and hip circumferences, skinfold thicknesses, fat mass, fat free mass and body water.
Ramadan fasting may be a protective agent from overweight and obesity as it continues
every year.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank all our participants who enthusiastically helped us, Mashad University
of Medical Sciences for financial support, Dr. Esmaeeli and S. Akhlaghi for assistant in
statistics.
70

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72

LIPEMIC AND GLYCEMIC CHANGES DURING FASTING CONDITION IN
HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIC AND IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE
INDIVIDUALS
Hamid, S.B.S.1#, Bebakar W.M.W2. and Rashid F. A.3
1
Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, No 1-8, Persiaran Seksyen 4/1, Bandar Putra Bertam, 13200
Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
#
Corresponding author; E-mail: shahrulbariyah@mdi.usm.edu.my
2
Department of Medicine, School of Medical Sciences,Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia, E-mail: wanmohd@kb.usm.my
3
Department of Chemical Pathology, School of Medical Sciences,Health Campus, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia, E-mail: faridah@kb.usm.my
ABSTRACT
Aim: The focus was to determine the differences in lipemic and glycemic changes in control,
hypercholesterolemic, and impaired glucose tolerance groups during fasting condition. High fat
milkshake was given before fasting to create transient delay in clearance of lipoprotein remnants.
Methods: In stage 1, each participant was given milkshake A (49.3% fat), milkshake B (54.3% fat)
and milkshake C (58.6% fat) on 3 separate occasions within a month to select a milkshake that shifts
normal lipemic response within 8 hours fasting. Stage 2 was designed to compare the aberration in
lipemia and glycemia following intake of an optimal milkshake by control (n=30), hypercholesterolemic
(n=38), and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT, n=11) groups within 9 hours fasting. Results Serum
triglycerides metabolism was significantly different within 8 hours. However, cholesterol metabolism
was non-significant in stage 1, with p value 0.001 and 0.320, respectively. The milkshake A with
49.3% fat caused significant changes in lipid metabolism but returned to baseline value. Therefore,
milkshake B with more than 49.3% total fat was selected for further investigation in stage 2.
Repeated measure anova analyses showed significant alteration in all groups within the study
duration in metabolism of serum triglycerides (p<0.001), LDL-cholesterol (p=0.003) and glucose
(p<0.001). In addition, peak was at 6 hours in hypercholesterolaemic and impaired glucose tolerance
groups compared to 4 hours in control group. This indicated prolonged accumulation of chylomicron
remnants in the blood circulation. Conclusion: Impaired glucose tolerance and hypercholesterolemic
groups presented with significant alteration in metabolism of triglycerides, LDL-cholesterol and
glucose in fasting condition. These are positive risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Interestingly,
hypercholesterolemic group appeared with insulin resistance characteristics, though classified as nondiabetic based on fasting glucose test.
INTRODUCTION
Individuals are frequently in the postprandial state throughout the day (Sethi,1997).
Despite this, the assessment of lipid profile has made use of fasting blood samples of at
least 10-12 hours. We hypothesize a specific milkshake formulation can be utilized to create
transient shift in postprandial response.
METHODS
Subjects and study design
The ethical approval was obtained from the Research Committee of School of Medical
Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia.to conduct this study. After an overnight fasting of 10-12
hours the venous blood sample was taken for determination of serum cholesterol and
triglycerides. Each participant was given the milkshake and monitoring in lipemic and
glycemic changes was done during fasting. In stage two the participants were grouped as
control, hypercholesterolemic or IGT. Table 1 shows the content present in the milkshake
73

preparation that includes carbohydrate, protein and fat source. Palm olein was chosen as fat
source as it is the major edible oil in Malaysia and Southeast Asian countries. Furthermore
demand for palm olein has been reported to be steadily increasing over the years compared
to soy bean oil (Gunstone,1999).
Table 1 Milkshake formulation
Ingredients
(g)
MILK
POWDER
50
50
50
GLUCOSE
57
57
57
EGG (1)
50
50
50
COOKING
OIL (PALM)
22
42
62
Formulation by Food and Dietetic Unit,

Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia
Biochemical Analyses
The venous blood was used for biochemical analyses of total cholesterol, triglycerides,
HDL-cholesterol, and glucose concentration based on NCEP ATP classification
Results and Discussion
Details of calculations of total fatty acids and fat calories in each milkshake preparation
are shown in Table 2. Apparent changes in the lipid parameters were seen to occur within 8
hours postprandial, especially the level of triglycerides which was clearly influenced by the
amount of palm olein in each milkshake. Table 3 shows the results of general linear model
analysis using repeated measure ANOVA We noted significant differences in pattern of
postprandial lipemia and glycemia in metabolism serum triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, and
glucose responses.
Table 2 Percentage of total fat and fat calories
74
Milkshake
Total
(%)
fat
Total
fat
calories (%)
49.3
35.2
54.3
50.9
58.6
60.5

Table 3 Repeated measure ANOVA on lipemic and glycemic pattern during postprandial
Baseline and sampling
hour
Triglycerides
LDL cholesterol
Glucose
(p)
(p)
(p)
02
0.529
0.534
<0.001*
04
0.021*
0.009*
0.008*
06
<0.001*
0.008*
0.808
08
<0.001*
0.058
0.678
09
0.015*
0.035*
0.379
* Indicates significant difference when p<0.05
The hypercholesterolemic individuals presented with mild alteration in glucose metabolism

compared to controls though classified as non-diabetic by fasting blood glucose. Therefore,
palm olein-based milkshake with moderate amount of fat and carbohydrate can provide
information on aberration in glucose metabolism or insulin-resistance in individuals who
appear to have normal fasting glucose.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to acknowledge Prof. Dato' Mafauzy Mohamed and Dato' Prof. Wan Mohamad Wan
Bebakar from Department of Medicine. We thank the Clinical Trial Unit (CTU) staff involved in
recruitment of volunteers and phlebotomy. We also thank Dr Mohd Ayub Sadiq of School of Dental
Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia for statistical consultation and Ruhani Halimfrom dietetic unit for
nutritional advice. This study was supported by a research grant (304/PPSP/6140020) of the Ministry
of Science, Technology and Environment (MOSTE), Malaysian Government, which was issued under
the Intensified Research in Priority Areas (IRPA) under the 7th Malaysia Plan (RMK-7).
REFERENCES
Gunstone, F.D., Lipid: Global Resources and Consumption. In: Lipid in Health and Nutrition.
(Ed. Tyman, J. H. P) United Kingdom: Royal Society of Chemistry.
Lichtenstein, A.H., Stone, N., Merz, et al. (2001). Executive summary of the third report of
the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection,
Education, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel
III). Journal of American Medical Association285(19): 2486-2497
Sethi, S.K. (1997). Postprandial Lipemia, Atherogenic Lipoproteins and Coronary Artery
Disease. Clin Biochem Revs. 18: 22-34
75

COMPARISON OF AMPLITUDE OF ACCOMMODATION, NEAR POINT OF
CONVERGENCE AND FUSION ABILITY OF ISLAMIC FASTERS BEFORE,
DURING AND AFTER RESPECTED MONTH OF RAMADAN
Hoseini Yazdi SH1#, Jafarzadehpur E1, Mirzajani A1, Nematy M2
1
Department of Optometry, Faculty of Rehabilitation, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
#
Corresponding author
2
Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad,
Iran
ABSTRACT
There are a few researches regarding the effects of Islamic fasting on visual system. This study was
performed to evaluate the effects of Ramadan fasting on amplitude of accommodation (AA), near point
of convergence (NPC), positive and negative fusionalvergences (PFV and NFV, respectively). AA,
NPC, PFV and NFV at far (6m) and near (40cm) were measured in 30 male students. Nutritional habits
in a week before each examination visit were assessed with food frequency questionnaire (FFQ).
Results showed that mean age and fasting average experience were 23.9 and 10 years, respectively.
AA reduced significantly in Ramadan than before (p<0.01); but there was no significant difference
between its values before and after Ramadan. NPC increased significantly in Ramadan than before
(p=0.006); but there was no significant difference between its values before and after Ramadan. NFV
blur, break and recovery points at far significantly reduced in Ramadan than before (p=0.003, p=0.010,
p=0.006, respectively); but no significant improvement occurred after Ramadan. Results showed that
there was no significant correlation between changes in diet pattern and AA, NPC and distant NFV
variations (p<0.05). Therefore some visual problems may be reported at far and near visual tasks
during Ramadan; but most of the problems may be resolved after it. Some visual preparations may be
needed for more effective visual activities during Ramadan; essentially for students with intensive
visual tasks. Vision therapy may be suggested along with nutrient pattern improvement during
Ramadan.
INTRODUCTION
Fasting during month of Ramadan is an Islamic obligatory. Islamic fasting might have
special effects on vision and ocular function of Muslims. Previous studies showed that there
was no relationship between Islamic fasting and progression of myopia (Miratashi et al.,
2000; Ghasemi Boroumand et al., 2000; Salehi et al., 2000; Zandi 2003).Moreover,
intraocular pressures changes due to fasting in healthy person were not considerable
(Rabbanikhah et al., 2005; Kayakcioglu et al., 2000).
Increased need for visual tasks, especially to recite the Holy Quran, changes in food
habits and metabolic conditions in this month call further investigations on possible visual
changes during this month. Since researches regarding the direct impact of Islamic fasting
on visual skills are few and not conclusive, this study evaluated amplitude of accommodation
(AA), near point of convergence (NPC), positive and negative fusional vergences (PFV and
NFV, respectively) of Islamic fasters in Ramadan.
METHODS
In our cross sectional study AA, NPC, PFV and NFV of 30 male students of Iran
University of Medical Sciences, were measured during three days before Ramadan, middle
three days and three days after this month. Examination time before and after Ramadan
was during breakfast to lunch and lunch to dinner time; in Ramadan it was in mid-time
between dawn and breakfast meals. To consider nutritional status of subjects over one
week before each visit, Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was completed.
76

RESULTS
Mean age and fasting average experience were 23.9 and 10 years, respectively. As it
can be seen in Table 1, according to Paired t test analysis, AA reduced and NPC increased
significantly in Ramadan than before (p<0.01); but there was no significant difference
between their values before and after Ramadan. Despite the statistical significance of AA
reduction, a change of at least 1.50 D is needed to be considered a significant variation on
repeated measurements of accommodative amplitude; smaller changes are accepted as
expected variations (Rosenfield et al., 1996).On the other hand, mean AA of right and left
eye was more than the minimum expected, based on Hoffstetter formula (Hoffstetter et al.,
1950) during Ramadan. Thus, despite the reduction of monocular AA during Ramadan, yet
its value was within normal range in these young and visually normal subjects. Regarding
mean NPC in Ramadan, a range of 8-15 cm is considered normal in some researches
(London 1991; Griffin et al., 1995).As NPC values greater than 10 cm is a diagnostic criteria
for convergence insufficiency (Scheiman et al., 1996) it seems that despite the increase in
NPC value during Ramadan, this is not clinically significant. Moreover, nutritional pattern
analysis showed no significant difference in most nutrient groups before, during and after
Ramadan; and significant differences observed in protein and sugar groups had no
significant correlation with AA and NPC variations during Ramadan. By reviewing different
investigations on Ramadan and Islamic fasting (Waterhouse et al., 2006;Karaagaoglu et al.,
2000;Roky et al., 2000; Zerguini et al., 2000;Meckel et al., 2008) it seems that psychological
factors and variations in biological time play a causative role in reducing AA and increasing
NPC in this month.
Table1Mean SD of AA, NPC and distant NFV before, during and after Ramadan
Before
Ramadan
13.942.67
During
Ramadan
12.332.50
After
Ramadan
13.372.20
P1*
P2**
P3***
<0.0001
0.002
0.184
Left Eye Amplitude of

Accommodation (Push up
method)(Grisham, et al., 2007)
13.932.68
12.332.50
13.332.20
<0.0001
0.002
0.086
Near Point of Convergence

(Push up method with
accommodative target)
(Grisham, et al., 2007)
7.673.25
8.703.60
7.832.76
0.006
0.005
0.267
Negative Fusional Vergence at

6m, Blur point (Step vergence
11.244.35
8.572.23
8.362.72
0.003
0.611
<0.0001

6m, Break point (Step vergence
11.214.56
8.642.37
8.362.72
0.005
0.515
<0.0001

6m, Recovery point (Step
vergence method)
(Grisham, et al., 2007)
8.864.23
6.362.31
6.292.70
0.003
0.865
0.001
Variable
Right Eye Amplitude of
Accommodation
(Push up method)
*Comparison between before and during Ramadan

** Comparison between during and after Ramadan
*** Comparison between before and after Ramadan
77

Although no significant variations observed in PFV values at far and near and NFV
values at near (Repeated measure ANOVA, p>0.05), but NFV values at far were significantly
reduced during Ramadan than before (Paired t test, p<0.001) and this reduction was not
compensated after Ramadan. As NFV measurements have better repeatability than PFV at
both near and distance, (Antona,et al., 2008) therefore the reduction of NFV observed in
Ramadan was meaningful. However, NFV was not needed at far in this sample, as none of
the subjects had distance esophoria. Since NFV has a little role in maintaining fusion at
distance, it seems that the mechanism to compensate its reduction in Ramadan occurs
weakly.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, our results showed that a considerable increase in NPC value and a
significant decrease in AA and distant NFV were occurred during Ramadan than before;
however the changes were compensated after Ramadan except for NFV at far. Although
these changes were not clinically considerable in the young and visually normal subjects of
this study, but in other age groups, larger samples and individuals with nonstrabismic visual
disorders, they might have clinical impacts. It is advised that proper accommodative and
convergence trainings are prescribed by optometrists to Islamic fasters during Ramadan in
order to prevent these variations. More research in this field is required.
REFERENCES
Miratashi, S.A.M. and Shoja, M.R. (2000). Effect of Ramadan fasting on physiologic myopia.
The Journal of Qazvin University of Medical Sciences & Health Services 15: 26-33.
Ghasemi Boroumand, M., Aghazadeh Amiri, M., Amiri, Z. (2000). Relationship between
fasting and myopic changes in the age group of 21-40 years. Pejouhandeh Research
Journal 17(5): 33-37.
Salehi, A., Meamarzadeh, S.A., Akhlaghi, M.R., Rismanchian, A., Jafari, A.G. (2008). Effect
of Ramadan fasting on physiologic myopia. Journal of Shahrekord University of
Medical Sciences10(2):88-93.
Zandi, A.R. (2003). Evaluation of myopic degree mean 1 month before and after Ramadan.
Journal of Medical Sciences Research 3(8): 115-19
Rabbanikhah, Z., Rafati, N., Javadi, M.A., Sanago, M. (2005). Effect of Religious Fasting on
Intraocular Pressure in Healthy Individuals. Bina Journal of Ophthalmology 10 (4):
489-492.
Kayakcioglu, O. and Guler, C. (2000). Religious fasting and intraocular pressure. Journal of
Glaucoma. 9 (5):413-414.
Grisham, D., Powers, M.K., Riles, P. (2007). Visual skills of poor readers in high school.
Optometry.78(10):542-9.
Rosenfield, M. and Cohen, A.S. (1996). Repeatability of clinical measurements of the
amplitude of accommodation. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics16 (3):247-249.
Hoffstetter, H.W. (1950). Useful age-amplitude formula. Optometric World. 38(11):42-45.
London, R. (1991). Near point of convergence. In: Eskridge JB, Amos JF, Bartlett JD, eds.
Clinical Procedures in Optometry. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
Griffin, J.R. and Grisham, J.D. (1995). Binocular Anomalies: Diagnosis and Vision Therapy,
3rd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Scheiman, M., Gallaway, M. and Ciner, E. (1996). Prevalence of visual anomalies and ocular
pathologies in a clinic pediatric population. Journal of the American Optometric
Association 67 (4): 193-201.
Waterhouse, J., Alkib, L., Edwards, B., Reilly, T. (2006). Diurnal changes in sleep, food and
fluid intakes, and activity during Ramadan, 2006, in the UK: some preliminary
observations. Biological Rhythm Research 39(6): 449-467.
78

Karaagaoglu, N. and Yucecan, S. (2000). Some behavioural changes observed among
fasting subjects, their nutritional habits and energy expenditure in Ramadan.
International Journal of Food Sciences & Nutrition 51(2):125-34.
Roky, R., Iraki, L., HajKhlifa, R., Lakhdar Ghazal, N., Hakkou, F. (2000). Daytime Alertness,
Mood, Psychomotor Performances, and Oral Temperature during Ramadan
Intermittent Fasting. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism44(3):101-7.
Zerguini, Y., Kirkendall, D., Junge, A., Dvorak, J. (2007). Impact of Ramadan on physical
performance in professional soccer players.British Journal of Sports Medicine
41(6):398-400.
Meckel, Y., Ismaeel, A., Eliakim, A. (2008).The effect of the Ramadan fast on physical
performance and dietary habits in adolescent soccer players. European Journal of
Applied Physiology102(6):651-7.
Antona, B., Barrio, A., Barra, F., Gonzalez, E., Sanchez, I. (2008). Repeatability and
agreement in the measurement of horizontal fusional vergences. Ophthalmic and
Physiological Optics 28(5):475-91.
79

FASTING, HEALTH AND WELL BEING
Meena Sehgal#
Department of Psychology, Panjab University, Chandigarh ,India -160014.
#
Corresponding author; Email: meenasehgal@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Traditionally fasting has been associated with spirituality, well being and health. Yet some modern
medical fraternity puts forth a different perspective. Some gastroenterologists opine that fasting is not
good for health and may cause acid reflux, gastritis and even ulcers as digestive enzymes attack
stomach lining in absence of food. Frequent fasting may lead to weakness and fatigue. Some
dieticians opine that women who fast quite often increase their chances of developing arthritis and
osteoporosis due to calcium deficiency. The other group of medical men believe that fasting detoxifies
the body and boosts the immune system. According to Wolowczuk et al., (2008), immune
enhancement is due to three factors: i) The absence of burden of digestion that demands all the
resources of the immune system, ii) Lowered plasma viscosity due to less traffic in the bloodstream
(less fatty sugar & protein), iii) Increased nutrients assist in immune performance. Fasting reestablishes normal homeostatic balance and reduce the suffering from cravings. According to Steptoe
& Brydon (2005). Partial fasting improves glucose regulation, lowers blood pressure and protects
against stroke, Parkinsons& Alzheimers and lowers the risk of cancer. The present study was thus
envisaged to compare people who fast regularly (once a week) with those who did no fast. The
sample comprised of 150 adults in the age range of 30-45 years (75 in each group). They were
compared on measures of health, health protective behaviour and well being. Results revealed
differential profiles of fasting and non-fasting groups. The paper further examined the implications of
different perspectives in fasting and made an attempt to elaborate the implications.
INTRODUCTION
Fasting is abstaining from food for a period (voluntarily). Traditionally fasting has
been associated with spirituality, well being and health. Yet some modern medical fraternity
puts forth a different perspective. Some gastroenterologists opine that fasting is not good for
health and may cause acid reflux, gastritis and even ulcers as digestive enzymes attack
stomach lining in absence of food. Frequent fasting may lead to weakness and fatigue.
Some dieticians opine that women who fast quite often increase their chances of developing
arthritis and osteoporosis due to calcium deficiency. The other group of medical men believe
that fasting detoxifies the body and boosts the immune system. According to Wolowczuk et
al. (2008), the immune enhancement is due to three factors: (i) The absence of burden of
digestion that demands all the resources of the immune system, (ii) Lowered plasma
viscosity due to less traffic in bloodstream (less fatty sugar and protein), (iii) Increased
nutrients assist in immune performance.
Fasting re-establishes normal homeostatic balance and reduce the suffering from
cravings. According to Steptoe and Brydon (2005), partial fasting improves glucose
regulation, lowers blood pressure and protects against stroke, Parkinsons and Alzheimers
and lowers the risk of cancer.
Dr. Naomi Neufeld (an endocrinologist in UCLA) said most adults need about 2,000
calories a day. Those calories make energy, or glycogen. Neufeld says it doesnt hurt it
might even help the body to fast or stop eating for short periods of time, say 24 hours
once a week, as long as you drink water.
You re-tune the body, suppress insulin secretion, reduce the taste for sugar, so
sugar becomes something youre less fond of taking, Neufeld says. Eventually the body
burns up stored sugars, or glycogen, so less insulin is needed to help the body digest food.
80

That gives the pancreas a rest. On juice diets recommended by some spas, you may lose
weight, but your digestive system doesnt get that rest.
Mark Mattson, a scientist with the National Institute on Aging, says that when we
convert food into energy, our bodies create a lot of byproducts we could do without, including
free radicals.
These free radicals will attack proteins, DNA, the nucleus of cells, the membranes of
cells, Mattson says. They can damage all those different molecules in cells.
Mattson thinks partial fasting has numerous benefits, from improving glucose
regulation, which can protect against diabetes, to also lowering blood pressure. Some
animal studies have also shown that partial fasting has very beneficial effects on the brain,
protecting against Alzheimers, Parkinsons and stroke.
Partial fasting may even extend lifespan because eating less sends a message to the
cells of the body that they should conserve and use energy more efficiently.
Fasting A Doctors Diagnosis: Times Six of Why They do it
According to Paulson, Founder/Director of Fasting Center International, IF YOU'RE
SUFFERING PROBLEMS--physiologically, psychologically or spiritually--it's wonderful to
know that those who've used this greatest of all healing modalities before us, over millennia,
have proved that fasting works. fasting cures this marvelous, self-improvement technique
called Scientific Fasting works to heal what ails us, as this Father of Western Medicine
learned: "Fasting is the greatest remedy--the physician within!"--Philippus Paracelsus
All three Fathers of Western Medicine practiced and prescribed prolonged fasting-Hippocrates, Galen and Philippus Paracelsus (who concluded, nearly 500 years ago, that:
"Fasting is the greatest remedy--the physician within!"). Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle also practiced and prescribed prolonged fasting, with Plato stating he fasted "for
greater physical and mental efficiency," just as Pythagoras, another veteran faster often
described as the West's first pure mathematician, wouldn't even introduce his advanced
students to his higher theorems and tenets until they'd done 40-day fasts. Likewise,
everyone knows that literally all our greatest spiritual teachers did prolonged fasting,
including the Buddha, Christ and Mohammed.
As for fasting one day a week, Mahatma Gandhi chose to do that after age 40.
However, he also did periodic, prolonged fasts, following a 1930 fast he described as "21
days of uninterrupted prayer," during which he felt "an indescribable peace within,"
concluding: "There is no prayer without fasting!"
Countless millions of human beings made prolonged fasting our species greatest,
fastest, safest (biochemically), least expensive and most effective healing modality long
before Mohammed, Christ or Buddha appeared on Earth. However, over the past 35 years
FCI has been blessed to supervise our world's largest, nonresidential fasting clientele, noble
Muslims on every major continent--all of whom know the Koran endorses prolonged fasting
"so that you may safeguard yourselves against every kind of ill and become righteous"--have
been doing long fasts each year throughout the length of Ramadan (and beyond)--under
our skilled, veteran, professional supervision--to accomplish all of the myriad goals this
marvelous, self-improvement technique offers those with the courage and discipline to do it.
81

Fasting is thus part of spiritual practices enhancing Health and Well Being.
Spirituality and Health
The postmodern age is the age of stress and anxiety. Relationships that were
sacrosanct have been sacrificed at the alter of a hedonistic, fast-paced life. Greed, for
everything that money can buy, is all-pervasive. However, most people express a vacuum in
their lives and are still looking for happiness or, at least, the way to become happy. This
quest for health and happiness has become a basic need for everyone. Today the face and
time of death has changed. Although mortality due to infections (external bacteria) is on the
decline, mortality due to chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disorders, asthma,
diabetes, is on the increase. Illness due to skin disorders, pain disorders, gastrointestinal
disorders, and endocrinological disorders is on the rise. These are primarily caused by
behavioral pathogens (stress, temperament, and lifestyle) and are known as lifestyle
diseases.
Unable to find happiness in the material goods, people are increasingly turning
towards spiritually as the path that will led them to the yearned-for happiness or bliss. The
postmodern age can also be called the age of spiritual revivalism. Many and Indian is the
disciple of some guru, visits ashrams, and watches TV programs where spiritual leaders give
discourses.
Sehgal (2005) explored perspectives on health, disease, characteristics of a healthy
person, role of yoga and mediation in health, and methods to promote health. A selection of
30 spiritual leaders in the community heading the Swami Paramhans Yogoda Society, the
International Society for Krishna consciousness, the Swami Ramakrishna Mission, the Art of
Living, Arogya Dham (Haridwar), the Institute of Yoga Training-Yoga Mandir, Reiki masters,
priests in Gurudwaras (Sikh clergy), Churches, and Jaina Mandirs were interviewed. In
addition, 30 Ayurveda practitioners and teachers from 11 spiritual groups were included in
the sample.
Perception of Health in Spiritual Context
Swami Paramhans Yogoda Society:
x
x
x
Health is wealth.
It is the perspective of a sharp mind in an active, fit body.
It is the emotional well-being. It is a state when both mind and body are free from
ailments.
The Ayurveda practitioners and teachers opined that health is a fit, disease-free body,
mental fluctuations are controlled and the mind is in a calm state, where one is spiritually
realized.
According to the Church Priests:
x
It is a holistic balance of mind and body.
For the Sikh clergy:

x
82
Health is more a mental than a physical quality-it is being in good shape and doing
social and moral good.

According to the respondents from the Institute of Yoga Training- Yoga Mandir:
x
x
Health is a state of mental and physical enlightenment; it denotes the wholeness of

being.
Health is supreme because it is the ultimate wealth. Health is not only being disease
free but also the capacity to work to ones fullest potential.
For Reiki masters:

x
Heath is equated with mental health and well-being.
The members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) said that:
x
x
x
Spiritual Health is more stable than physical health, which may be transient.
Health is faith in soul; doing things for the upliftment of soul.
Eating sattvic food is essential for good health.
According to the Jaina priests:

x
Health has physical mental aspects. Doing good at both levels makes us healthy.
The Arogya Dham opined that:

x
x
Vatta, Pitta, Kapha are the three features of health. We can stay fit only if these three
are in a balanced proportion.
It is essential to have positive thought, proper sleep, working capacity/capability,
regular lifestyle and discipline, the absence of lethargy and a feeling of joy.
According to the Art of Living philosophy:

x
Health is a state of physical healthy. By being stress-free, one may be mentally

healthy.
The Ramakrishna Mission Ashram leaders said:

x
Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and spiritual well-being and not merely
the absence of diseases.
Characteristics of a Healthy Person

According to the spiritual leaders of the Swami Paramhans Yogoda Society:
x
A healthy person is one who is physically healthy and active, mentally stable, and
emotionally strong. He abstains from bad habits that would ruin his health.
According to the Ayurveda practitioners/teachers:

x
Happy and balanced, disease-free, physically active, and spiritually elevated, i.e.,
calm, contented and stable-headed, are the characteristics of a healthy person.
83

According to the Church priests:
x
A healthy person is one who is free from sickness, desires, and inhibitions, and can
integrate mind, body, and spirit to live in harmony.
For the Reiki masters:

x
A healthy person is one who can create congenial atmosphere around him and gives
out positive energy and vibes.
The Institute of Yoga Training Yoga Mandir teachers described a healthy person as:
x
One who has attained a superior level of mental and physical nourishment, uses
meditation to relax and sharpen his mind, contributes to society and spreads
happiness.
The Sikh clergy stated that:

x
A healthy person is free from disease, active, helpful, can cope with stress, does not
harm others, and has a positive attitude towards life.
For the followers of the ISKCON:

x
A healthy person is one whose soul is happy and contented; who has a healthy mind,
and works for spiritual elevation.
For the Jaina priests:

x
A person, who lives life to the fullest and is physically and mentally fit, is healthy.
The Arogya Dham members consider a healthy person as:

x
One who is physically and mentally fit, happy, and optimistic, has a regular lifestyle.
The Art of Living followers define a healthy person as:

x
One who eats healthy, is physically fit, exercises regularly and leads a stress free life.
The Ramakrishna Mission Ashram leaders stated that:

x
A healthy person is one who is free of physical, mental, and spiritual ailments.
The Role of Religious Rituals Like Fasting Prayer and Meditation in Health
When questioned about the role of health in health, the following answers emerged:
Spiritual leaders of the Swami Paramhans Yogoda Society maintain that:
x
84
Meditation and fasting helps in relaxing, developing a positive attitude to life, and in
giving one inner strength and peace of mind. It leads one to a path of selfenlightenment and makes one evolved.

The Ayurveda practitioners/teachers stated that:
x
Meditation and fasting helps one fight chronic disease by creating a positive attitude;
it priests stated that meditation is the ability to concentrate on self. It helps improve
self awareness, i.e., to realize ones weaknesses and strengths.
The respondents from the Institute of Yoga Training Yoga Mandir stated that:
x
Meditation helps in giving meaning to life, makes one clear about goals/purpose in
life, helps one work towards it, and leads one to self-actualization.
The Reiki masters, who were interviewed, stated that:

x
Meditation helps to gain control over thoughts, thereby improving concentration; it

helps in visualization, such as, visualizing oneself in the lap of nature and God; it
makes us more confident, balanced, and instills a feeling of control over our thinking.
The Sikh clergy stated that:

x
Meditation provides inner strength to the individual to face the stresses and strains of
everyday life.
The ISKCON members believe that:

x
True meditation leads one to clear ones consciousness, not to become barren, but
fertile and versatile. Meditation revives spiritual consciousness.
According to the Jaina priests:

x
Meditation is a way to enhance ones well-being. With the help of dhyana yoga, one
can activate ones energy centers, and improve ones temperament and thoughts.
The respondents from the Arogya Dham consider meditation as:

x
An aid to energizing the chakras and develop inner strength.
The Art of Living followers consider meditation as:

x
The delicate art of doing nothing, providing rest to the mind-the art of letting go and
being yourself. It helps in controlling negative energies and channelizing our
energies/thoughts in the positive direction.
The Ramakrishna Mission Ashram followers stated that:

x
Meditation is the vehicle for the holistic personality development.
From this brief review of different perceptions, one may conclude that yoga and
meditation are the means to attain holistic health, to cultivate an attitude of contentment and
stoicism, and lead to spiritual elevation. Various researchers have concluded that yoga and
meditation are a way to energize latent powers (Bhushan, 2003; Mohan, 2002; Rao, 1991).
Meditation makes one develop positive thinking, and helps to gain inner strength, and peace
85

of mind; it helps to evolve and move towards self-enlightenment. Meditation is a pathway to
deal successfully with stress (Bhushan & Sinha, 2001).
Spirituality: Its Impact on Health and Well Being
Religious Practices and Health
According to Mohan (2005) for nearly a century, many mental health experts
portrayed religion as a neurotic influence on psychological functioning. In the early 1900s
Sigmund Freud, in his Obsessive Acts and Religious Practices (1962) and Future of an
Illusion (1962), described religion as a universal obsessional neurosis and predicted its
ultimate demise, as people would more and more learn to use the rational operation of their
intellect. Of course, this has not happened, even in the developed societies of the West that
swear by science and reason.
There were only a few who opposed the view that religion was either irrelevant or
harmful to health. Unlike his teacher and one time colleague Freud, Carl Jung saw more to
religion in the lives of his patients than neurosis. He wrote, among all my patients in the
second half of life there has not been one whose problem in the last resort was not that of
finding a religious outlook on life. In contrast to Sauna, David Moberg (1965) noted in a
review of relevant literature, Studies of happiness, morale, and personal adjustment have
generally shown a direct relationship between good adjustment and such indicators of
religiosity as church membership and attendance, Bible reading, fasting, regular listening to
religious broadcasts, fasting, belief in an afterlife, and religious faith. Psychologist Allen
Bergin echoed a similar sentiment when he wrote, religion is at the fringe when it should be
at the center of interest to social scientists.
Professor Rao (2005) established the distinction between spirituality and religion. As
he states: Spirituality is to religion what science is to technology.Thus exploring the role of
religion in health and general well-being and happiness becomes an essential component of
this inquiry. The religious technologies include prayer, religious involvement, fasting and
attendance to a place of worship, reading/listening to religious the literature/ discourses, and
a personal relationship with God.
Veach and Chappel (1992) analyzed the dimensions of personal spiritual experience,
spiritual well-being, sense of harmony, and personal helplessnessj on the Spiritual Health
Questionnaire.They reported that spiritual well-being was positively related to psychological
health and general well-being, and a sense of hormony. Ellison (1992) interviewed a sample
of 2,107 Black adults (1979-80). They used regression analyses to control for factors such
as age, education, sex, income, missing income, government aid, skin tone, physical
unattractiveness, and self-esteem, and found that persons who engaged in frequent
devotional activities (prayer, Bible study, etc) were more open and less suspicious, and more
enjoyable to interview. Those who reported that religion was an important source of moral
guidance were also viewed as friendlier. Thus, personal religiousness was associated with
interpersonal friendliness and empathy.
Poloma and Pendleton (1989) identified four types of prayers: meditative prayer,
ritualistic prayer, petitionary prayer, and colloquial prayer, and related these to five
dimensions of well-being. Controlling for education, sex, race, income, and age, meditative
prayer was positively related to existential well-being and religious satisfaction; ritualistic
prayer was positively related to negative affect; petitionary prayer was unrelated to any wellbeing dimension; and colloquial prayer was positively related to happiness. They further
examined the relationship between well- being (life satisfaction, negative affect, happiness,
existential well being) and prayer experience, orthodoxy of belief, frequency of church
attendance, born- again status, frequency of prayer, relationship with God, and church
86

activities. They reported that religious satisfaction was the strongest correlate of well- being
(existential well-being (p<.001),and life satisfaction to a borderline degree (p=.06) when
other domains and control variables were controlled; the strongest correlates of well-being
(life- satisfaction and happiness) was frequency of prayer (negative) and examined, they
reported that when ritual prayer index was replaced by a conversational prayer index, the
conversational prayer showed a positive relationship with general well-being; persons who
have more positive experience in prayer are likely to have greater well-being (Poloma &
Pendleton, 1991).
Numerous studies have investigated the relation between religious activities and
well-being. Myers and Diener (1995) in a random survey between 1980-86, of 169,776
persons in 16 nations, reported that religious involvement is associated with higher wellbeing, optimism, and positive expectations for the future. Lee and Ishii-Kuntz (1987) in a
survey of 2,872 persons age 55 or over on social interaction, loneliness and well-being
among men, reported religious attendance as significantly and positively related to morale
(p=.02), after controlling for 10 other variables, including all the social variables. In a
Canadian study on religious involvement and life satisfaction, results indicated life
satisfaction in both men and women who were more religiously active.
Koening et al., (2001) state that of almost 80 percent of the 100 studies that have
been statistically examined, the religion-well-being relationship shows a positive correlation
between religiousness and greater happiness, life satisfaction, morale, or other measures of
well-being. The aspect of social support in religious behavior as a mediating factor in
outcomes has been a consistent hypothesis in attempting to understand the role of religiosity
on mental health by increasing the quality and quantity of social resources (Ellison, 1994).
Koenig et al., (2001) in the Handbook of Religion and Health surmise that research on
religion and depression supports five conclusions; First, the data on religious affiliation and
depression suggests that two religious groups, Jews and people who are not affiliated with
and religion, are at elevated risk for depressive disorder and depressive symptoms. Second,
people who are involved frequently in religious community activity and who highly value their
religious faith for intrinsic reasons nay be at reduced risk for depression. Conversely, people
who are involved in religion for reasons of self=interest or extrinsic gain are at higher risk for
depression.
Townsend et al., (2002) assessed the impact of religion on health outcomes via a
systematic, critical review of the medical literature. They reviewed all randomized controlled
trials, published from 1966, and all non-randomized controlled trials published from 1996
to1999, that assessed the relationship between religion and measurable health outcomes.
They reported that non-randomized controlled trails indicate that religious activities appear to
benefit blood pressure, immune function, depression, and mortality.
Chronic Pain, Fasting and Religion
As in dealing with pain of the psyche, evidence points towards the efficacy of the
technologies of spirituality in decreasing chronic pain of the body. Tu (1980) indicated that
the role of pain in strengthening and purifying the person is common to Christianity,
Buddhism, and Confucianism. The Buddhist sees pain as a defining characteristic of human
life that is to be endured in a matter-of-fact manner. The Confucian views pain as a trail but
also believes that a cure is both desirable and necessary for well-being. Shaffer (1978) notes
that is both Hinduism and Christian Science view pain as an illusion brought on by false
beliefs and incorrect thinking. While the Christian Scientist concentrates on God and the
good in the world, the Hindu seeks to gain understanding and attain detachment form the
world (the source of pain) that is illusion (Koenig et al., 2001). Abraido-Lanza et al. (1996)
reported that the most commonly used coping strategy after engaging in activities to deal
with chronic pain of arthritis was use of religion. According to McBride et al. (1998) moderate
87

spirituality was associated with significantly lower pain than low spirituality (p=.008),
although high spirituality was associated with no significantly greater pain (curvilinear
relationship). In an assessment of loneliness and spiritual well-being in chronically ill adults
with rheumatoid arthritis and healthy adults.
Kabat-Zinn et al. (1985) used mindfulness meditation in a sample of chronic pain patients.
Results showed statistically significant reduction in pain symptoms, mood disturbance,
psychological symptoms; pain- related drug utilization decreased and self-esteem increased.
A comparison group of patients in the pain clinic did not show similar improvement after
traditional treatment protocols.
Hypertension, Fasting and Religion
Hypertension is a common life-threatening disorder that can lead to coronary heart
disease, stroke, congestive failure, diabetes, and renal dysfunction. Hixson, Gruchow, and
Morgan (1998) carried out multiple regression path analyses to determine the direct and
indirect effects of religiosity on blood pressure. The direct effect of religiosity on systolic
blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were more substantial than the
indirect effects of through the intermediate health variables, though not significant. In
general, DBP was more influenced by religiosity than SBP, and the dimensions of intrinsic
religiosity and religious coping were most influential, although again not statistically
significant. (Koenig et. al., 1998).
The present study was thus envisaged to compare people who fast regularly (once a week)
with those who did no fast. The sample comprised of 150 adults in the age range of 30 -45
years (75 in each group). They were compared on measures of health, health protective
behaviour and well being.
Sample
The sample comprised of 150 subjects (75 in the fasting group and 75 in the non
fasting group). Purposive sampling technique was followed in selecting subjects who
reported fasting regularly. Subjects were selected from general population and were in the
age range of 30 45 years.
Tests and Tools
Who Measure of Mental Health (Wig, 1999).

Subjective Well Being (Diener et al, 1999).
Perceived Happiness Scale (Fordyce, 1988).
Perceived Health Status (Atwater, 1995).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1 shows means, SDs and t test between fasting and non fasting groups on
Mental Health, Subjective Well Being, Perceived Health Status and Perceived Happiness
Status.
Results clearly show that fasting group scored significantly higher on all positive
dimensions of health and well being.
88

Table 1: Means, SDs and t-ratios on Mental Health, SWB, Perceived Happiness and Health Status
between Fasting and non fasting groups.
Fasting Group
Non-Fasting
Group
Means
SDs
Means
SDs
t-ratios
Coping with Self
4.69
1.2
4.07
1.43
2.08*
.04
Coping with others
3.86
1.17
3.7
.91
.65
ns
Dealing with Life Problems
4.4
1.1
3.63
.89
2.24**
.02
Total Mental Health
12.65
2.7
11.4
2.5
2.06*
.04
Happiness
6.42
1.66
5.46
2.06
2.57**
.01
SWB
27.3
4.8
21.4
4.6
6.28**
.01
Perceived Health Status

*Significant at .05 level
**Significant at .01 level
7.02
1.72
6.4
1.68
2.64**
.01
The implications are clear that religious practices like fasting impact both health,
happiness and well being.
Deepa Mohan (2005) religious beliefs and practices may have psychological effects,
which in turn, bring about somatic changes. Religious practices help to reduce anxiety,
stress, and depression, and enhance health and well being (Koenig et al., 2001). They
further explained this phenomenon by stating that when people become physically ill, many
rely heavily on religious beliefs and practices to relieve stress, retain a sense of control, and
maintain hope and sense of meaning and purpose in life. It is suggested that religion (i) acts
as a social support system; (ii) reduces the sense of loss of control and helplessness; (iii)
provides a cognitive framework that reduces suffering and enhances self-esteem; (iv) gives
confidence that one, with the help of God, could influence the health condition; and (v)
creates a mindset that helps the patient to relax and allow the body to heal itself. Again, the
values engendered by religious involvement such as love, compassion, charity,
benevolence, and altruism may help to successfully cope with debilitating anxiety, stress,
and depression.
Healing from Within: Spirituality and Mental Health
Swinton (2001) said that comprehensive research evidence shows that religious and
spiritual beliefs and practices help prevent many physical and mental illnesses, reducing
both symptom severity and relapse rate, speeding up and enhancing recovery, as well as
rendering distress and disability easier to endure. Especially important is that religious and
spiritual factors can significantly affect the presentation of mental disorder. Furthermore,
psychiatric patients have consistently identified spiritual needs as an important issue, and
spiritual care as contributing to symptom relief and general well-being. It follows that
psychiatric care should routinely include a careful and sympathetic assessment or spiritual
screening.
According to Idler (2008), Meditating, yoga, fasting, walking a prayer circle, making a
pilgrimage, taking the sacraments, singing with a choir, going on a weekend retreat, listening
to the words of inspired speakers like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., dancing in a group at a
wedding, lighting Advent or Hanukkah candles, saying daily prayers, or contemplating a
sunset or a mountaintop view are all spiritual and religious practices undertaken by many of
us in our daily lives, at special seasons of the year, or maybe just once in a lifetime. Some
89

practices begin early in life and stretch back to our childhoods, while others may be sought
out in adolescence and young adulthood, representing new paths.
There are a number of ways in which religion and spirituality have an impact on health
and well-being. Beginning with adolescence, it was found that rituals or rites of passage
practiced by many of the major world religions play an important role in assisting individuals
in successfully passing from one phase of life into the next. Most of these transitions
baptisms, circumcisions, confirmations, coming-of-age rituals, and marriages occur early in
life. However, what makes these religious traditions relevant to health, especially in
adolescence and early adulthood, is that they provide rules for living. For example, some
religions have very particular rules about diet and alcohol use, and most faiths have beliefs
about maintaining the purity of the body as the vessel of the soul. In general, religious faiths
discourage self-indulgent behaviors and promote moderation in all things, if not actual
asceticism. Many spiritual and religious practices, in fact, involve the temporary and
intermittent, or in some cases, lifelong denial of behaviors that are considered pleasurable
by most people, such as drinking, eating meat, or having sex (Idler, 2008).
Researchers from the University of Michigan analyzed data from an annual survey of
high school seniors from 135 schools in 48 states in a study called Monitoring the Future
(Wallace and Forman, 1998). Their research findings show that religious involvement has a
large impact on the lifestyles of these students, especially in late adolescence: Students who
say that religion is important in their lives and attend religious services frequently, have lower
rates of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and marijuana use, higher rates of seat belt use,
eating fruits, vegetables, and breakfast, and lower rates of carrying weapons, getting into
fights, and driving while drinking. This is one of the few studies that has examined
religiousness, spirituality, and health-related practices in adolescence. More importantly,
these findings demonstrate the origins of a healthy adult lifestyle. Not smoking in
adolescence, for example, dramatically reduces the likelihood that one will ever smoke; it
also reduces the exposure to related risk factors that cause heart disease, cancer, and
stroke, which all are major causes of death in our society.
Another study of adults in Alameda County, California also has shown that people who
attend religious services are less likely to smoke cigarettes in the first place; however, if
those who attend did smoke at the start of the study, they were more likely than those who
didnt attend services to quit smoking during the period of the study (Strawbridge et al.,
1997). Moreover, findings from this study show that those who attend religious services have
lower mortality rates overall. It is not surprising that people who are members of religious
groups, and thus, are less likely to smoke, drink heavily, have casual sex with multiple
partners, or get into fistfights, also have a longer life expectancy. In sum, there is ample
evidence from well-designed population studies that religious and spiritual practices
correlate negatively to some known health risk factors.
Additionally, religious congregations offer rich social resources with a strong sense of
ethics. A core belief of each of the worlds religious traditions is that of concern for others
less fortunate and the deliberate turning of attention away from ourselves and toward others
who are in need. A study by Christopher Ellison, a researcher at the University of Texas,
used data from a national survey of black Americans that underscores this observation
(Ellison, 1992). Ellison posed the question are religious people nice people? and collected
and analyzed interview data. Ellisons study was unique because he asked the interviewers
their opinions about the interview itself; interviewers rated the respondents based on how
much they had enjoyed interviewing them, how friendly the respondents were, and how open
and engaged they were during the interview. The results made it clear that religiously
devoted individuals were evaluated in more positive terms compared to other respondents;
people who prayed and read the Bible often, and those who saw religion as important in their
daily lives were found to be more enjoyable to interview, more open, friendly, and less
suspicious than the nonreligious members of the sample. This study demonstrates the pro90

social, engaged attitudes of the religiously involved, and suggests that these friendly
attitudes probably carry over to other relationships in life, not just those with survey
interviewers who knock on the door.
Rahmah et al. (2008) stated that the aim of their study were to describe the levels of
religiosity and health status, and examine relationships among components of religiosity and
health status. Using non-probability convenience sampling, 126 middle-aged, Indonesian,
Muslim men were recruited through nine mosques in Jakarta. Data were collected via a selfreport questionnaire consisting of three parts: the Demographic and Health Information
Questionnaire, the Islamic Involvement Questionnaire (measuring religiosity) and the Health
Status Questionnaire.
Findings revealed the majority of subjects had both low religious intrinsic orientation
(57.9%) and religious behavior (55.6%). Approximately 27% ranked themselves as high in
overall religiosity, while 40.5 % ranked themselves as low. Those who ranked themselves
as high in religious behavior only accounted for 15% while those who ranked high in
religious intrinsic orientation only was 17.5%. The majority (69.1%) indicated their level of
health status was good. However, within the six specific components of health status, the
majority ranked themselves at a moderate level. Positive correlations were found between
religious intrinsic motive and spiritual health (r = .26, p < .01), and religious behavior and
general health perception (r = .24, p < .01) and spiritual health (r = .37, p < .01). The
relationships among various components of religiosity and health were discussed, and
recommendations for further studies were also provided.
Idler (2008) in another study, reviewed evidence that religious involvement is
associated with better physical and mental health, and they found that health practices,
social support, psychosocial resources (e.g., self esteem, self efficacy), and beliefs such as
a sense of meaning or coherence are not sufficient to account entirely for this effect. If
religious involvement is time-less and beneficial, why is religious involvement not high for
everyone? Pargament and Exline addressed this question. Pargament noted that some
religions are more helpful than others. There are advantageous and disadvantageous
aspects of religion. Religion can be especially helpful to those who society has marginalized,
and religious involvement is more helpful when circumstances have exhausted a person's
resources and when it is well integrated into a person's life.
Anshel (2010) provided an intervention model that can be used by religious leaders for
changing health behavior among practicing members of religious communities. The
intervention does not require extensive training or licensure in counseling psychology. At the
heart of this model is the acknowledgement that a persons negative habits (e.g., lack of
exercise, poor nutrition) and his or her deepest values and beliefs (e.g., faith, health, family)
are often misaligned, or disconnected. In addition, the unhealthy outcomes from these habits
are contrary to the scriptural traditions of the world religions and thus are especially relevant
to individuals who practice their religious beliefs. The Sacred Scriptures of Judaism and
Christianity, for example, are replete with teachings that extol the virtues of practicing habits
that promote good health and energy. In addition, evidence is mounting in the existing health
intervention literature that adopting permanent and desirable changes in health behavior
have not been successful, and that adherence to desirable habits such as exercise and
proper nutrition is short-lived. The Disconnected Values Model (DVM) provides a novel
approach for enhancing health behavior change within the context of the mission of most
religious institutions. The model is compatible with skills presented by religious leaders, who
possess more credibility and influence in changing the behavior of members and service
attendees of their respective religious institutions. The religious leaders role is to provide the
client with faith-based incentives to initiate and maintain changes in their health behaviors,
and perhaps to provide resources for the individual to pursue an action plan.
91

While religious practice has been associated with superior mental health, it is
surprising that the relationship between religious practice and good physical health is quite
low. Persons of faith (i.e., those who regularly attend religious services) experience rates of
obesity and physical inactivity that is similar to their less religious counterparts (Marks 2005;
Young and Koopsen 2005). For reasons about which we can only speculate, persons who
maintain a strong religious faith do not appear to engage in a lifestyle that promotes good
physical health and energy in spite of the extensive endorsement of good health as a
religious value in the scriptural traditions of Judaism and Christianity. One possible
explanation for the disconnect between the religious practice of individuals and their lack
of healthy lifestyle choices may be what Gall et al. (2005) call their surrendering style.
To Gall et al. (2005) a surrendering style involves an active decision to release
personal control to God over those aspects of a situation that fall outside of ones control.
Therefore, the person believes that God is now in charge of the situation. This disposition
promotes spiritual well-being and a deepened sense of faith, especially under conditions of
high stress. The authors do not suggest that a persons surrender style gives him or her
license to engage in a carelessly unhealthy lifestyle because, after all, God is in control.
However, it is plausible to speculate that for some individuals, a strong religious surrender
style provides the incentive to maintain behavior patterns that medical science would
consider unhealthy, such as lack of exercise and poor dietary habits. Surrender style may
explain an individuals relatively passive attitude toward taking responsibility for maintaining
a healthy lifestyle.
To conclude, one may say that religious practices like Fasting enhance both Mental
and Physical Health and Well-Being.
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95

PRELIMINARY STUDY ON POLYMORPHISMS OF PEROXISOME PROLIFERATORACTIVATED RECEPTOR ALPHA (PPAR) GENE IN FASTING.
I.M.R. Rohayu#, M.J. Abbe Maleyki, I. Samhani, A.L. Ahmad Zubaidi, M. K. Zahri
Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA),Kampus Kota, 20400
Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia,
#
Corresponding author; Email: izanwati@udm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) is a nuclear receptor that functions as ligandactivated transcription factors that regulate the expression by binding directly to the DNA of the target
genes. PPAR binds to a DNA sequence known as a peroxisome proliferator response element
(PPRE), which is located in the promoter region of the target gene. PPAR plays a crucial role in
intracellular lipid metabolism. It regulates the expression of proteins involved in the transport and
oxidation of free fatty acids (FFAs), predominantly in the liver. PPAR seems to have a functional role
in human PBMC during fasting as several of the genes changed upon fasting were also changed
upon incubation of PBMC with the specific PPAR agonist WY14, 643. However, the extent of the
role of PPAR in human PBMCs remains unclear. Our aim of this study is to investigate the influence
of polymorphisms of PPAR gene in mediating mechanism of enzymatic reaction during three
different periods. Forty healthy volunteers were selected in order to obtain blood samples in three
different conditions, pre fasting, fasting and post fasting. The samples were then stored in -80o till the
time of use. DNA from the peripheral blood of the study subjects were extracted using DNA extraction
kit. The PCR methods were adapted from previous studies in order to genotype three main
polymorphic sites of PPAR gene. 7.5 % substitution G to A in exon 7 was found in the sample
population with no effect on amino acid threonine.The influence of the polymorphisms in PPAR gene
is going to be correlated with the level of lipid profile during the three conditions afterwards.
INTRODUCTION
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) is a nuclear receptor that
functions as ligand-activated transcription factors that regulate the expression by binding
directly to the DNA of the target genes. PPAR binds to a DNA sequence known as a
peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE), which is located in the promoter region of
the target gene (Kersten, Seydoux et al. 1999). PPAR plays a crucial role in intracellular
lipid metabolism. It regulates the expression of proteins involved in the transport and
oxidation of free fatty acids (FFAs), predominantly in the liver. Activation of PPAR in mice
showed that the main function of PPAR in liver is the regulation of lipid metabolism and
more specifically fatty acid -oxidation (Mandard, Zandbergen et al. 2004). In human,
PPAR is examined less thoroughly, because functional studies are more complicated.
Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) which consist of lymphocytes and
monocytes/macrophages are known to express (Chinetti, Griglio et al. 1998; Marx, Duez et
al. 2004). Bouwens, Afman et al. (2007) showed that PBMC gene expression profiles of
healthy volunteers can reflect changes between 24 and 48 hours fasting, when plasma fatty
acid concentrations are elevated. In addition, they showed that PPAR seems to have a
functional role in human PBMC during fasting as several of the genes changed upon fasting
were also changed upon incubation of PBMC with the specific PPAR agonist WY14, 643.
However, the extent of the role of PPAR in human PBMCs remains unclear. Study
by Bouwens, Afman et al. (2007) had found that each donor has its own specific gene
expression profile response to PPAR activation, which results in distinct differences in the
expression of certain genes after WY14,643 incubation. Which means that there might be a
mechanism which gave the variation of expression profile, one of the reasons is
polymorphisms in PPAR might be involve in the regulation of expression profile. We
96

therefore aim to investigate the rate of polymorphisms in PPAR gene which might involve in
the regulation of gene expression of enzymes during fasting.
OBJECTIVES
The objective of the study is to investigate the influence of polymorphisms of PPAR
gene in mediating mechanism of enzymatic reaction during fasting period.
The specific objectives are:
1. To investigate the frequencies of the PPAR polymorphisms in normal fasting
volunteers.
2. To investigate the function of the polymorphic gene in the mediating PPAR function
during fasting.
METHODOLOGY
A total of 40 healthy volunteers are selected during and end phase of fasting period.
The volunteers are in age of between 17 to 40 years old.
Sample Collection
Informed written consent was obtained from all the volunteers included in the study.
300l peripheral blood samples from non fasting and fasting volunteers are collected in
EDTA tubes and stored in 80 C deep freezer till the time of use.
Genotyping
DNA from the peripheral blood of the study subjects were extracted using DNA
extraction kit. The most relevant in PPAR exons were analyzed in this cohort of study
subjects. The PCR methods were adapted from (Vohl, Lepage et al. 2000).
PCR amplification of PPARa Exons and Sequencing
All exons and exon-intron boundaries were amplified from genomic DNA using
specific primers derived from the 5 9 and 3 9 ends of intronic sequence (Table 1). The
annealing temperature for all primer pairs was 59oC. PCR conditions were as in Table 2.
PCR products were purified with Qiagen purification kit (Qiagen Inc. Valencia, CA, USA).
The PCR products were then sequenced for the detection of variants.
Table 1: PCR primers for genomic amplification of PPAR exons

Exon
Oligonucleotides
PPARaex3.F 5-CGTCAGTCTTACCAATTGTTCCT-3
Product Size (bp)

311
PPARaex3.R 5-AAACTTTCTAGGAAACGGCACA-3
PPARaex5.F 5-AGTAAAGCAAGTGCGCTGGT-3
5
243
PPARaex5.R 5-AAGGAAGGGGAACTGAGGAA-3
PPARaex7.F 5-GCATCCCACATCACCTGAC-3
530
PPARaex7.R 5-TCAGTGACATGATACCAGCAGA-3
97

Table 2:
2 PCR assa
ay for each PPAR exon
PPAR
exon
Exon 3
Exon 5
Exon 7
a
and
Forrward
Revverse prim
mer
O
Optimised
PCR assay
a
con
ncentration
T
Temperaturre (oC)
(M
M)
Final concentratio
c
on consist of:
o
0.25
1.0 U of DNA polymerase
CR buffer
1X PC
0.2 mmol/L of ea
ach deoxinu
ucleotide
0.35
5
59
triphossphate
1.5 mM
M of Magne
esium Chlorride
Appro
oximately 200
2
ng of
o DNA
0.25
sample
LTS AND DISCUSSION

N
RESUL
A total of 40
4 peripherral bloods were
w
collec
cted form subject age range of 19
1 to 40
years old.
o The bloo
od sampless were obtained in three different time
t
stage; pre-fasting, fasting
(during the month of Ramadhan) and posstfasting.
Identificcation of Po
olymorphism
ms in the Hu
uman PPAR
R Gene
Three exons of PPA
AR gene were
w
scree
ened by PCR and se
equencing. All the
amplifie
ed fragmentts were at expected
e
fra
agment size
e showing th
hat there w
were no duplications
or delettions in the fragments (Figure 1). One polym
morphism wa
as detected
d in exon 7 which is
substitu
ution A to G at codon 253
2 in 4 of our
o subjects
s (Figure 2)). The substtitution how
wever did
not alte
er the amino
o acid threonine.
Exon
3
n
Exon
7
EExon
5
DNA
A
Ladder
Figure 1: Th
he gel picture
e of PCR pro
oducts of the
e three exonss.
98
Figure 2: Sequencing data for DNA samples of heterozygous G to A at codon 253
The human PPAR gene spans 83.7 kb and composed of 8 exons. We had only
discovered one variation in exon 7 in which it does not given any changes in the amino acid
sequences (silent mutation). As compared to other previous study, this variant is one of the
common variants that had been detected (Kersten, Seydoux et al. 1999; Vohl, Lepage et al.
2000; Bouwens, Afman et al. 2007). Other variants such as L162V which had been detected
as the variant that associate with hyperbetalipoprotienemia was not detected (Vohl, et al,
2000). As per title, this is the preliminary data in the search of nucleotide variants in PPAR .
Our further parameters are to detect the remaining 5 exons as well as untranslated region
which may contain other polymorphisms known and/or novel. Lipid profiles of the subjects
will be correlated with the variants found in three different stages; pre-fasting, fasting and
post-fasting.
CONCLUSION
This preliminary data concluded that there are not much variant detected in the three
exons of PPAR gene. The data suggested there might be other variants in the remaining
exons as well as untranslated region. We then will proceed with our next parameter to see
the association of the polymorphisms found in the profile of lipid in subjects from three
stages; pre-fasting, fasting and post-fasting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank UDM for the research fund, UniSZA/10/BR(038) and the volunteers in
this study.
REFERENCES
Bouwens, M., L. A. Afman, et al. (2007). Fasting induces changes in peripheral blood
mononuclear cell gene expression profiles related to increases in fatty acid betaoxidation: functional role of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha in human
peripheral blood mononuclear cells. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition86(5):
1515-23.
99

Chinetti, G., S. Griglio, et al. (1998). Activation of proliferator-activated receptors alpha and
gamma induces apoptosis of human monocyte-derived macrophages. Journal of
Biological Chemistry 273(40): 25573-80.
Kersten, S., J. Seydoux, et al. (1999). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha
mediates the adaptive response to fasting. Journal of Clinical Investigation 103(11):
1489-98.
Mandard, S., F. Zandbergen, et al. (2004). The direct peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor target fasting-induced adipose factor (FIAF/PGAR/ANGPTL4) is present in
blood plasma as a truncated protein that is increased by fenofibrate treatment. Journal
of Biological Chemistry 279(33): 34411-20.
Marx, N., H. Duez, et al. (2004).Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and
atherogenesis: regulators of gene expression in vascular cells. Circulation Research
94(9): 1168-78.
Vohl, M. C., P. Lepage, et al. (2000). Molecular scanning of the human PPARa gene:
association of the L162v mutation with hyperapobetalipoproteinemia. Journal of Lipid
Research41(6): 945-52.
100
FREE COMMUNICATIONS
Fasting and Sports Performance
101

FASTING HEART RATE AND BODY COMPOSITION RESPONSES DURING 2.4
KM RUNNING AMONG COMPETETIVE ENDURANCE ATHLETES
Morazuki, S.R#., Mohd Hashim, A.H., Zainuddin, Z.A., Ibrahim, H., Harun, H., Khalil, F.A., Mohd Noor,
M.A., Azman, M.I., Abdul Ghani, D.Z., Abu Bakar, Z.
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300 Johor, Malaysia.
#
Corresponding author; Email: p-syahrul@utm.my
ABSTRACT
Involvement in sports activities especially involving long hours and endurance like activities are always
a major threat to Muslim during Ramadan fasting. To date there has been no specific findings
reporting disadvantages of competing during fasting. This study investigated the difference between
fasting and non fasting individual in completing an endurance run. This study was conducted during
and after the fasting month of Ramadan. Four subjects with an average SD age, height, weight and
BMI of 23.1 3.0 years, 167.0 6.6 cm, 56.5 7.4 kg and 20.2 2.1 respectively participated in the
study. All subjects are competitive runners who were involved in annual MALAKOFF Dualthon Series.
Subjects were required to complete 2.4km run at their fastest pace, three times in each conditions.
Total body weight differences and fat mass differences were measured usingTanita TBF 300A (Tanita
Corporation of America, Inc., USA) while heart rate using Polar Heart Rate (Polar Heart Rate, Polar
Electro Oy, Finland) during pre and post after each run. Each subject ran a total of six 2.4km runs with
rest of at least two days between each trial. Data gathered were analyzed using paired t-test via
SPSS 14.0 to compare the result between fasting and non fasting conditions. No significant
differences were found between all criterion measures during fasting and non fasting condition (total
body weight differences: t=1.321., p=.278; fat mass differences: t=-1.852, p=.161 and heart rate: t=.253, p=.817). This study revealed that fasting does not have negative effect on endurance exercise.
Lack of food intake during fasting day might be solved with healthy pre dawn meal.
Keywords: Ramadan fast, Fasting heart rate, Body composition, Competitive Endurance Athlete
INTRODUCTION
There is assumption that it is hard or impossible to exercise without consuming foods
for hours, in other words, exercise during fasting. People usually think that exercise during
fasting will tire them even more and it might also give some negative effects to the body.
Among Muslim, during fasting month in particular, this assumption has been commonly used
as an excuse to not to exercise. Besides, some Muslim athletes also assume that they
would be unable to perform to their optimum ability if they are exercise or competing during
fasting month.
There is a study that anticipated that physiological changes might occur during training
or competing at Ramadan fasting due to restrictions of fluid and food intake (Bouhlel et al.,
2006). Bigard et al. (1998) and Ziaee et al. (2006) found that Ramadhan fasting caused
significant changes in body weight. To date, findings reporting disadvantages of competing
during fasting are very limited. For instance, a study by Zerguini et al. (2007) found that
there is no remarkable change in sprint performance of professional soccer players during
Ramadan. Thus, it is necessary to conduct more studies regarding the effects of Ramadan
fasting on physical and physiological changes, and sports performance.
102

METHODS
Subjects
Four competitive endurance runners (men = 3, women = 1) involved in this study. All
subjects compete in annual MALAKOFF Dualthon Series and other national level endurance
competitions.
Study Design
This study has been conducted in the last 10 days of during and after fasting month.
Each subject completed a 2.4km run at their fastest pace, three times in each conditions.
The gap between each test was at least two days. All subjects already fast for at least 10
hours before the endurance test.
Heart Rate
Heart rate responses before and during each test were recorded by heart rate monitor
(Polar S72, Polar Electro Oy, Finland). The recording rate before and during test were set at
5 and 15 second per minute respectively. Pre-test heart rate was recorded while subjects
were in relaxed sitting position.
Body Composition
Body composition of the subjects was measured before and after each test using
Tanita TBF 300A body fat analyzer (Tanita Corporation of America, Inc., USA). Subjects
were asked to remove all accessories, but they were allowed to wear very minimal clothes
during weight measurement. Gender and height were manually entered into the keypad
interface. Subjects were measured with bare feet on the analyzers footpads.
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive results for all criterions were expressed in mean SD. Gathered data
were analyzed using paired t-test via SPSS 14.0 to compare the result between fasting and
non-fasting conditions.
RESULTS
The average age, height, weight and body mass index (BMI) of the subjects was 23.3
3.4 years, 166.5 5.4 cm, 58.4 6.0 kg and 21.1 2.4 respectively (See Table 1).
Table 1. Demographic data of the subjects. Data are presented as means SD.
Age (years)
23.3 3.4
Height (cm)
166.5 5.4
Weight (kg)
58.4 6.0
BMI
21.1 2.4
Abbreviations: BMI: Body Mass Index
Based on Table 2, the average body weight difference of the subjects after test was
slightly higher in Ramadan fasting (0.3 0.1 kg vs 0.2 0.1 kg). On the other hand, fat
mass difference was found to be higher in non-fasting month (0.6 0.3 vs 0.8 0.5 kg).
However, the paired T-test results indicated no significant difference for both BWD and FMD
between fasting and non-fasting month.
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Table 2. Body weight and fat mass difference before and after exercise in fasting and non-fasting
state.
Fasting
Non-fasting
BWD(kg)
0.3 0.1
0.2 0.1
0.278
FMD (kg)
0.6 0.3
0.8 0.5
0.161
Abbreviations: BWD: Body Weight Difference, FMD: Fat Mass Difference
Figure 1. Heart rate responses before and during exercise in fasting month was found higher than
non-fasting month
Figure 1 shown the pre-exercise and exercise heart rate responses in fasting and nonfasting month. Results of this study found that pre-exercise heart rate and exercise heart
rate during exercise were higher in fasting condition compared to non-fasting condition (78.3
4.4 bpm vs 74.0 9.6 bpm; 179.0 4.2 bpm vs 162.9 35.8 bpm). However, no
significant difference found for pre-exercise heart rate and exercise heart rate in both
conditions (pre-exercise heart rate: p = 0.439; exercise heart rate, p = 0.817).
DISCUSSION
Results in this study found the average exercise heart rate in fasting condition was
higher than non-fasting condition. Increase in heart rate during exercise particularly in fasting
state may influenced by low body fluids or known as dehydration. During Ramadan fasting,
restriction in water intake leads to dehydration (Bouhlel et al., 2006), and dehydration can
decreases sports performance (Manore et al., 2000). However, based on exercise heart
rate responses, the performance of the subjects in fasting condition could be as good as
non-fasting condition.
Besides, despite reduction in body weight and fat mass after exercise recorded in
fasting and non-fasting conditions, the pre-exercise and post-exercise body weight and fat
mass difference were found not statistically different. Results in this study are consistent
104

with the findings by Beltaifa et. al. (2002) and Ramadan (2002) that there was no significant
change on anthropometric variables during the Ramadan.
In conclusion, this study revealed that a similar response observed in heart rate and
body composition changes during exercise in fasting and non-fasting conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks dedicated to the subjects for their great cooperation in this study. Thanks
also to Department of Social Education, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
for the technical and financial supports to ensure this study can be completed.
REFERENCES
Beltaifa, L., Bouguerra, R., Ben Slama, C., Jabrane, H., El-Khadhi, A., Ben Rayana, M. C.
and Doghri, T. (2002) Food intake, and anthropometrical and biological parameters in
adult Tunisians during fasting at Ramadan. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 8(45): 603-611.
Bigard, A. X., Boussif, M., Chalabi, H. and Guezennec, C. Y. (1998) Alterations in muscular
performance and orthostatic tolerance during Ramadan. Aviation, Space, and
Environmental Medicine 69(4): 341-346.
Bouhlel, E., Salhi, Z., Bouhlel, H., Mdella, S., Amamou, A., Zaouli, M., Mercier, J., Bigard, X.,
Tabka, Z., Zbidi, A. and Sheperd, R. J. (2006) Effect of Ramadan fasting on fuel
oxidation during exercise in trained male rugby players. Diabetes Metabolism 32(6):
617-624.
Manore, M. M., Barr, S.I. and Butterfield, G. E. (2000). Nutrition and Athletic Performance.
Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research. 61 (2): 176-192.
Ramadan J. (2002). Does fasting during Ramadan alter body composition, blood
constituents and physical performance? Medical Principles and Practice 11 (Suppl 2):
41-46.
Zerguini, Y., Kirkendall, D., Junge, A. and Dvorak, J. (2007) Impact of Ramadan on physical
performance in professional soccer players. British Journal of Sports Medicine
41(6):398-400.
Ziaee, V., Razaei, M., Ahmadinejad, Z., Shaikh, H., Yousefi, R., Yarmohammadi, L.,
Bozorgi, F. and Behjati, M. J. (2006). The changes of metabolic profile and weight
during Ramadan fasting. Singapore Medical Journal 47(5): 409-414.
105

FASTING AND AEROBICS: FEMALE MUSLIM STUDENTS PERSPECTIVES
George Boon Sai Teoh 1#, Agnes Wei Lin Liau 2 & May Hsin Lim 2
1
School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
2
School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
#
Corresponding autho; E-mail: georgeteoh@usm.my
ABSTRACT
This paper reports findings about female Muslim students views regarding participation in a
compulsory co-curricular activity during the fasting month. Fasting for the Muslims comprises a total
abstinence of eating, drinking and sexual relations from dawn to dusk for 29 or 30 days of the month
of Ramadan. Other requirements of fasting also include showing compassion and avoiding immoral
behaviour and anger. (Reference: al-Baqarah 2:185) The purpose of this research is to gain an
understanding of students' views about co-curricular activity participation during the fasting month, the
effects of their participation in the co-curricular activities during the fasting month and their
suggestions on how to run co-curricular activities during the fasting month. Participants involved in
this research were 15 Muslim female students enrolled in the WSC113 Aerobics Exercise course
which is offered as a co-curricular course at Universiti Sains Malaysia, in the first semester of the
2010/2011 academic term. The majority of these students felt that fasting did not disturb their
aerobics activities and gave positive feedback about exercising during the fasting month. During the
fasting month, almost half of this group felt like skipping the aerobics class but did not. However, 13
students would not have exercised during the fasting month if they had not signed up for WSC113 as
a university course. Only 2 students said they would have exercised during the fasting month anyway
even if they did not sign up for WSC113 as a university course. In spite of the mixed response, all the
participants would recommend others to participate in the aerobic activities during the fasting month
for various reasons pertaining to their health and well-being. This paper is beneficial as it provides
insight into the students' perspectives, feelings and suggestions in order that we can carry out cocurricular activities effectively, may it be at university levels or even at school levels.
Keywords: Ramadan fast, Aerobics, Female Muslim, co-curricular activity
INTRODUCTION
Szekely (1990) regards fasting as the most ancient therapy of mankind. Fasting
basically comprises the abstinence from food and drink either in totality or in some parts. A
person who partakes of complete or absolute fasting usually abstains from both food and
drink for a definitive duration, normally lasting for a day or several days as defined. In
addition to absolute fasting, fasting can also refer to abstinence from a particular type of
food, like meat for instance. The duration for the fasting period can also vary from a daily
basis spanning a month (as in Ramadan fasting) or a less regular basis covering a period of
days.
When we fast, our food intake is halted temporarily and many of our bodys systems
get a respite from performing the task of digestion. In having this temporary respite, there is
extra energy for the body to heal and rejuvenate. Moreover the burning of stored calories in
our body allows the stored toxic substances to be purged from the body.
Physiologically the human digestive tract is a vulnerable part of our body as it is most
exposed to bacteria, viruses and toxins. Thus the digestive tract requires high immune
system support. In the intestines, the food that we consume is broken down and then it
travels through the blood reaching the liver. The liver is the largest organ of our body's
106

natural detoxification system. The liver functions by collapsing and removing the toxic byproducts that are produced by digestion. When we fast, our liver and the immune system do
not need to perform the tasks usually required when we consume food, thus our liver and
immune system are able to heal other parts of our body and to detoxify parts of our body. It
is vital to know that fasting should not be equated with starving but instead should be
understood as our bodys way of burning stored energy.
Ramadan
For Muslims, Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. During Ramadan,
the fasting month, Muslims fast from dawn until sunset. The purpose of fasting for the
Muslims is to learn humility, patience and to experience spirituality. Muslims also endeavour
to purify themselves through practising self-restraint and doing good deeds. Muslim belief
views Ramadan as an auspicious month because it is the month where the first verses of
the Quran were presented to the prophet Muhammad.
Ramadan fasting is considered to be one of the gifts from God. This practice is
extracted from the Qur'an, in al-Baqarah 2:185, which records, "The month of Ramadan in
which was revealed the Qur'an, a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance,
and the Criterion (of right and wrong). And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the
month, and whosoever of you is sick or on a journey, (let him fast the same) number of other
days. Allah desireth for you ease; He desireth not hardship for you; and (He desireth) that
ye should complete the period, and that ye should magnify Allah for having guided you, and
that peradventure ye may be thankful.
It is an important practice, and even considered as one of the main pillars of Islam
because, as narrated by Ibn 'Abbas and recorded in the Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Book 55,
Number 609, when the Prophet came to Medina, he found (the Jews) fasting on the day of
'Ashura' (i.e. 10th of Muharram). They used to say: "This is a great day on which Allah
saved Moses and drowned the folk of Pharaoh. Moses observed the fast on this day, as a
sign of gratitude to Allah." The Prophet said, "I am closer to Moses than they." So, he
observed the fast (on that day) and ordered the Muslims to fast on it.
Sachedina (2002), an expert on Islam and Professor of Religious Studies at the
University of Virginia, claims that besides abstaining from food and drink from dawn to dusk
in the act of fasting, it is important for the devotee to be disciplined not to look at something
that is harmful to ones morals, listen to any gossip or false conversations as well as to train
the bodily limbs to submit to oneself, obeying the rules of conduct that is pleasing to God.
Thus, fasting is recognised as physically demanding and spiritually rewarding as well.
According to a Muslim Chaplain from Kansas, Green (2009), During Ramadan the
spirit is kept healthy by purging the self of all negativity, including the negativity that may be
associated with the fast. The mental self is maintained through regular reading of the
Quran. The physical self is kept strong through a light workout. He suggests that if there is
a determined effort to exercise during the day, the food consumed after the breaking of fast
will go toward muscle repair. This prevents the food consumed from being stored as fat
during sleep.
Aerobics Exercise as a component of the Co-curricular Activity at Universiti Sains
Malaysia
The WSC 113 Aerobics Exercise course is one of the co-curricular courses offered to
the students at Universiti Sains Malaysia under the division of Sports and Culture. It is
107

evaluated based on 100% coursework namely; Attendance - 20%, Involvement - 30% and
Presentation - 50%.
The course requires students to be able to perform basic aerobics exercise moves
rhythmically, as well as various stretching, balance, strength and endurance exercises. It
harnesses the students cardio-vascular fitness, flexibility, strength, balance, speed and
coordination. The session lasts for 75 minutes. However not the whole duration is used for
the aerobics class which is usually performed to music led by a qualified fitness instructor.
Each 75 minute session is divided into several segments such as performing a class warmup, introducing some basic moves such as march, step touch, side tap, double side step,
grape-vine, showing the correct techniques in performing floor exercises such as push-up,
crunches, stretches, exposing students to various floor patterns and music count as well as
choreography.
However, the WSC113 Aerobics Exercise course does not merely emphasise the
teaching of the aerobics component above. The course focuses on developing the students
soft skills via co-curricular activity such as teamwork, leadership ability, critical thinking and
problem solving, ethical and moral behaviour, lifelong learning, entrepreneurship and
communication skills.
Exercise and Ramadan
Athar (2010) mentioned Ramadan fasting differs from total fasting in terms of the
times of food intake. During Ramadan, Muslims eat a very early breakfast, have no lunch
and only eat again at dusk. Abstinence from water while fasting causes concentration of all
fluids within the body hence producing a slight dehydration. Our body however has its own
water conservation mechanism.
Physiological effects of fasting include lowering of blood sugar, cholesterol and
systolic blood pressure. In fact, Ramadan fasting would be an ideal recommendation for the
treatment of mild to moderate, stable, non-insulin diabetes, obesity and essential
hypertension. Research papers presented during the first International Congress on Health
and Ramadan in 1994 noted that improvements in many medical conditions were observed
and fasting did not impair the baseline medical condition of patients. However patients
suffering from serious diseases such as coronary heart disease or diabetes are exempted
from fasting (Athar, 2010).
Fasting during the Ramadan requires Muslims to alter the timing of food and fluid
intakes. Their hours of sleep might be affected as well due to the rising earlier and/or
retiring later routine. These factors are likely to affect mental, physical and social
performance of a person. These events could be related to changes in insulin, blood
glucose, low energy levels or mood changes.
Dohm et al., (1986) noted that fasting before exercise increases fat utilisation and
lowers the rate of muscle glycogen (that is the carbohydrates stored in the muscle)
depletion. This finding is related to fasts lasting less than 24 hours and thus liver glycogen
has not dwindled. If however the fasts last more than 24 hours the opposite is true.
Ramadan (2002) conducted a study looking at the effects of Ramadan fasting on body
composition, plasma constituents, hematology, and cardiorespiratory responses to constant
submaximal exercise which depicted that there were no marked changes noted in body
composition, cellular and biochemical constituents of blood. More importantly Ramadan
fasting had no adverse effect on the individuals who took part in the research while they
performed aerobics exercise at a submaximal level.
In a study done by Chaouachi et al., (2009), to examine the effects of intermittent
fasting of Ramadan on aerobic and anaerobic performance and perception of fatigue in male
108

elite judo athletes maintaining their usual training loads, results showed that the 30-m sprint
performance, multistage shuttle run test, did not change during Ramadan.
Studies have showed that physical performance in individuals who fast are
compromised. Aspects of physical performance to be compromised include changes in
sleep habits and food and fluid intakes. For example, Zerguini et al., (2007) conducted a
study on soccer players which showed that there is a general decrease in fitness and test of
skill (speed, agility, dribbling and endurance).
A study in the Journal of Nutrition by Babirak et al., (1974) found that the weight loss
of a fasting group and that of an exercise (aerobics) whilst fasting group was literally the
same (marginal differences), though the group that was fasting whilst exercising lost weight
considerably quicker (27 days as opposed to 41 days).
Osman (2010), a medical doctor, Sufi Healing teacher and Homeopath, states that
physical activities will naturally cause a person to sweat and become dehydrated. Although
one is not allowed to drink any fluids, the person will not be critically harmed. She gives her
testimony of doing these activities in the late afternoon, about an hour or so before the time
for breaking the fast, which enabled her to quickly replenish the water loss from the physical
activities. She also adds that there is a possibility of feeling a bit dizzy while exercising,
however it is not harmful and is due to the lower blood pressure of the person fasting.
The study
This paper reports a study delineating the perspectives of female Muslim
undergraduates who participated in aerobics exercise while fasting. It should be noted that
these female undergraduates were already participating in the aerobics exercise before the
Ramadan began.
The following research questions were addressed in this study:
1. What are the students perspectives on exercising while fasting?
2. What are the effects of exercise on students while fasting?
3. What are the students suggestions on the aerobics exercise activity while fasting?
METHOD
Participants
Fifteen Muslim female undergraduates of Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)
participated in this study. The 15 Muslim students were part of 50 students who enrolled in
the WSC 113 Aerobics Exercise course during the first semester of 2010/2011. The other
students in the group were non-Muslims. These students have signed up to do the course
for one academic semester to fulfill Universiti Sains Malaysias co-curricular activity
requirement.
Instruments and procedure
The study employed an open-ended questionnaire to elicit responses from these
female undergraduates. The questionnaire comprised twelve items, which asked the female
students their views on various aspects related to fasting and aerobics exercise. The
students were asked to complete the questionnaire after completing 8 weeks of the WSC
113 Aerobics exercise course.
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Data analysis
The students comments as found in the open-ended questionnaires were analysed
to answer the research questions. Subsequently the researchers categorized the students
answers in line with the research questions that were to be addressed.
RESULTS
Generally all 15 students reported positively that exercising while fasting was
beneficial as well as fun even though they found it tiring. One student remarked that
exercising while fasting required a high commitment from the students. If not for the
compulsory co-curricular activity, 13 students commented that they would not exercise while
fasting; two students mentioned that they would exercise while fasting. The common reason
cited for this was that they would be tired.
All 15 students stated the manner in which the aerobics exercise session was
conducted, was good. This is because the 75-minute session was divided into different
parts. Normally there was an introductory briefing, followed by a class warm-up or
recapitulation of moves which may last up to 20 - 30 minutes. Students are given a break
and are required to participate in a group activity comprising selecting songs, designing
choreography, communicating their views about the given task and finally performing short
sketches, sharing reflections or performing the agreed choreography for the instructors
feedback for improvement.
While fasting, the thought of skipping the aerobics exercise session did cross the
minds of eight students; while seven students did not think of skipping the sessions while
fasting. This could be attributed to the fact that albeit most of the students felt exercising
while fasting was fun, it induced fatigue as well. However, all 15 students remarked that
they would encourage others to take part in aerobics exercise while fasting.
Nine students suggested that during Ramadan, the class ends earlier to enable them
to go back earlier in order for them to prepare for the breaking of fast. One student
suggested that the class starts and ends earlier. Five students suggested that exercise
moves requiring a lot of energy be reduced during this Ramadan period.
Four students mentioned the sit up exercise as the least liked exercise while fasting,
eight students mentioned the push up exercise as the least liked exercise while fasting, two
did not like the high kick exercise and two students did not like the jumping jack exercise
while fasting.
Four students mentioned that they liked the step touch move most while fasting, two
students liked the double side step move most while fasting, three students liked the
jogging move most while fasting, three students liked the jumping jack move most while
fasting, two students liked the march move most while fasting, one student liked the side
tap move most while fasting and one student liked the heel dig move most while fasting.
One student mentioned that she liked all the moves except for the sit up and push up
exercises.
DISCUSSION
Limitations and future directions
Numbers for this study were small. These results therefore need to be replicated
with a larger sample or possibly with a different population, for instance looking at female
postgraduate students who exercise while fasting. Also another visible threat to the external
validity of the results is the homogeneity of this present sample comprising solely of female
students. Hence since this study only looked at female undergraduates it is uncertain
110

whether the findings can be applicable to Muslim male undergraduates. However, in view of
the somewhat scant literature on USM female Muslim undergraduates perspectives on
exercising while fasting, it is hoped that this study has shed some light on the area.
Future implications for research on fasting and aerobics exercise
Useful insights were gained from this study regarding what Muslim female
undergraduates felt about fasting and aerobics exercise. The outcomes of this study
enhanced our understanding of how female Muslim students view exercise during the fasting
month. Interestingly thirteen out of the fifteen students reported that they would not exercise
while fasting due to fatigue if not for this WSC 113 course. They were going through with
the aerobics exercise activity because they had signed up for this WSC 113 course as their
chosen Co-curricular activity. Attendance for this WSC 113 activity is compulsory and
grades will be given at the end of the semester.
However, the female students generally acknowledged the health benefits of
aerobics exercise and would encourage others to participate in aerobics exercise when
fasting. In summation, this study has been an opportunity to understand students
perspectives and to generate a better informed understanding of how they respond to
exercising while fasting. Hopefully this study will pave the way for future research avenues in
the domain of exercising and fasting.
REFERENCES
Athar, S. (2010). Medical benefits, fasting & Diabetes Mellitus. Retrieved on December 6,
2010, from, http://www.submission.org/ramadan-health.html
Babirak, S. P., Dowell, R. T., Oscai, L. B. (1974). Total Fasting and Total Fasting plus
Exercise: Effects on Body Composition of the Rat. Journal of Nutrition 104(4):452-457.
Chaouachi, A., Coutts, A. J., Chamari, K., Wong, P., Chaouachi, M., Chtara, M., Roky, R.,
Amri, M. (2009). Effect of Ramadan intermittent fasting on aerobic and anaerobic
performance and perception of fatigue in male elite judo athletes. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research 23(9):2702-2709.
Dohm, G. L., Beeker, R. T., Israel, R. G., and Tapscott, E. B.(1986). Metabolic responses to
exercise after fasting. Journal of Applied Physiology 61(4):1363-1368
Osman, S. (2010). The Muslim Fast and our Body. Victory News Magazine. Retreived on 6
December
2010,
from,
http://www.victorynewsmagazine.com/4TheMuslimFastandBodyPt2.htm.
Dunford, M. (2010). Fundamentals of Sport and Exercise Nutrition. Human Kinetics.
Green, K. (2009). Staying Fit During Ramadan. Retrieved on December 9, 2010, from
http://www.suite101.com/content/staying-fit-during-ramadan-a139013.
Hanim, S. Exercise and Fasting. SenamRobik, SenamSeni, Aerobic, Group Fitness Trainer
(2009).
Retrieved
on
December
10,
2010,
from,
http://sharifahhanim.blogspot.com/2009/08/exercise-and-fasting.html.
Mufti Muhammad Kadwa. Aerobic Exercise Class with Music. Albalagh. (2003). Retrieved on
December 10, 2010, from, http://www.albalagh.net/qa/aerobic_class_music.shtml.
Ramadan, J. (2002). Does Fasting during Ramadan Alter Body Composition, Blood
Constituents and Physical Performance. Medical Principles and Practice 11(2): 41-46 .
Sachedina, A. (2002). Polishing the Conscience Through Fasting. Victory News Magazine.
Retreived
on
December
6,
2010,
from,
http://www.victorynewsmagazine.com/PolishingConscienceThruFasting.htm.
111

Szekely, E.D. (1990). The Essene Science of Fasting and the Art of Sobriety Guide to
Regeneration in Health and Disease. International Biogenic Society. United States of
America.Retrieved on December 14, 2010.
Zerguini, Y., Kirkendall, D., Junge, A., et al. (2007). Impact of Ramadan on physical
performance in professional soccer players. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 41(6):
398400.
112

GLUCOSE LEVEL DURING FASTING MONTH AMONG COMPETETIVE
ENDURANCE ATHLETES
Khalil, F. A.#, Azman, M. I, Mohd Hashim, A. H., Morazuki, S. R., Zainuddin, Z. A., Ibrahim, H., Harun,
H., Mohd Noor, M. A., Abdul Ghani, D. Z., Abu Bakar, Z.
Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300 Johor, Malaysia
#
Corresponding author; Email: fakhrulanwar@utm.my
ABSTRACT
In order to maintain performance, training is a must and there is no exception during the compulsory
yearly Ramadan fasting, specifically for Muslim athletes. However, studies have shown that
Ramadan fasting which causes significant changes in calories intake affect blood glucose
concentration thus athletes performance. It is the purpose of this study to investigate the blood
glucose levels of fasting and non-fasting competitive endurance athletes before and after endurance
test during Ramadan fasting month. Eight subjects (fasting, n = 4, non-fasting, n = 4) with an average
age of 23.1 3.0 years, height of 167.0 6.6cm, weight of 56.5 7.4 kg and BMI of 20.2 2.1
participated in the study. All subjects were competitive runners who are continuously involved in the
annual MALAKOFF University Dualthon Series since the past two years. For this study, subjects
were required to complete 2.4km run test at their fastest pace, three times with rest at least two days
between each trial. Measurements were pre- and post-run blood glucose (Accu check, Performa,
Roche Diagnostics NZ Ltd, New Zealand), heart rate monitoring (Polar Heart Rate, Polar Electro Oy,
Finland) and performance time. Gathered data were analyzed using independent t-test via Statistical
Package for Social Science version 14.0 (SPSS 14.0) in order to compare the result between fasting
and non-fasting groups. The pre-run blood glucose of the fasting group (4.9mmol/L 0.4) was lower
than the non-fasting group (6.2mmol/L 0.7), similar to a study by Bouhlel et al. (2008) [4.8mmol/L
0.4 (1st week Ramadan) and 4.8mmol/L 0.4 (final week Ramadan)] but higher than the study by
Nomani et al. (1989) [4.51mmol/L 0.67 (day 15) and 4.24mmol/L 0.34 (day 28)]. Results indicated
a significant difference of pre-run blood glucose (t=-3.08, p=.022) between groups but not on the postrun blood glucose. In terms of performance time, the fasting group clocked 11.63 1.87 minutes, and
the non-fasting group 11.12 0.94 minutes which shown no significant difference with t=.488, p=.643.
These showed that maintaining blood glucose level during fasting is unnecessary for performance
continuation but might be important for health purposes.
Keywords: Ramadan fast, Fasting Glucose Level, Competitive Endurance Athlete
INTRODUCTION
International sports competition is governed by codified rules and regularly
scheduled throughout the annual calendar. In scheduling the sporting calendar, religious
component has not been one of the factors considered. Therefore, Muslim athletes are
required to train and to compete even though during the fasting month being known as
Ramadan, which follows the Hijri Calendar.
During Ramadan, adult Muslims (man and women) with no health or other excuses
as permitted by syariah are commanded to fast from eating, drinking, smoking, and sexual
relations from sunrise to sunset for almost 29 to 30 days every year. They are however
permitted to break their fast, even for healthy individuals during travelling (musafir) but have
to replace the number of days at different times after the month of Ramadan. This restriction
would last about 8 to 12 hours per day depending on the geography and seasonal month of
the country where the Muslims reside. In addition, if the Muslims participated in international
sports competition during fasting month and that they are observing strictly to the fast, the
length of time required to fast follow the destination country where the competition is held
and not to their original country. This situation demands the devout Muslim athletes to adapt
113

not only physiologically but psychologically to his/her religious obligation as well as demands
of the competition.
The London 2012 is the Olympic competition that will be held in July to August
2012, which falls on the fasting month for Muslims. A well-planned training programme
should be design that should consider the athletes training and performance while
undergoing the obligatory fasting. Different sports require different energy requirementexpenditure relationship therefore it is crucial that each athletes are trained well in advanced
to the sport-specific-physiological adaptation to training.
Bouhlel et al., (2006) anticipated that physiological changes might occur during
training or competing for those fasting during Ramadan due to restrictions of fluid and food
intake. Bouhlel et al. (2006) maintain that due to these restrictions, depletion of blood
glucose and glycogen reserves will occur among Muslims athletes. This will increase
utilization of fat and decrease of carbohydrate utilization during endurance exercise.
This study is an initial investigation to examine the blood glucose levels of fasting
and non-fasting competitive endurance athletes before and after endurance test during
Ramadan fasting month.
METHODS
An informed written consent was obtained from each participant prior to the test. A
field-based of two-groups (fasting vs non-fasting), pretest and posttest design was utilized in
the study. Both groups performed the endurance test simultaneously, which is about 2 hour
before the time for the break of fast / iftar or sunset. The test was undertaken during the last
15 days of Ramadan.
The fasting group had already fasted, without any food and fluid intake, for almost 10
hours while the non-fasting group had their normal meals before testing began.
Participants
A purposive and non-probability sampling subjects were used. There were eight
competitive endurance athletes involved in this study (men = 6 and 2 women). Participants
were divided into fasting (n = 4) and non-fasting (n = 4) groups. Each group consisted of
three men and a woman as parallel comparison. All subjects were competitive runners who
are continuously involved in annual MALAKOFF University Dualthon Series since the past
two years.
Procedures
The pre-run blood glucose of each participant was measured using the Accu check,
Performa, Roche Diagnostics NZ Ltd, New Zealand. Each participant wore a personal heart
rate monitoring device (Polar Heart Rate, Polar Electro Oy, Finland) before the endurance
test. The endurance test requires participants to complete 2.4km run at their fastest pace
and their performance time were recorded. Post-run blood glucose of each participant was
measured immediately after completing the endurance test. Participants undergo three tests
sessions which include rest of at least two days between each trial. Gathered data were
analyzed using independent t-test via Statistical Package for Social Science version 14.0
(SPSS 14.0).
RESULTS
The average age, height, weight and BMI of participants according to the group is
shown in Table 1.
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Table 1: Demographic data of the participants
Group
Fasting
Non-Fasting
All Participants
Age
22.3 3.4
24.0 2.8
23.1 3.0
Heights (cm)
166.5 5.4
167.5 8.4
167.0 6.6
Weight (kg)
58.4 6.0
54.7 9.1
56.5 7.4
BMI
21.1 2.4
19.4 1.6
20.2 2.1
The heart rate, blood glucose concentration and exercise duration of the participants
were recorded to investigate the differences between fasting and non-fasting group. The
average and standard deviation of the heart rate, glucose concentration and performance
time between groups are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Effect of Ramadan fasting on heart rate, glucose concentration and performance time
between groups
Group
Fasting
Non-Fasting
Pre-exercise heart rate
78.3 4.4
70.2 7.9
Exercise heart rate
179.0 4.2
165.2 11.9
Pre-exercise glucose concentration
4.9 0.4
6.2 0.7
Post-exercise glucose concentration
8.0 1.7
8.2 0.6
11.63 1.87
11.12 0.94
Performance time (2.4km)
Figure 1 show that the fasting group had a higher pre-exercise and exercise heart
rate compared with the non-fasting group. On the other hand, the pre-exercise glucose
concentration of the fasting group was lower than the non-fasting group but both group show
similar result on the post-exercise glucose concentration and the exercise duration (See
Figure 2 and Figure 3).
Figure 1: Pre-exercise and exercise heart rate of participants
115

The pre-run blood glucose of the fasting group (4.9mmol/L 0.4) was lower than the
non-fasting group (6.2mmol/L 0.7). The Independent T-test results indicated a significant
difference of pre-run blood glucose (t=-3.08, p=.022) between fasting and non-fasting groups
but not on the post-run blood glucose.
Figure 2: The pre-exercise and post-exercise glucose concentration of the participants
Figure 3: The performance time of the participants
Result of the Independent T-test on the pre-exercise and exercise heart rate showed
that there were no significant differences between the fasting and non-fasting group. In
addition, the performance time of the fasting group was 11.63 1.87 minutes, and the nonfasting group was 11.12 0.94 minutes without any significant differences shown t=.488,
p=.643.
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Generally, both groups are under normal range of Body Mass Index (World Health
Organization, 2004) as well as a normal range of blood glucose level (The American
Diabetes Association) before exercise. The pre-run blood glucose for the fasting group,
though lower than the non-fasting group, is about similar to the pre-exercise blood glucose
range in the study by Bouhlel et al., (2008) at the first week of Ramadan (4.8mmol/L 0.4)
116

and at the final week of Ramadan (4.8mmol/L 0.4) but higher than study by Nomani et al.,
(1989) [4.51mmol/L 0.67 (day 15) and 4.24mmol/L 0.34 (day 28)].
Statistical analysis between groups indicated that there were no significant
differences shown on the pre-exercise, exercise heart rate, post-exercise blood glucose
concentrations and performance time. The only significant difference was shown on the preexercise blood glucose between fasting and non-fasting group. Larijani et al., (2003) point
out that a significant decrease of blood glucose was positively correlated with the overall
decrease of energy intake during Ramadan.
No significant difference on the post-exercise blood glucose concentrations implie
that the endurance training induces structural and functional changes among fasting and
non-fasting groups. Though no meal had been taken about 10 hour among the fasting
group, endurance training had increases participant endurance capacity and reliance on fat
as an energy source during prolonged exercise (Kiens et al., 1993; Koivisto et al., 1982).
However, precaution need to be taken as no significant differences on exercise heart
rate was shown between groups. Higher exercise heart rate on the fasting group and
increase level of blood glucose might indicate that the fasting group is in a mild dehydrated
situation. Body adaptation through endurance training will increase the capacity of
endurance athletes to accommodate their energy requirement in order to maintain their
blood glucose level. However, dehydration aspect while exercising during fasting has to
considered for performance continuation as well as for health purposes.
Acknowledgement
We thank the participants for their cooperation in this study. This project was supported by
the Department of Social Education, Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
REFERENCES
Bouhlel, E., Denguezli, M., Zaouali, M., Tabka, Z., Shephard, R. J. (2008). Ramadan
Fastings Effect on Plasma Leptin, Adiponectin Concentrations, and Body Composition
in Trained Young Men. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise
Metabolism 18(6):617-627.
Bouhlel, E., Salhi, Z., Bouhlel,H., Mdella, S., Amamou, A., Zaouali, M., Mercier, J., Bigard,
X., Tabka, Z., Zbidi, A. Shephard, R.J. (2006). Effect of Ramadan fasting on fuel
oxidation during exercise in trained male rugby players. Diabetes & Metabolism
32(6):617-624.
Kiens, B., Essen-Gustavsson, B., Christensen, N.J., Saltin, B. (1993). Skeletal muscle
substrate utilization during submaximal exercise in man: effect of endurance training.
Journal of Physiology 469(1): 459478.
Koivisto, V., Hendler, R., Nadel, E., Felig, P. (1982). Influence of physical training on the
fuel-hormone response to prolonged low intensity exercise. Metabolism 31(2): 192
197.
Larijani, B., Zahedi, F., Sanjari, M., Amini, M.R., Jalili, R. B., Adibi, H., Vassigh, A.R. (2003).
The effect of Ramadan fasting on fasting serum glucose in healthy adults. Medical
Journal of Malaysia 58 (5):678-80.
Nomani, M.Z., A., Hallak, M.H., Nomani, S., Siddiqui, I.P. (1989). Changes in blood urea and
glucose and their association with energy-containing nutrients in men on hypocaloric
diets during Ramadan fasting. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 49(6):1141-5.
117

THE EFFECTS OF RAMADAN FASTING ON 90MIN OF ENDURANCE CYCLING
PERFORMANCE IN MALE ATHLETES
Nasiri Mohammad1#, Khodayari Rahele2, Hashemi Mohammad3, Asghari Akbar4, Poozesh Jadidi
Jabreaal5
1
Islamic Azad University, Khoy branch, Khoy, Iran, Physical Education Group,
Corresponding author; Email:nasiri@iaukhoy.ac.ir or mohammad.nasiri79@gmail.com
2
M. S of statistics, Email:R_khodayari@yahoo.com
3
Islamic Azad University, Abhar branch, Abhar, Iran, Physical Education Group,
Email:Abhar2183@yahoo.com
4
Islamic Azad University, Khalkhal branch, Khalkhal, Iran, Physical Education Group,
Email:asghari90@yahoo.com
5
MS of physical education, Email:jpoozesh@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Ramadan fasting on aerobic
performance in male athletes. Fifteen male athletes (aged 20-25, mean age 22.51.14) were
chosen for this study. The subjects were tested 2 times, first test was taken one week before the
beginning of Ramadan (BR, control group) and second was in middle of Ramadan (MR,
experimental group). Aerobic power was measured by using 90 min cycling in stationary bike in
laboratory during the BR and MR condition on two counterbalanced occasions. The 90 min
continuous endurance cycling criteria test consisted of a 45 min cycling at 55% of maximal
oxygen consumption (VO2max), followed by another 45 min where subjects performed cycling at
90% maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max). Body weight, body mass index, fat free mass,
body fat and urinary density were recorded before BR and MR trials. Capillary blood lactate
samples, total body water and heart rate recordings were taken immediately after finishing 90 min
cycling in BR and MR conditions. There were no significant differences in BR & MR trials during
the first 45 min. Subjects cycled significantly (p>0.05) further during the second 45 min in BR
compared to MR conditions (283121538 vs. 246431465 m). T independent analysis indicated
that there were significant (p>0.05) blood glucose concentration, total body water and blood
lactate changes in BR vs. MR conditions. Furthermore, there were no significant changes in body
weight, body mass index, fat free mass, body fat, urinary density, mean heart rate (all p>0.05)
between the trials. The results of this study revealed that Ramadan fasting had a small significant
impact on endurance cycling performance.
Key Words: Ramadan fasting, aerobic performance, athlete.
INTRODUCTION
Most healthy adults in Muslim communities practice fasting during the holy month of
Ramadan. This kind of fasting involves daily abstinence from food and water, from sunrise to
sunset, a period that lasts approximately 12 to 17 hours, depending on the season and
geographical latitude. Ramadan is a lunar month, which lasts 28 to 30 days and its length
changes along the solar year.
Ramadan fasting cannot be simply considered as a different diet. The reason is that
the pattern and timetable of eating, drinking and sleeping change in addition to alterations in
the food composition during Ramadan.
In most Muslim countries semi-professional and professional sport activities and
competitions are postponed until after sunset, and sometimes even until late at night in the
month of Ramadan. Fasting and rescheduling of the competition timetable may both affect
an athletes performance during this period.
Food and fluid intake are mainly nocturnal and therefore usually, food frequency and
daily physical activity are reduced during the month of Ramadan (Ben Salama et al., 1993).
118

Previous studies showed that Ramadan fasting caused significant changes in peak power,
mean power and fatique index (Karli, et al., 2007), body weight (Bigard, et al., 1998; Ziaee et
al., 2006), basic hematologic parameters (Dewanti et al., 2006), blood glucose concentration
(Larijani et al., 2003) and lipid profile (Adlouni et al., 1997; Adlouni et al., 1998; Afrasiabi et
al., 2003; Aksungar et al., 2005; Ziaee et al., 2006) without any health problems. These
metabolic changes varied due to eating habits, climate, population and geographical
location. Decrease in resting metabolic rate (Sweileh et al., 1992), dehydration (Ramadan et
al., 1999) and variation in hormone levels (Salem et al., 2002; El-Migdadi et al., 2004; Sajid
et al., 1991) the other changes were reported during Ramadan fasting.
Several studies showed significant changes in muscle metabolism during resting and
long duration exercises (Knapik et al., 1988), and also decrease in exercise performance
were reported (Loy et al., 1986; Maughan & Gleeson, 1988; Nieman et al., 1987; Schurch,
1993; Zinker et al., 1990) after 1 to 3.5 days fasting. Long duration intermittent fasting
(Ramadan Fasting) is different from experimental fasting and there are very few studies
relevant to its effects on exercise capacity.
A study conducted on fighter pilots
demonstrated that Ramadan fasting leads to an impairment in muscular performances
(Bigard et al., 1998). On the other hand several studies reported that cardiorespiratory
responses to exercise during Ramadan depend on the physical fitness and the activity level
of the individual (Ramadan, 2002; Ramadan et al., 1999). In addition to this Ramadan
fasting is associated with metabolic changes that enhance lipid utilization during exercise
independent of the subjects physical activity level (Ramadan et al., 1999). Besides, these
studies Sweileh et al. (1992) found a significant decrease in maximal oxygen consumption
during the first week with a return to pre-fasting values during the last week of Ramadan in
sedentary people. There is limited data on the effect of Ramadan fasting on physical
performance of competitive athletes. According to our observations there is only one study
about the impact of Ramadan on physical performance in professional athletes (Zerguini et
al., 2007). In this recent study, Zerguini et al. (2007) reported no remarkable change in
sprint performance of professional soccer players during Ramadan. Therefore, there is a
need for a study to investigate the effects of Ramadan fasting on endurance performance of
competitive athletes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Ramadan fasting
on 90min of endurance cycling performance in male athletes.
METHODS
Subjects
Fifteen male athletes (aged 20-25, mean age 22.51.14) were chosen for this study.
The subjects were tested 2 times, first test was taken one week before the beginning of
Ramadan (BR, control group) and second was in middle of Ramadan (MR, experimental
group). All the subjects currently participating in official championships had been training
regularly in their respective sport activity more than 3 hours a day, 5 days a week for at least
2 years. Written informed consent was obtained from each subject after a detailed
description of the purpose and procedures of the study.
Study design
The study was conducted in Tehran in National Olympic committee center during 2009
Ramadan period from Aug 15 to Sep 6. The subjects were tested 2 times, first test was
taken one week before the beginning of Ramadan (BR, control group) and second was in
middle of Ramadan (MR, experimental group). Tests were conducted in our laboratory at a
constant environmental temperature and humidity (2832C and 4055% respectively) and
all measurements were taken at the same time of the day (between 10:00am and 12:30pm).
Body composition
Body height was measured to the nearest 0.1cm via a stadiometer (Holtain Ltd., UK).
Body fat percentage (BF%), body weight (BW) ( 0.1kg), fat free mass (FFM) and total body
119

water (TBW) were assessed by using foot to foot bioelectrical impedance analyser (Tanita
TBF 401; Tanita Corp., Japan). Bioelectrical impedance measurements were performed in
accordance with the manufacturers specified procedures. Subjects were measured while
standing erect with bare feet on the analysers footpads.
Urinary density
Urinary density (UD) was assessed from 40 ml urine collected from each subject two
times, immediately after finishing the test in BR & MR. Density was measured to the nearest
0.001 unit by using specific gravity hand refractometer (Atago, Inc., USA).
90min cycling on stationary bike
Aerobic power was measured by using 90 min cycling in stationary bike in laboratory
during the BR and MR condition on two counterbalanced occasions. The 90 min continuous
endurance cycling criteria test consisted of a 45 min cycling at 55% of maximal oxygen
consumption (VO2max), followed by another 45 min where subjects performed cycling at
90% maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max).
Blood lactate and heart rate
Blood lactate (LA) concentration was analyzed as hemolyzed whole blood using a
Yellow Springs Sports 1500 Lactate Analyzer (Yellow Springs Instruments, Yellow Springs,
USA). Analyser was calibrated before every test for each subject, in accordance with the
manufacturers specified procedures (YSI, 2003). Blood samples were obtained by means
of venipuncture performed on an earlobe at rest prior to warm up, immediately after WAnT
(0 minute) and every 3 minutes until the end of recovery period (11-13 samples). Heart rate
(HR) was also recorded every 5 seconds before warm up, during the test and recovery
period using a heart rate monitor (Polar Vantage NV, Polar Electro Oy, Finland). During the
passive recovery period subjects were resting in a relaxed sitting position.
Lactate removal rate from the blood following exercise was estimated from the half life
of the peak lactate. The time required to remove half the amount of peak lactate was
considered as the Half Life of lactate in the blood. Individual regression equation (time x
LA) was used to calculate LA half life from the peak lactate (Gupta et al., 1996). The
equation was y = a + bx [y: time (min), a: intercept point of regression line, b: slope of the
-1
2
regression line, x: half life of LA (mmol.L )]. Time-LA relation was R > 0.98 in individual
regression equation.
Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics (meanSD) were calculated for all variables. T independent
analyses were used to assess the difference between BR vs. MR. Significance was
accepted for all analysis at the level (p> 0.05). All statistical analyses were performed with
the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS).
120

RESULTS
Table1. Changes in body composition, total body water, urinary density, blood glucose
concentration, blood lactate and heart rate. Data are means (SD).
BR
MR
BW (kg)
71.2(4.8)
70.89(3.8)
0.38
0.05
BMI
23.48(1.3)
23.10(1.4)
1.05
0.05
FFM (kg)
64.35(5.31)
64.04(3.9)
1.1
0.05
BF (%)
8.41(2.60)
8.28(2.4)
0.86
0.05
TBW (L)
47.36(5.7)
46.51(6.1)
2.7
0.05
UD
1030(4.6)
1041(5.65)
0.98
0.05
HR
176.21(11.2
2)
177.32(10.9
1)
1.2
0.05
BGC (ml/l)
7.1(1.16)
6.9(1.20)
2.8
0.05
BL(mmol/l)
12.6(0.23)
14.5(0.29)
2.92
0.05
Analysis indicated that there were significant (p>0.05) blood glucose concentration,
total body water and blood lactate changes in BR vs. MR conditions. Furthermore, there
were no significant changes in body weight, body mass index, fat free mass, body fat,
urinary density, mean heart rate (all p>0.05) between the trials. The results of this study
revealed that Ramadan fasting had a small significant impact on endurance cycling
performance (Table1).
DISCUSSION
Generally, fasting leads to mobilization of liver glycogen (with an increased
gluconeogenesis) and to elevated values of free fatty acids for maintaining a sufficient blood
glucose concentration at rest. Nevertheless, according to various authors, the effects of
fasting on glycaemia at rest have been reported to vary from an increase to a decrease with
no change on many occasions. Certainly, differences in diet, various levels of activities
during fasting and/or different degrees of physical training may explain these diverse
findings. In our study, plasma glucose levels during fasting were lower at rest than those
under normal diet conditions. However, during exercise the diet had no effect on plasma
glucose concentrations. Heart rate and blood pressure both at rest and during exercise,
which was set up at a sub maximal intensity corresponding to 75% of maximal heart rate
according to the Astrands formula (Astrand, 1986), was not influenced by dietary conditions.
These, however, had an effect on central (rectal) temperature at rest, which is related to
thermo genesis induced by food; under the normal diet central temperature was significantly
increased. There was no difference in central and skin temperature at the end of exercise
between normal diet and fasting conditions.
Two risk factors are related to exercise without food and water intake, i.e.,
hypoglycemia and hypothermia. Fasting before physical activity may lead to muscle
glycogen sparing and exercise results in mobilization of liver glycogen with increased
gluconeogenesis and a much greater use of free fatty acids for fuel. These mechanisms
facilitate the maintenance of a sufficient blood glucose concentration during physical
activities. Similar findings were made in rats. In humans, fasting for 24 h has resulted in a
reduction of performance capacity or a shorter time before exhaustion occurred. We did not
observe such deleterious effects of fasting because our protocol involved only a 90% of the
121

maximal exercise intensity for a relatively 90min. The results of this study revealed that
Ramadan fasting had a small significant impact on endurance cycling performance.
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Afrasiabi, A., Hassanzadeh, S., Sattarivand, R., Nouri, M. and Mahbood S. (2003). Effects of
low fat and low calorie diet on plasma lipid levels in the fasting month of Ramadan.
Saudi Medical Journal 2 (24): 188-184.
Aksungar, F.B., Eren, A., Ure, S., Teskin, O. and Ates, G. (2005). Effects of intermittent
fasting on serum lipid levels, coagulation status and plasma homocysteine levels.
Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 2(49):77-82.
Astrand, P.O., Hultman, E., Juhlin-Dannfelt, A. and Reynolds, G. (1986).Disposal of lactate
during and after strenuous exercise in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology 61(1),
338-343.
Ben Salama, F., Hsairi, M., Belaid, J., Achour, N., Achour, A. and Nacef, T. (1993). Food
intake and energy expenditure in high school athletes before, during and after the
month of Ramadan: effect of fasting on performance. La Tunisie Mdicale 71(2): 8589.
Ben Salem, L., B'chir, S., Bchir, F., Bouguerra, R. and Ben Slama, C. (2002).Circadian
rhythm of cortisol and its responsiveness to ACTH during Ramadan. Annales
d'Endocrinologie 63 (6): 497-501.
Bigard, A.X., Boussif, M., Chalabi, H. and Guezennec, C.Y. (1998( Alterations in muscular
performance and orthostatic tolerance during Ramadan. Aviation, Space, and
Environmental Medicine 4 (69): 341-346.
Choi, D., Cole, K. J., Goodpaster, B. H., Fink, W. J. and Costill, D. L. (1994). Effect of
passive and active recovery on the resynthesis of muscle glycogen. Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise 26(8): 992-996.
Dewanti, L., Watanabe, C., Sulistiawati, and Ohtsuka R. (2006). Unexpected changes in
blood pressure and hematological parameters among fasting and nonfasting workers
during Ramadan in Indonesia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 60(7): 877-881.
El-Migdadi, F., Shotar, A., El-Akawi, Z., Banihani, I. and Abudheese, R. (2004). Effect of
fasting during the month of Ramadan on serum levels of luteinizing hormone and
testosterone in people living in the below sea level environment in the Jordan Valley.
Neuro Endocrinology Letters 25(1-2): 75-77.
Fallah, J. (2010). Ramadan Fasting and Exercise Performance. Asian Journal of Sports
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Husain, R., Duncan, M. T., Cheah, S. H. and Chng, S. L. (1987). Effects of fasting in
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Inbar, O., Bar-Or, O. and Skinner, S. J. (1996). The Wingate Anaerobic Test. Champain:
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Karli, U., Guvenc, A., Aslan, A., Hazir, T., Acikada, C. (2007). Influence of Ramadan fasting
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Journal of Sports Science and Medicine 6(4): 490-497.
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exercise, fluid, and energy balances during Ramadan in sedentary and active males.
Nutrition. 15(10): 735-739.
Ramadan J. (2002). Does fasting during Ramadan alter body composition, blood
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Schurch, P.M. (1993) Fasting and physical endurance capacity. Schweizerische Zeitschrift
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Zerguini, Y., Kirkendall, D., Junge, A. and Dvorak, J. (2007). Impact of Ramadan on physical
performance in professional soccer players. British Journal of Sports Medicine
41(6):398-400.
Ziaee, V., Razaei, M., Ahmadinejad, Z., Shaikh, H., Yousefi, R., Yarmohammadi, L.,
Bozorgi, F. and Behjati, M. J. (2006). The changes of metabolic profile and weight
during Ramadan fasting. Singapore Medical Journal 47(5): 409-414.
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123
FREE COMMUNICATIONS
Fasting and Religion
124

FASTING - A MULTIDIMENSIONAL HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Jitender Mohan#
Department of Psychology, Panjab University, Chandigarh,India -160014.
#
Corresponding author; E-mail:mohanjitendra@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
The history of science and faith is full of concurrence,conflict and contradiction.The gap between the
practitioners of fasting and those who choose to be on the otherside provide variable factual and
fictional evidence.Some of these quote researches conducted in Arctic,underground cells,on equator
or on the poles, under controlledor experimental conditions.Some provide supporting evidence from
the sub human species.Most of them take extreme positions using personal,religious,political and
cosmetic arguments.Some shed kilos and some become heavier depending on what happens before
and after the period of fasting. Jatindra NathDas used it as self sacrificing patriotic argument,Pottu
Romulu used itforcarving out a new state,Mahatma Gandhi called itselfpurification which led mass
movement of the entire nation. Gautam used it for reaching the ultimate enlightenment. But a good
number of politicians at home or outside to force the other side to concede. Strangely enough some of
them gained political mileage and weight as well!The multi-dimensionality and multi-factoriality of this
typical human behaviour is neitheruniversally practised nor fully analysed.This presentaion will employ
the arguments and insights based on the science of food and nutrition,social science of faith and
religious practices andabove all the transitory or sustainable health adherence for a long term personal
healthleading towards self-control and self actualization. Thewhat,why,who and where of fasting is
more significant than the half hearted fasting as a ritual or gimmick.The real theme of this appraisal is
neither favoring fasting or feasting;or feastingbeforeor after fasting. Certainly,discussing fasting and its
impact in a five star hotel in a world famous tourist destination may provide information and inspiration
to view and value fasting from physical-social-psychological and spiritual parameters and objective
angle. Perhaps, fasting with full understanding may lead to discovery ofself leading tospiritual
development and salvation!
INTRODUCTION
Fasting is prescribed in almost all religious and faith traditions including Christianity,
Buddhism, Judaism, Hinduism, Islam etc. We know the religious dimension, yet most of us
are unaware of the great medical benefits of fasting. Fasting is proven to be the most
effective way to give our body maintenance to purify it against toxin and more. Science of
fasting - Medical benefits and beyond (2006)
"Humans live on one-quarter of what they eat; on the other three-quarters lives their
doctor." - Egyptian Pyramid Inscription, 3800 B.C.
"Very few people know what real health is, because most are occupied with killing
themselves slowly." - Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, Ph.D., Hungarian-born American biochemist;
Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medical Science.
The notion that in India time has stood still for uncounted centuries, and nought has
been changed since the primeval sea dried up, is altogether wrong. While there has been
continuity with the past, there has also been progress. The Upanisads are product of a
perfectly spiritual movement, which implicitly superseded the cruder ceremonial religion of
the Vedas. When the movement of the Upanisads became lost in dogmatic controversies,
when the fever of disputes and dialectics lulled the free spirit of religion, Buddhism called
upon the people to adhere to the simplicity of truth and the majesty of moral law. About the
same period, when canonical culture and unless learning made religion inhuman
scholasticism, and filled those learned in this difficult trifling with ridiculous pride, the
125

Bhagvadgita opened the gates of heaven to all those who are pure in heart. When the
ritualists succeeded in imprisoning the living faith in rigid creeds, the true prophets of the
spirit, the Saiva and the Vaisnava saints, and the theologians like Samkara and Ramanuja,
summoned the people to the worship of living God. The influence of Madhva and Caitanya,
Basava and Ramananda, Kabir and Nanak is not inconsiderable. There has been no such
thing as a uniform stationary unalterable Hinduism whether in point of belief or practice.
Hinduism is a movement, not a position; a process, not a result; a growing tradition, not a
fixed revelation. Its past history encourages us to believe that it will be found equal to any
emergency that the future may throw up, whether in the field of thought or of history.
After a long winter of some centuries, we are today in one of the creative period of
Hinduism. We are beginning to look upon our ancient faith with fresh eyes. We feel that our
society is in a condition of unstable equilibrium. There is much wood that is dead and
diseased that has to be cleared away. Leaders of Hindus thought and practice are convicted
that the times require, not a surrender of the basic principles of Hinduism, but a restatement
of them with special reference to the needs of a more complex and mobile social order.
Such an attempt will only be the repetition of a process, which has occurred a number of
times in the history of Hinduism. The work of readjustment is in process. Growth is slow
when roots are deep. But those who light a little candle in the darkness will help to make the
whole sky aflame.
DATA FROM CHANDIGARH, INDIA
A brief study of 150 persons. consisting of 30 from each of the groups- Hindu, Sikh,
Christian, Educated Muslim and Un-educated Muslim yielded the following
information:-
1. Do you believe in God?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
Yes 100%
100%
90 % Yes
100%
100%
10% No
2. Do you ever fast?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
80% Yes
50% Yes
50% Yes
50% Yes
100% Yes
20% No
50% No
50% No
50% No
3. Do you fast during some special season?

Hindu
Frequently
Sikh
50% Yes
50% No
126
Christian
50% No
Educated
Muslim
50%
Ramzaan
Uneducated
Muslim
Yes
Ramzaan
4. Why do you think people fast?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
Religious Reason
Religious
Religious
and
Spiritual Reasons
To ask God to
make us Happy
and Grant us
Wishes
95%
Religious
Reason
To take Blessing
Faith in God
To
remain
Healthy and Fit
Because of faith
in God and to
please God
5%
Reason
Enhancing Faith
and Will Power
Goal Fulfillment
Weight
Dieting
Loss/
Religious Reason
Get
fulfilled
Dieting
and
Weight Loss
Personal Benefits
and Motives
It is like prayer, a
link to God
Health
As a result
belief in God
For Being Happy
wishes
Health
of
To Combat Evil
Spirits
For
Strength
Health
For fun
Mental
To be a good
Human Being
To
Enhance
Satisfaction with
Life
5. Which are the religions which recommend fasting?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
90% Hindus and

Muslims
10% Hindus and

Christians
85% Hindus and

Muslims
80% Hindus and

Muslims
50%
Hinduism
and Islam
10% Hindus and

Christians
90% Hindus and

Muslims
10% Hindus
20% All
50% All Religion
5% Muslims
6. What are the benefits of fasting?

Hindu
Good Health
Sikh
Keep Mentally
and Physically
Christian
Spiritual
Strength
Educated Muslim
Spiritual/Mental/
Satisfaction
Physical
Uneducated
Muslim
Enhance
Spirituality/ Mental
127

fit
Strength
Self Control
30%
for
mental
satisfaction
SelfSatisfaction
Relaxes Mind
Health reason and

to control weight
Promotes Mental
Discipline
30% to keep
mind balance/
control/
for
relaxation
To remain active
and intelligent
Improves Health
Sensitizes Us To
Understand
Hunger
Detoxification
10%
benefits
Dieting
and
Weight Control
Mental Satisfaction
Detoxification
Kill Evil
To fulfill wishes
Closer to God
Promotes Faith in
God
10% No Benefit
To mane
Happy
No
Helps Realising
Wishes
To send
Jannat
Allah
us
1% no benefits
7. Do you think fasting is related to religiosity?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
50% No
100% Yes
50% Yes
60% Yes
100% Yes
8. Are there any health benefits of fasting?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
75% Yes
50% Yes
30% Yes
65% Yes
100% Yes
9. From which age should the children start fasting?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
70% (10 to 12
yrs)
18+yrs
18+yrs
80% 20+yrs
90% 14 yrs
20% (14-15yrs)
10% 12 yrs
30% (15 plus)
10. Do you think fasting for political purpose- is Blackmailing or Good technique?
Hindu
60% is Blackmail
128
Sikh
50% Ok
Christian
100%
Political
Blackmail
Educated
Muslim
50% Blackmail
Uneducated
Muslim
20% is Blackmail
to

50%
Political
Blackmail
50% Ok
20% Good
60%
Comments
No
11. Are there any negative effects of fasting?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
80% No
30% Yes
60% No
70% No
None
20% Yes
70% No
40% Yes
30% Yes
12. How many people in your family fast regularly? Elaborate.

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
Educated
Muslim
Uneducated
Muslim
50% All
90% None
90% None
50% All
70% All
30% one or two
10% Mother
10% Mother
40% 3-4 Persons
30% 4-5 Members
20% None
10% only
Member
one
13. Who inspired you to start fasting?

Hindu
Sikh
Christian
80%
parents/
grandparents
Self 40% out of

50%
Friend
10% mother
Mother
and
Grandmother
Soul
Educated Muslim
80% Parents and
Grandparents
Uneducated
Muslim
50% Allah
Religion
and
40% Parents
10% None (Self)
14. How do you feel after fasting?

Hindu
90 % Feel Good,
Happy and Great
10% No different
Sikh
Relaxed, Happy
Christian
Educated Muslim
Good,
and
Uneducated
Muslim
80% Good and

Happy
and
Satisfied.
50%
Relaxed
Happy
Spiritually Strong
and
Mentally
Healthy
20% No effect
30% very Hungary
Feeling Good
20%
unhealthy
and unconscious
Closer to Jannat
129

2% Feel Hungary
15. Do you think fasting helps in building/ enhancing mental and spiritual strengths?
Hindu
80% Yes
Sikh
70% Yes
Christian
10% Yes
Educated
Muslim
70% Yes
Uneducated
Muslim
100% Yes
The in exhaustive but significant data reveals, how the citizens of a most modern city
of a democratic and secular country like India think about Fasting in its various dimensions.
It is important to realize that the responsibility of all humans engaged in making
consciously or unconsciously a global institution for the mankind as a whole, irrespective of
their ethnic, religious or other affiliation.
Go beyond color and creed to see the basic unity of Humankind (Malcom X).
All the troubles of the world, especially Spiritual troubles such as impatience,
hopelessness and despair, drive from the failure to see the grandeur of God clearly
(Abraham Isaac Kook).
Spirituality is not about emotional security, it is about finding truth.
Transform your life by the simple realization that the only time you ever have is this
moment.
When you choose the energy of your soulwhen you choose to create with the
intention of love, forgiveness, humbleness and claritygain power.
REFERENCES
Butler, T. (2005). 50 Spiritual Classics. New Delhi: Research Press.
Chattopadhyaya, D.P. (2006). Religion, Philosophy and Science. Shimla: I.I.A.S.Retrieved
frpm,http://digg.com/news/lifestyle/Science_of_fasting_Medical_benefits_and_beyond
Johnstone, A.M. (2007). Fasting- The Ultimate Diet. 12th Annual Congress of European
College of Sport Science. August 8, 2007.
Lafountain, R. (2007). The Power of Fasting. Deliverence Book (1).
Mohan, J. (2007). Psychological Wellbeing and Spirituality. Keynote address. International
Conference on Spirituality. University of Malaya, Malaysia.
Radhakrishnan, S. (1927/2009). The Hindu view of Life. New Delhi: Harper Collins.
130

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SAHUR (PRE-DAWN MEAL) DURING FASTING
ACCORDING TO THE ISLAMIC AND SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES
Sumaiyah Mohd Tarmizi*, Mohd Afifuddin Bin Mohamad**#, Siti Rabiatul Adawiyah S.Mohsain*, Abdul
Halim Bin Ibrahim***, Ishak Bin Suliaman****
*Institute of Graduates Studies, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and **Advanced
Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bandar Putra Bertam, 13200 Kepala Batas,
Penang, Malaysia.#Corresponding author; Email: prof_afif@yahoo.com
***Program of Applied Science and Islamic Studies, Academy of Islamic Studies, University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
****Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Sahur (pre-dawn meal) is one of the recommended sunnah of the Prophet during fasting. However,
some of modern Muslims are neglecting this practice during their fasting. The Prophet has
strengthened that sahur is a blessed and it differentiates between fasting of the Muslims and other
believers. According to the Islamic tradition, delaying the sahur is a sunnah and the best form of sahur
is dates. Thus, the aim of this paper is to elaborate the significances of sahur due to prophetic ways for
the Muslims from the Islamic perspective by means of Sharh Hadith (Elaboration of Hadith) and its
scientific evaluation. The methodology of this study is content analysis from Islamic traditions and
scientific reviews. As for instance, delaying the sahur to the last portion of the night will fulfill the
breakfast meal and it has been proven scientifically that breakfast is the most important meal and it
decrease risks of certain diseases. Moreover, dates which reveal by the Prophet as the best meal for
sahur contains very unique nutrients and has established by the International Journal of Food Science
and Nutrition as an almost ideal food providing wide range of essential nutrients and potential health
benefits. Hence, this study is importance to inspire the Muslims to implement the prophetic ways of
sahur in their fasting routine for the sake of Allah and reap the spiritual and nutritional benefits of it.
INTRODUCTION
The Ramadan is unique because in this month, Allah has revealed special command
which is fasting. Fasting has its spiritual and religious merits and dimensions. Sahur (predawn meal) is one of the recommended sunnah of the Prophet during fasting. However,
some of modern Muslims are neglecting this practice during their fasting. The Prophet has
strengthened that sahur is a blessed and it differentiates between fasting of the Muslims and
other believers. At the same time this practice has great scientific and medical benefits.
Thus, this paperwork is vital to elucidate the significance of sahur during fasting according to
the Islamic and scientific perspectives.
The Meaning Of Sahur
Sahur comes from the words Arabic sahara that bring the meaning ma qubailu
al- Subhi "(Thomson W., 1983; Ibn Manzur, 1994).Roohi Balbaki in Al-Mawrid Dictionary
divided the definition of sahur to the three meaning, which are as the time before daybreak,
time during early dawn and early morning (Balbaaki, 1995). It also comes from the word "
" that can be defined as taking a morning meal (Thomson et al., 1983). Besides, sahur
also can be defined as the last meal before the daybreak during the month of Ramadan
(Cowan, 1976).
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History of Sahur
Fasting became an obligation to every Muslim after it was ordained by Allah through
his Prophet Muhammad pbuh (Muhammad Ibrahim, 1991). At that early time, Muslims did
not know particular period in a day for them to initiate and end their fasting. Most of them
started their fasting at their sleeping time, after Isya prayer, as fasting that has been
practiced by Christians and Jews. However, many of them fell unconscious because of
extreme hungry and thirsty due to hot summer time. For married couple, it was a difficulty
and burden for them because they could not have a sexual relationship for the whole fasting
month. Some of Prophets companions felt regret because they had to wake up at night for
eating or having sexual relationship. The story begins when Umar al-Khattab r.a., who was
one of the Prophets companions wanted to have intercourse with his wife. At first, his wife
disagreed because she had slept before that but Umar still continued his intention. The day
after that day, he told the Prophet about that (As-Suyuthi, 1986). Another story happened at
that time was as narrated through Prophets hadith:
It is related that al-Bara' said, "Among the Companions of Muhammad, if ever

a man was fasting and the time of fast-breaking came and he had gone to
sleep before he broke his fast, he would not eat that night or the following day
until evening. Qays ibn Sirma al-Ansari was fasting and when it the time of
fast-breaking came, he went to wife and said to her, 'Do you have any food?'
She said, 'No, but I will go and look for you.' He worked during the day and
sleep overcame him. His wife returned to him and when she saw him she
said, 'Disappointment for you.' In the middle of the day, he fainted and it was
mentioned to the Prophet. Then this ayat was sent down: 'On the night of the
fast it is lawful for you to have sexual relations with your wives,' and they were
very happy about it. It was revealed, 'Eat and drink until you can clearly
discern the white thread from the black thread of the dawn.
(Sahih Bukhari)
Finally, Muslims felt reliefs after Allah lightened their burdens through His order in alQuran (Muhammad Umar Chand, 1995),
It is made lawful for you to go unto your wives on the night of the fast. They
are raiment for you and ye are raiment for them. Allah is Aware that ye were
deceiving yourselves in this respect and He hath turned in mercy toward you
and relieved you. So hold intercourse with them and seek that which Allah
hath ordained for you, and eat and drink until the white thread becometh
distinct to you from the black thread of the dawn. Then strictly observe the
fast till nightfall and touch them not, but be at your devotions in the mosques.
These are the limits imposed by Allah, so approach them not. Thus Allah
expoundeth His revelation to mankind that they may ward off (evil).
Surahal-Baqarah (2):187.
Prophet Muhammad pbuh then elaborated the phrase Eat and drink until you can
clearly determine the white thread from the black thread through his hadith:
It is related that Sahl ibn Sa'd said, "When 'eat and drink until you can clearly
discern the white thread from the black thread' was sent down and 'of the
dawn' had not been sent down, some men who wanted to fast would tie a
white thread and a black thread to their legs and would continue to eat until
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they could see them clearly. Allah later revealed 'of the dawn' and then they
knew that it meant night and day."(Sahih Bukhari)
Sahur in Islamic Traditions and Scientific Perspectives
Being the only meal eaten by Muslims before the break of dawn during the month of
Ramadan, sahur is highly recommended in Islam and is considered a virtue. This
paperwork will dig up the significance of sahur in Islamic and scientific perspectives based
on several themes of ahadith narrated regarding sahur such as hadith that clarify about the
sahur as a blessed practice, the best forms of sahur and the best time of sahur.
To begin with, this paperwork will elucidate the several hadith that emphasize on the
sahur as the blessed by Allah and its different to the fasting of the Muslim with other
believers.
Anas quoted the Prophet as saying, Make sure to have your sahur meal, for
sahur is blessed. (Sahih Bukhari)
Amr ibnu Al as quotes the prophet as saying the differences between our
fasting and that of the people of the book is the sahur meal. (Sahih Muslim)
Taking the pre dawn meal in Ramadaan is a blessing, so do not leave it,
even by drinking a mouthful of water. For Allaah the Noble and the Mighty,
and His angels send blessings over those who have taken the pre dawn
meal. (Musnad Ahmad)
These hadith stress the value of sahur for it is good preparations for a day of fasting.
The reality that there are great blessings in it is very obvious because sahur following the
Sunnah, makes the fast easier upon the person who is fasting, increases the desire in the
person to want to continue to fast because of the ease upon the fasting person and there is
also in it the principle of being different from the People of the Book because they are
prohibited from taking the sahur. For this reason the Messenger of Allah (SAW) called it the
blessed meal. More to the point, there is the wisdom of getting up for the sahur as the
fasting person will have to wake up shortly afterwards anyway in order to offer their Fajr
prayers. If they wake up for sahur, they will make sure of praying Fajr at the beginning of its
time which is far more preferable. Moreover, if they allow themselves to wake up earlier
before sahur, they can have a short stretch of night worship (qiyamul lail) which is one of the
best rewarded acts of worship. In Ramadan, every good action is rewarded much more
lavishly by Allah.
From the science perspective, praying at night allows a decrease in the level of cortisol
which is the natural steroid generated in the body especially in a few hours before waking up
which actually corresponds to the last third of the night (sahar time). The physical
movements during night prayers improve flexibility, co-ordination and relaxation response. It
also reduces stress-related autonomic responses in normal persons and relieves anxiety
and depression. Adrenaline and noradrenalin are secreted during the physical exercise of
qiyam. They are responsible for the consequent dynamism, which now combines with the
tranquility and the serenity, due to the secretion of enkephalins, endorphins, dynorphins and
others. The effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline are apparent, even after long night
prayers is over, as evidenced by the continuing activity. In fact, even the thought or intention
of performing qiyam prayers is sufficient to activate the sympathetic nervous system.
Persons who fast and perform qiyam report feeling much better and healthier. The repetition
of a prayer, supplications of glorification, zikir (words glorifying Allah) or muscular activity,
coupled with passive disregard of intrusive thoughts, causes a relaxation response, leading
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to lowering of blood pressure and decrease in oxygen consumption, as well as a reduction in
the heart and respiratory rates (Salah, 2004).
The best schedule any Muslim can have in the nights of Ramadan is to wake up, say
an hour before dawn and have half and hour or forty minutes of night worship before having
his sahur meal, then going to pray Fajr and perhaps recite some passages of the Quran
before going back to sleep, if he wishes to do so. That makes his day and night very
blessed indeed.
Secondly, there the time of sahur has been covered in hadith as below:
It was narrated that Zayd ibn Thaabit (may Allaah be pleased with him)
said: We ate suhoor with the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be
upon him) then he went to pray. I [the narrator] asked, How long was
there between the adhaan and suhoor? He said, As long as it takes to
recite fifty verses.(Sahih Bukhari & Muslim)
Zaid was one of the most renowned reciters of the Quran estimated the time of sahur
by reciting 50 verses. The Arabs at that time used to estimate time by certain familiar
actions. They used to say that a certain action is done over the time it takes to milk a sheep,
or to slaughter a camel etc. However, Zaid choose a different sort of action, which is the
recitation of the Quran. This serves as a clue that the particular time should be devoted for
worship. Furthermore, the Quran was the most important thing in the life of that Muslim
community. Its recitation was the most familiar of actions to them. Zaid suggested that their
sahur took place earlier than Fajr by the short time which it takes to recite 50 verses. There
is a hadith about the recommendation by the Prophet to delay the sahur to the last portion of
the night as the narration:
The Prophet said, The people will remain on the right path as long as
they hasten the Iftar (breaking the fast) and delay taking Sahur.
(Sunan Abi Dawud)
Hastening to eat sahur halfway through the night is permissible, but it is contrary to the
sunnah. Sahur is so called because it happens at the time of sahr, which is the end of the
night. If a person eats sahur halfway through the night, he may miss out on Fajr prayer
because sleep may engulf him. Moreover, delaying sahur benefits to the fasting person and
gives him more energy, because one of the aims of sahur is to give physical strength for
fasting and to conserve ones energy, so it is wise to delay it.
In addition, sahur taken in the last portion of the night is likewise the time of breakfast.
Current studies has proves that breakfast is the most important meal at 24 hours time. BBC
News reported that breakfast is important for the persons wellness instead of other meal.
Pereira et al. (2005) from University of Harvard in his studies found those people who are
skipping their breakfast meal are prone to obesity, heart attack and diabetes. The studies
also have shown that person who take their breakfast meal will decreases 50 percent risks
of related diseases. Sahur also important to fasting children as current study proved that
when the blood glucose level decreases after woke up and skipping of breakfast meal, the
condition will disturb childrens attention in class. Study by Latifah(2010) from Prince Nora
bint Abdulrahman University among 120 female student that student who take breakfast
regularly had beneficia impact on nutritional status. Therefore, sahur that strongly
134

recommended by the Prophet during fasting stressed that breakfast meal is vital in persons
daily life as it will enhance their daily task performances.
Thirdly, the Prophet had revealed the best form of sahur, which are dates, water and
powdered barley (sawiq) as this narration:
The Prophet said, What a good sahur for the believer is
dates. (Sunan Abi Dawud)
Suhoor is a blessed meal, so do not omit it, even if one of you
only takes a sip of water, for Allaah and His angels send
blessings on those who eat suhoor. (Musnad Ahmad)
Narrated by Anas: At a time when dawn, the Prophet said to
me: "O Anas, I want to fast, so give me something I can
eat. Anas said: So I immediately took the dates and a glass of
water, when the muezzin notify the arrival of dawn.At that time
the Prophet said: "O Anas, look for someone who wants to join
me in sahur. Anas said: so I immediately called Zaid bin Thabit.
Zaid said to the prophet, I have been drinking the nectar sawiq
and I intend to fast.Rasulullah saw, I was also intending to fast
'He then asked Zaid to eat morning. After that, he does two
rakàhs recommended dawn. He then immediately go to the
mosque for morning prayer. (Sunan Nasaie)
This hadith mentioned the significance of taking dates fruit in sahur. In elaboration of
hadith, Imam al-Abadi did not mention specifically about significance of dates (tamar). But,
prophet was mentioned about the importance tamar.
Narrated by Aishah, Prophet Muhammad saw said, the home
without dates, will Narraeted Aisha : The Prophet pbuh died
when we had satisfied or hunger with the two thing, i.e. dates
and water. (Sahih Bukhari)
Prophet Muhammad pbuh encouraged every fasting Muslim to take dates earlier
before their fast-breaking and sahur meal. The dates or its scientific name Phoenix
dactylifera has so many minerals and energy needed by human body, especially after a
elongated hungry and thirsty period. Its fruit replenishes energy and revitalizes human body
instantly after fasting day, and also provide energy to perform fasting. Dates are rich in
nutrients including minerals and vitamins. There are many health benefits of eating dates,
as they are free from cholesterol and are very low in fat. Dates are very good source of
protein and are rich in vitamin C, vitamin B1, B2, B3 and B5 and vitamin A1. There are 20
different kinds of amino acids, which ease the digestive process. Dates are rich in soluble
and insoluble fiber as it is important for the feeling of fullness it is among the high fibre
content food. In view of the long hours of fasting, so-called 'complex carbohydrates' or slow
digesting foods should be consumed in sahur so that the food lasts longer for about 8 hours
will makes the person less hungry during the day. According to the American Cancer
Society (2006), consuming 20-35 grams of dietary fibre every day is healthy for human
body.Dates also are energy boosters with naturally occurring sugars such as fructose,
glucose and sucrose that provide the body with loads of energy.
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Table 1: Dates (Phoenix dactylifera), medjool,Nutritive Value per 100 g (Source: USDA National
Nutrient data base) 1
Principle
Nutrient Value
Percentage of RDA
Energy
277 Kcal
14%
Carbohydrates
74.97 g
58%
Protein
1.81g
3%
Total Fat
0.15 g
<1%
Cholesterol
0 mg
0%
Dietary Fiber
6.7 g
18%
Vitamins
Nutrient Value
Percentage of RDA
Folates
15 mcg
4%
Niacin
1.610 mg
10%
Pantothenic acid
0.805 mg
16%
Pyridoxine
0.249 mg
19%
Riboflavin
0.060 mg
4.5%
Thiamin
0.050 mg
4%
Vitamin A
149 IU
5%
Vitamin C
0 mg
0%
Vitamin K
2.7 mcg
2%
Electrolytes
Nutrient Value
Percentage of RDA
Sodium
1 mg
0%
Potassium
696 mg
16%
Minerals
Nutrient Value
Percentage of RDA
Calcium
64 mg
6.5%
Copper
0.362 mg
40%
Iron
0.90 mg
11%
Magnesium
54 mg
13%
Manganese
0.296 mg
13%
Phosphorus
62 mg
9%
Zinc
0.44 mg
4%
Phyto-nutrients
Nutrient Value
Percentage of RDA
Carotene-
89 mcg
--
Crypto-xanthin-
0 mcg
--
Lutein-zeaxanthin
23 mcg
--
The other meal is Barley. There are many significance of the barley as the Sunnah
meal.Barley is one of several major cereal grains grown worldwide. Behall(2004) found
thatconsumption of barley would reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors comparably
with that of other sources of soluble. As a food, barley's long list of benefits include: 18
amino acids of which eight are the essential amino acids that the human body can not
produce, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium antioxidants, glucan, iron, copper,
phosphorus, manganese, zinc, beta carotene, vitamins B1, B2, B6, C, folic acid and
pantothenic acid. It also contains amylase, dextrin, phospholipids, maltose, glucose, sulfur,
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niacin and protein.According to the Drug Information Online website, barley grass contains
a range of B vitamins. These vitamins are essential to human body's ability to convert
proteins, carbohydrates and fats into energy (Hwaa Irfan, 2010). In the term of fasting,
barley taken during sahur will maintain the energy level throughout the day.
CONCLUSION
To conclude, Prophet Muhammad pbuh has teach his followers the righteous way in
sahur through the hadtih. Sahur is significant in training Muslims in every single aspect
such as the time for sahur to be taken, the sahur meal, and the practice of sahur itself,
which is full of bless. The sunnah of sahur is not only influence the physical performance
of a Muslim, it endorse their spiritual and divine life as well through the willingness of
awakening at the last portion of the night for sahur meal and other practice such as Quran
recitation, zikr, and night praying. The recommendation by the Prophet Muhammad saw
not only relevant to Muslims but to all mankind.
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Mawsuah al-Hadith al-Sharif al-Kutub al-Sittah. Riyadh : Dar al-Salam li al-Nasr wa alTauzi.
Ahmad, 2/12 and 44; and Ibn Abi Shaybah, 3/8; and its isnaads support each other. As
quoted in Fasting in Ramadaan, p. 39; Classed Sahih (authentic) by Sheikh al
Albaani in Saheeh al Jami As Saghir, Number 3683; as quoted in Ramadaan:
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Behall (2004). Diets containing barley significantly reduce lipids in mildly
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Dates nutrition facts(2010). Retrieved on 8 december 2010, from http://www.nutrition-andyou.com/dates.html
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Maktabah Ibnu sina, pp. 13-17.
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Taurat, Zabur, Injil dan al-Quran. (Ter.) Hajah Norazizi Abdullah et al. Kuala Lumpur:
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138

THE PHILOSOPHY OF FASTING IN PRESERVATION OF HEALTH:
AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Nurdeng Deuraseh*#& Hayati Lateh**
*Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
#
Corresponding author;E-mail:nurdeng@putra.upm.edu.my
**Pusat Pengajian Bahasa dan Linguistik, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
E-mail: yatithai@ukm.my
ABSTRACT
Preservation of health (hifz al-sihhah) is the most important branch of Islamic medicine. It is primarily
concerned with the prevention of illness rather than cure. It is of the utmost important to realize that
perfect health is a wish that humans crave for and there is no disagreement that health is one of the
Creators greatest blessings after faith. Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), in order to show the importance of
robust health amongst his followers, once said: There are two gifts of which many men are cheated:
health (al-Sihhah) and leisure (al-faragh). This hadith stresses the fact that Muslims should take good
care of their health and always strive to remain in a healthy state, the state in which human beings
function normally and in sound perfect condition: in healthy body, mind and spirit. In this paper,
attempts will be made to study the philosophy and role of fasting in Islam mainly in the preservation of
spiritual health. Fasting, during the month of Ramadan,is spiritual training, which iscompulsory for all
mature and healthy male and female Muslims. Nevertheless, the sick and the travelers are exempted
from fasting. Travelers have to observe fasting after the end of their journey and the sick when they
become well. For the preservation of health, the four Sunni schools state that if one is fasting and falls
ill, or fears the aggravation of his illness, or delays in recovery of his illness, he has the option to
continue or refrain from fasting. It is found that fasting in Islam is regarded as having two aspects-internal and external--and its perfect performance depends on the fulfillment of both aspects. The latter
is, as it were, the body of the act, while the former is its spirit. Should the internal aspect not be
performed, the act is merely a bodily motion and it is incapable of producing the desired effect on the
soul.
Prevention/Preservation of Health is Better than Cure

Islamic medicine in general and Prophet medicine (al-tibb al-nabawi), in particular,
emphasized prevention of disease rather than therapeutic medicine.2 In many occasions, the
Prophet (s.a.w) kept advising his Ummah to ask God to grant her certitude and well being.
The Prophet (s.a.w) admitted that, after certitude, no one has ever received a blessing
greater than health and well-being. This indicates that Islam honors good health, strength,
and well being and considered it as the most prized, precious, and generously gifts from
Allah (s.w.t). The Prophet (s.a.w) who was well aware that peoples might waste their times
when they are healthy, reminded them by saying: There are two gifts of which many men
2
The early of Islamic medical source, that was intended as an alternative to the Greekbased
medical systems, was known as altibb alnabawi (Prophetic Medicine). The authors of these
sourceswerereligiousscholarsandclerics,althoughafewwerecomposedbywriterstrainedboth
asphysiciansphilosophersand theologians.We cannotexpect theirwritings tobesimilar toIbn
SinasandalRaziswritingsbecause,asreligiousscholarsandclerics,preferredtraditionalmedical
methods of healing as practiced by the Prophet (s.a.w) in his days over the medical ideas
incorporatedfromHellenisticsociety.
139

are cheated: health and leisure.3This saying became true when we found that peoples
would not give full attention to preventive medicine as they would given to diagnosis and
treatment of disease. The Prophet (s.a.w) emphasizes the importance of preventive
medicine because of many reasons. First, Ìbadat (worship) cannot be concentrically
performed without good health and well-being as Abu al-Darda (r.a) had once voiced to the
Prophet (s.a.w): To be healthy and grateful is better than to be ill and endure patiently. The
Prophet (s.a.w) replied him by saying: Allah (s.w.t) loves healthy people, as you do. With
this in mind, an Arab came and asked Gods Messenger (s.a.w): What should I ask Allah
(s.w.t) upon concluding each of the five daily prayers?. Gods Messenger (s.a.w) replied:
Pray for good health. The man further asked: Then what? Gods Messenger (s.a.w)
reiterated: Pray for good health. The man asked again: Then what? Gods Messenger
(s.a.w) replied again: Pray for good health and well being in this world and in the
hereafter.4
Secondly, on the basis that healthy is the most prized, precious, and generously gifts
from Allah (s.w.t), therefore, preventive medicine should be given the same degree of
attention, and even more, as diagnosis and treatment of disease, because maintaining good
health is something for which Muslims are accountable to Allah (s.w.t). Consequently, it is
incumbent upon the grateful servant, to safeguard this blessing and not allow any change to
overcome it through ill usage. In the light of this command, al-Harith b. Kaladah, graduate of
the medical school of Jundishabur and a contemporary of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w),
in reply to a question as to what was the essence of medicine, had said: prevention.5 This
is in conformity with Arabian tradition: dirham wiqayah khairun min qintar al-ilaj: the
guardian, protecting and preserving personal well being was considered better than medical
treatment. In other words, a dirham (little amount) of preservation, prevention and precaution
are far better than a qintar (big amount) of treatment. Therefore, as Muslim, he should care
for his health and always strive to remain in a healthy state.
Based on the above, it would be interesting to mention the role of Islamic law (Shariah)
on preservation of health as explained by Ibn Hajar alAsqalani on medical care and
preservation of health. When he had studied the verses of the Quran relating to fasting and
al-ihram, he revealed to us that God had guided believers towards preventive medicine
when He gave permission for a patient to break the fasting during the month of Ramadan.
Similarly, the permission for Muhrim (the one who is in the state of ihram) to shave his hair
during al-hajj, is also for the purpose of preservation of health.6From these two examples, it
is not surprising to note that the Islamic law has given instruction not only for spiritual health
but it has a large number of rules concerning preservation of physical health. The various
rules and sanctions of the Shariàh concerning, for example, salah, zakah, sawm, hajj, ritual
cleanliness, foods, and drinks, sex and work habits and the organization of the environment
can be viewed as forms of preventive medicine.
Islamic Fasting and Preservation of Health
Religious fasting in accordance to the concept of din, which derived from the Arabic
root DYN, semantically means indebtedness, contributes significantly to the preservation of
health. Man is indebted to God, his Creator and Provider, for bringing him into existence and
maintaining him in his existence. Man is the dept to be returned to the Owne. By returning
Bukhari,Sahih Bukhari.8vols.(Istanbul:AlMaktabahalIslamiyyah),trans.MuhammadMuhsinKhan(Lahore:
KaziPublications,1979),KitabalRiqaq,BabalSihhahwaalfaraghwalaàyshillaÀyshalakhirah.
4
IbnalQayyimalJawziyyah,alTibb alNabawi.ed.ShuàybalArnautandÀbdalQadiralArnaut(Beirut:
MuassasahalRisalah,1985),216.
5
alQifti,Akhbar alHukama,(Cairo,1908),113.
6
IbnHajar,Fath alBari Sahrh Sahih alBukhari,13vols.(Beirut:Daralkutubalìlmiyyah,1989),10:1656.
140

the debt, it means to give himself up in service, or khidmah, to his Lord and Master; to
abase himself before Him by fulfill His Commands and Prohibitions and Ordinances, and
thus to live out the dictates of His Law. Corresponding to the demand of God, fasting in
accordance to the concept of being in debts and under obligation to God to fast during the
month of Ramadan, is one of many example of repay Gods debt. Fasting, in this regard,
has many primary significations for the preservation of health. Fastingis a spiritual training
which iscompulsory for all mature and healthy male and female Muslims. Nevertheless, the
sick and the travelers are exempted from fasting.7Travelers have to observe fasting after the
end of their journey and the sick when they become well. For the preservation of health, the
four Sunni schools state that if one is fasting and falls ill, or fears the aggravation of his
illness, or delays in recovery of his illness, he has the option to continue or refrain from
fasting.8In this condition, Iftar is not incumbent upon him. But when there is likelihood of
death or loss of any of the senses, iftar is obligatory upon him and his fasting is not valid. In
light of this view, the fatwa committee of al-Azhar issued the fatwa that a person suffering
from a heart problem, whom the physicians have recommended not to fast, is encouraged to
follow the doctors advice and to fast only after recovery, or give two meals to one poor
person for each day of the fast he misses.9The justification of this is based on the following
verse:
Fasting is for a fixed number of days, but if any of you is ill, or on a journey, the
prescribed number should be made up from the days later. For those who can do it with
hardship is a ransom, the feeding of one that is indigent. But he that will give more of his
own free will, it is better for him. And it is better for you that you fast.10
Fasting For the Sake of God May Control Devil Desires
The preservation of health may understand if we ponder the philosophy of fasting by
abstaining from all kinds of food and drink from down to sunset. When a Muslim is hungry
and food is in front of the eyes and within his reach, but he does not eat because he is
fasting in obedience to Allah (s.w.t). Similarly, a Muslim is thirsty and water is everywhere,
but refrains from drinking because of fasting in obedience to Allah (s.w.t). Logically
speaking, once a Muslim is trained to control his desire for food, water and sex, which in fact
are the strongest desires of man, he can easily control other desires.11If man is trained
through fasting to control his strong desires, he can surely succeed in controlling minor
desires, such as the desire for consuming drugs, intoxicating drink and unlawful sexual
intercourse, etc.12 Malik Badri, like other prominent Muslim scholars, in principle, agree on
this issue:
It is during this month that many Muslims generate the necessary will and motivation to
change their lives by stopping to take alcohol, drugs or smoking or to abstain from
7
8
SayyidSabiq,Fiqh alSunnah,3vols.(Beirut:DaralKitabalÀrabi,1985),1:438439.
Ibn alQayyim, Zad alMaad fi Hady Khayr alIbad, ed. Shuaib alArnaut and Abd alQadir alArnaut. 5
vols. (Beirut: Muassasah alRisalah, 1988), 4: 6; Ibn Qudamah, alMughni (Riyadh: Maktabah alRiyad al
Hadithah,1981),13:147148.
Mahmud Shaltut, alIslam Àqidah wa Shariàh, (Cairo: Dar alShuruq, 1992), 11015; Cf. Vardit
RisperChaim,Islamic Medical Ethics in the Twentieth Century,(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1993),56.
10
AlBaqarah(2):184.
AlGhazali, IhyaUlum alDin. 6 vols, (Beirut: Dar alKitab alÀrabi, n.d), 1: 95. In this regard, the Prophet
(s.a.w)saysinhishadithQudsithatAllahsaysaboutthefastingperson.Hehaslefthisfood,drinkanddesire
forMysake.ThefastisforMe.So,Iwillreward(thefastingperson)foritandtherewardofgooddeedsis
multipliedtentimes.See,alBukhari,Sahih Bukhari,,KitabalSawm,Babhalyaqulinnisaimidhashutima,
3,hadithno118.
12
AlGhazali,Ihya,1:485.
11
141

promiscuity and opt for tranquil life of marriage. In a study on the efficacy of spiritual healing
to Sudanese alcohol abusers which I carried out for the first WHO meeting on The
promotion and development of traditional medicine which was held in Geneva (Technical
Report, Series 622, WHO, 1978), I found that almost all the alcohol abusers of my sample
were able to totally abstain during the fasting month of Ramadan. Very few of them took a
little alcohol during the early nights of the month to avert withdrawal symptoms. Many of
those who have eventually achieved total sobriety were those who had sustained this
Ramadan abstinence for good. Towards the end of the month, many of them felt so
determinate not to lose their new divine enlightenment and improved health that they found it
necessary to perform a solemn Quranic oath not to relapse. The writer found that an
appreciable number were able to resist relapsing a number of years after they decided to
stop alcohol intake.13
Again Malik Badri observes that fasting is one of the important means to minimize
the crime rate in Muslim countries during the month of Ramadan. He writes:
Police records of theft and house breaking, rape, car accidents, drunken
aggression, and similar crimes show an obvious decline during this month in all
countries of the Islamic world.14
Three Grades of Fasting & Protection of the illness of Spirit and Body
In order to explain the philosophy of fasting in preservation of spiritual health, al-Ghazali
(504/1111) states that there are three grades of fasting namely lower, higher, and highest
grades of fasting. The lower grade is to refrain from food, drink and gratification of sex, from
fajr (down) till sunset. This is the common mans fasting (sawm al-awam).A higher grade
consists in keeping the members of the body from that of which God disapproves. This is the
fasting of the elect (khawas), i.e., the pious (salihin).The highest grade of fasting the mind
also fasts i.e., it refrains from all worldly thoughts and cares and remains engrossed in God
and the hereafter.15In analyzing all these grades of fasting, it leads us to say that fasting
enables us to protect the illness of spirit and body. This is because, besides abstention from
food and drink, a Muslim also abstains from doing evils in order to attain higher standards of
virtue. In this regard, the mouth, the eyes, the ears have to fast, in the sense that man should
not utter falsehood or any other indecent talk, not to see any lewdness and avoid hearing
anything wrong. Above all, to fast from any evil thoughts or ill feelings that might come
across his mind. Those who do not fulfill this minimum condition and indulge in morally evil
acts are the people about whom the Prophet (s.a.w) has said: Whoever does not give up
false speech and evil action, Allah is not in need of his leaving his food and water.16 Again,
Abu Hurayrah (r.a) reports that Allahs Messenger said: Fasting is a shield (or a screen or a
shelter). So, the person observing fasting should avoid sexual relation with his wife and
should not behave foolishly and impudently, and if somebody fights with him or argues him,
he should say twice: I am fasting.17 This hadith indicates that psychologically, the people
who fast will obtain a feeling of inner peace and tranquility.
13
MalikBadri,Aids Crisis: An Islamic SocioCultural Perspective,(KualaLumpur:ISTAC,1998),193.
14
Ibid.,192.
AlGhazali,Ihya, 1:428432;IbnalQayyim,Zad alMaad,4:334335.
16
AlBukhari,Sahih Bukhari, Kitab alsawm,Bab man lamyadaqawl alzur waalamal bihi fiRamadhan; al
Zubaidi, Mukhtasar Sahih Bukhari, hadith no 925; AlQaradawi, alMuntaqa min Kitab alTarghib wa al
Tarhib li alMundhiri. 2 vols. (alMansurah: Dar alWafa li alTibaah wa alNashr wa alTawzi`, 1993), 1,
hadithno568.
17
AlBukhari,Sahih Bukhari BabFadlalSawm,3:hadithno118.
15
142

Islamic Fasting Produces Wonderful Results in Preventive Medicine
It has long been known that great medical benefits, as a result of fasting, are widely
accepted beyond any doubt. Among these benefits is elimination of harmful fatty substance
from the blood, helping to cure of certain types of stomach ailments and the renewal of body
tissues as well as weight management. All these are achieved when the stomach, which is
the root cause of diseases, takes a rest during the day when nothing is consumed. This
enables the stomach to do annual cleaning and repairing of the body system. Medical
researches have found that when the stomach is empty, as a result of fasting, many kinds of
toxic matters and other unwanted chemicals likely to cause damage to the digestive system
and thereby contributing to various kinds of diseases and sickness are dissolved, burnt or
removed from the stomach.18Furthermore, although fasting is medically recommended for
weight management, Islamic fasting is not totally similar to diet plans because the type of
food consumed during Ramadan can be of any type, as long as it is halal. Everything that is
permissible is taken in moderate quantities during the breaking of the fast. Allah (s.w.t)
states: ...eat and drink, but waste not by excess, for Allah loves not wasters.19For this and
other reasons, many Muslim physicians observe that Islamic fasting produces wonderful
results in preventive medicine and in softening and dissolving excesses, which become
obstructive to intestines, which cannot be absorbed, or which the body does not expel easily.
Shahid Athar, a clinical Associate Professor of Internal Medical and Endocrinology at the
Indiana School of Medicine, says:
The physicians elaborate that food is needed by the body to provide energy for
immediate use. This is done by burning up carbohydrates, that is, sugar. Excess of
carbohydrates which cannot be used is stored up as fat tissue in muscles and as
glycogen in the liver for future use. Insulin, a hormone from the pancreas, lowers
blood sugar and changes it to other forms of energy storage, that is, glycogen. To
be effective, insulin has to be bound to binding sites called receptor. Obese people
lack receptors. Therefore, they cannot utilize their insulin. This may lead to glucose
intolerance. When one fasts, it lowers ones blood glucose and insulin level. This
causes the breakdown of glycogen from the liver to provide glucose for energy
needs and breakdown of fat from adipose tissue to provide for energy needs. In
light of this fact, fasting has been advised for effective weight control, but because
of its side effects, it must be used only under supervision of physicians.20
CONCLUSION
It is found that fasting in Islam is regarded as having two aspects--internal and external-and its perfect performance depends on the fulfillment of both aspects. The latter is, as it
were, the body of the act, while the former is its spirit. Should the internal aspect not be
performed, the act is merely a bodily motion and it is incapable of producing the desired
effect on the soul. Thus, a healthy person in Islamic medical law is not only by considering
the balance of each parts of body, but also spiritual and moral balance. Even if he is
physically healthy, his health is incomplete if he is spiritually and emotionally unstable. That is
why so many classical works on Islamic spirituality have major sections devoted to what is
called the secrets of worship, asrar al-ibadat, that is: the inner meanings of the Islamic
18
Shahid Athar, Medical Aspects of Islamic Fasting," in Islamic Perspectives in Medicine (Indianapolis:
AmericanTrustPublications,1993),145149;MukhtarSalim,alTibb alIslami Bayna alÀqidah wa alIbda`
(Beirut:MussasahalMaàrif,1988),3023;MuhammadNazimalNasimi,alTibb alNabawi wa alÌlm al
Hadith. 3vols.Beirut:MuassasahalRisalah,1991),1:2727.
19
AlAraf(7):31.
20
ShahidAthar,Islamic Perspectives in Medicine,145.Cf.;alNasimi,alTibb alNabawi wa alÌlm alHadith,1:
273.
143

worship. This indicates that bodily health and spiritual health go arm in arm in Islamic
teaching and the case may be made that psycho-spiritual balance and health is primary while
physical health is a secondary consideration.
REFERENCES
Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Ismail. (1979). Sahih Bukhari. 8 vols. (Istanbul: Al-Maktabah alIslamiyyah), trans. Muhammad Muhsin Khan. Lahore: Kazi Publications.
Al-Ghazali. n.d IhyaUlum al-Din. 6 vols. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Àrabi.
Ibn Hajar. (1989). Fath al-Bari Sahrh Sahih al-Bukhari, 13 vols. Beirut: Dar al-kutub alìlmiyyah.
Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah. (1985). al-Tibb al-Nabawi. ed. Shuàyb al-Arnaut and Àbd alQadir al-Arnaut. Beirut: Muassasah al-Risalah.
Ibn al-Qayyim. (1981). Zad al-Maad fi Hady Khayr al-Ibad. ed. Shuaib al-Arnaut and Abd
al-Qadir al-Arnaut. 5 vols. Beirut: Muassasah al-Risalah.
Ibn Qudamah. (1981). al-Mughni. Riyadh: Maktabah al-Riyad al-Hadithah.
Muhammad Nazim al-Nasimi. (1991). al-Tibb al-Nabawi wa al-Ìlm al-Hadith. 3 vols. Beirut:
Muassasah al-Risalah.
Mahmud Shaltut. (1992). al-Islam Àqidah wa Shariàh. Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq.
Malik Badri. (1998). Aids Crisis: An Islamic Socio-Cultural Perspective. Kuala Lumpur:
ISTAC.
Mukhtar Salim. (1988). al-Tibb al-Islami Bayna al-Àqidah wa al-Ibda. Beirut: Mussasah alMaàrif.
Al-Qaradawi. (1993). al-Muntaqa min Kitab al-Targhib wa al-Tarhib li al-Mundhiri. 2 vols. alMansurah: Dar al-Wafa li al-Tibaah wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi`.
Al-Qifti. (1908). Akhbar al-Hukama. Cairo.
Sayyid Sabiq. (1985). Fiqh al-Sunnah, 3 vols. Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-Àrabi.
Shahid Athar. (1993). Medical Aspects of Islamic Fasting," in Islamic Perspectives in
Medicine (Indianapolis: American Trust Publications.
Vardit Risper-Chaim. (1993). Islamic Medical Ethics in the Twentieth Century. Leiden: E.J.
Brill.
144

THE SPIRITUAL VALUES OF FASTING FROM CHRISTIANITY PERSPECTIVE
Ratna Roshida Ab Razak#
School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM
Penang, Malaysia
#
Corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Throughout history many ancient religions believe that some form of fasting or food deficiency has
spiritual remuneration and brings people closer to God. For instance, once a year Muslims around the
world fast during Ramadan, many Hindus and Christians believe that some form of fasting has
spiritual benefits. In fact, the Bible states that Moses, David, Jesus and Elijah fasted for up to 40 days.
Most religious or spiritual fasting is about refraining from food and drink from sunrise until sunset. Not
just in the religion aside, medical research also shows us that fasting can have many benefits.Fasting
is practiced by many religious faiths and is a great way to connect to your spiritual side. It is a practice
of humility and sacrifice, as opposed to acquisitiveness and desire. In short, fasting is a way to focus
the mind, body and soul toward more spiritual awareness.Human beings actually have the capability
of surviving without food for much longer than we realize. What do Jesus and Muhammad all share in
common? They are not just share the honor of being among the most powerful spiritual leaders in
their societies and are all known for their words of wisdom and guidance. But, there is another link
between them i.e. they all did spiritual fasting. Christian fasting is a concept that many people are
turning to in search for peace of mind, spirituality and getting close to God. Thus, this paper aims to
unearth some important aspect of spiritual value and spiritual growth according to a Christianity
perspective. This paper mainly intended to discuss the subject of fasting from the spiritual benefit and
not from a theoretical point of view.
INTRODUCTION
Fasting is an important act for the people in their quest for peace of mind and a
certain closeness with God. It has been practiced by members of every worldwide religion.
In this modern way of life, while technology-based lifestyles silently takes our spirituality
away, people would only turn to God, dire need and companionship when they find
themselves lost in the whole wide world. According to many Biblical references to
Christianity perspective, fasting is not an obligation and there is no set of rules or times as
the Muslims do. It is just expected from the Christian believers to do so. The Bible has
reference to Jesus saying When you fast, rather than If you fast in Matthew (6:17-18).
According to Shenoda, the Coptic Orthodox Pope in his Spirituality of Fasting through
fasting people are able to discover the strength and the power of the souls. The realization
of the benefits of fasting will lead to the blessing of God. Fasting is not merely a
commandment from God but, it is a godly gift, a grace and a blessing to those who are
coming closer to God. God who are the Creator for our body and soul definitely knows of
our need and the reason why fasting is highly recommended. In short through fasting, we
prepared our selves to receive every blessing that God offers us.
WHY FASTING?
As far as Christian is concerned, fasting should be done in order to get closer to God.
It is a great way to purify the soul and getting closer to God. It has been mentioned in the
Bible (Matthew 6:16-18) that when you fast, do not look somber as the hypocrites do, for
they disfigure their faces to show men they are fasting, but only to your father, who is
unseen, and your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you. From this verse
we can also understand that God does not accept fasting done to show off instead one has
to fast in order to solely get the blessing of God. It is not a public display, but an exclusive
business between you and God. If we scrutinize the teaching of Chirstiany regarding fasting,
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we will see how the prophets received the command to fast. For example: We hear the
Prophet David say:"I humbled myself with fasting;" (Psalm 35:13), "I wept and chastened my
soul with fasting"(Ps69:10) and "My knees are weak through fasting." (Ps109:24). King
David also fasted when his son was sick and" pleaded with God for the child" lying" all night
on the ground" (2Sam12:16). The Prophet Daniel fasted (Dan 9:3) and so did the Prophet
Ezekiel (Ezek4:9). We hear that Nehemiah fasted when he heard that "The wall of
Jerusalem is also broken down, and its gates are burned with fire."(Neh.1:3,4).Thus did
Ezra, the scribe and priest, fasting and calling upon the whole population to
fast.(Ezra8:21).The prophetess Anna "did not depart from the temple, but served God with
fasting and prayers night and day."(Luke2:3 7).
According to a pastor from Virginia, W. Frank Walton, Christian fasting is like the
practices of foot washing and the holy kiss. They originated in culture, not divine revelation,
as a cultural way to express an underlying principles. He further adds that fasting is not
obligation, rather a means to express regret for the mistakes done and as a way for
repentance.
Jesus himself confirmed that after his death fasting would be appropriate for his
followers, as he mentioned in Luke 5:35. Another thing to keep in mind is that fasting is not
just a means of starving the flesh. It does not refer to abstinence from food. More importantly
it is feeding the soul, and thus should be followed by prayer and deeds of goodwill and
kindness. When one fast, he or she actually fast for him or herself where which the spirit
become stronger and purer.He actually removed his focus from the physical worldly thing
and focused only on God. This is how fasting can contribute to potential and spiritual
healing.
TYPES OF FASTING
There are various types of fast. One may opt a fasting style that suits the health and
also the lifestyle. The various options ranging from an absolute fast to a television and
entertainment fast. For the absolute fast, one does not eat or drink at all and for the
television and entertainment fast, where you can feed yourself but must refrain yourself from
source entertainment such as television, magazines and novels. These effort are important
in order to seek the blessing of the Lord.
Fasting is a great period to let God know of ones problem. This is because it is a
time for the regretful heart to weep for and hoping God to hear. It is a time when people
come close to God. Fasting time is actually a time when God comes close, listens to their
prayers and hope. People tend to feel that God stands far away from them especially when
they are preoccupied with lust of desires and materialistic things. With fasting, one will
realize the benefits as well as the reason behind it.
A spiritual person will delight over the periods of fasting more than he does over feast
day during which he eats and drinks.
The true fasting is performed in order to train oneself in self-control, to follow for the
rest of your life. Self-control becomes a blessing for his life, not only during the time of
fasting but also during the time we break the fast, in front of the food. In this context, one
should understand that fasting is not a punishment but a blessing. Fasting became the
training of the spiritual school of martyrs, not only in the physical sense, but more importantly
from the inner self.
According to Christianity perspective, fasting are not only for our spiritual deeds,
repentance, and coming closer to God, but crucially they also help to evoke ones love for
eternity with Him. Man therefore is not fear when faced with death since he is always ready
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and prepare for it. Rather, man is happy that he is to rid himself of his body in order to see
the God.
FASTING AND THE BODY
Fasting is abstinence from food, for a certain period. The word fasting perse means
refrain or cessation from the food. It is therefore necessary to refrain from eating for a certain
period of time. The length of abstinence varies from one person to another because people
have different spiritual capacity. In this situation a beginner for example, cannot abstain for a
long time when compared with the well trained or the spiritually mature who can abstain for a
long time.
During the period of abstinence one should therefore not think about when and what
to eat. On the contrary, this is the time when one needs to elevate oneself spiritually. Those
who have experienced the spiritual benefit arising from hunger tend to extend the period.
However, one must be careful not to exaggerate in utter exhaustion that will end up too frail
to stand on own feet to pray. Such a person may choose to pray not for the purpose of
submitting to God but to seek comfort and relaxation for his tired body.
After the time of abstinence from food ends, one is not encourage to eat greedily, for
he who abstains from food, then eats what he covets, or chooses certain foods that he
enjoys, has not subdued his body, humiliated it, nor rid it of its lusts. This is important as to
show that one has benefited spiritually from the period of abstinence, a time of renunciation
and asceticism. As for the period and time of abstinence, it would be beneficial if one let the
feeling of hunger because fasting itself according Christianity perspective acquires its
perfection in toleration to hunger. This is because if one does not become hungry, one will
not understand the depth and meaning of fasting. One who hungers becomes aware of his
weakness and defeats his sense of self-delusion, from self reliance and excessive selfconfidence. Bodily humility and weakness finally leads a person to spiritual submission.
When the body is humble, the soul is humble and one will feel the need for support and
strength from God.
THE BENEFIT OF FASTING

Fasting benefits the body in several ways. Fasting helps treat many illnesses. This
scientist remarks that fasting helps rid the body of its toxins. Although the body gets rid of
many of them through its various methods of excretion, some remain and may be excreted
through fasting. The scientist also states that in fasting the body does not get enough food
and begins to dissipate its fats, grease, diseased and festered tissues, which are excreted
by the body.
Obviously fasting is a resting time for some of the organs of our body. It is a period of
rest for all the digesting and associated systems, such as the stomach, the intestines, the
liver, and the gall bladder, overworked by high consumption and composite food. For those
whom fasting regime is abstinence from taking non vegetarian foods, this will reduce
cholesterol, since it is well documented that fats and grease found in meat leads to an
increase in the blood cholesterol level. One who fasts will get rid of the problem of obesity
and flabbiness. In the case of overweight for example, the heart is overworked as it attempts
to send blood to the extra quantity of tissue in the form of excess fat. This extra quantity of
tissue is beyond that which God has needed him to support.Fasting, in the spiritual sense, is
far superior to physical treatment, for it treats the spirit, the body, and the soul all together.
If a person fasts out of his love for God, or a means to get closer and seeking the
blessing of God, his body will automatically benefits it.Needless to say that fasting bestows
health and strength. It is able to sustain ones health especially by freeing ones body from
147

extra fat, cholesterol and water. In the spiritual context, fasting is not merely a virtue for the
body apart from the soul, because any virtue requires the participation of the soul. Thus, the
function of the body in fasting is actually to train the soul and also to purify the heart. The
soul rises above the level of materialism and food, or worldly matter to the godly level of the
body. Through fasting the body will achieve the level of cooperation with the soul. Hence,
one who fasts becomes a spiritual and not a physical person.
Christianity emphasizes that fasting is not just a hungry body but an austere one.
Fasting is not merely bodily hunger and thirst but it is bodily elevation and purity. It is not a
body that hungers and longs for food, but a body that frees itself of the desire to eat and to
do prohibited act. In fasting the soul prospers and lifts the body up with it. More importantly
fasting is a spiritual time spent together by the body and soul performing a spiritual act.
Fasting is the bodily expression of abstinence from materialism and the longing for a life with
God. Through abstinence, the body unites the soul in its aspects of spiritual work. Through
fasting too the body becomes spiritual in attitude and takes on the appearance of the soul.
The body and the soul join in doing the work of the soul, for examples praying, meditating,
praising, coming and getting closer with God.
In spiritual fast, neither the soul nor the spiritual body is concerned about bodily
wants. Therefore, one will suppress through fasting to make the body conform to the soul in
its work and allow the human soul to unite in God's Spirit. As a result he will enjoy his life
because of God's love and fellowship should be our manner throughout our lives. However,
it should not be forgotten, that it is during our times of fasting that we deepen and strengthen
our training and preparation for this enjoyment of God for other times of our life. Thus, we
fast because fasting brings us close to God.
Therefore, one fasts for the sake of God's love and blessing. This can be obtained by
shunning worldly and materialistic things and make one ready for eternity and oneness with
God. Fasting to gain praise from others is not for God, is a rejected. Fasting without
repentance also is unacceptable. God wants a sincere heart more than He wants a hungry
body. A person's fast is not acceptable if his heart does not abstain from sins and his tongue
from evil words. One must in mind that fasting is not substituting one food for another, and
is not refraining from food for a certain period. All these are just means. What is considered
as the essence of fasting is to free and exalt the soul from its bodily needs and above the
influence of materialism. The soul and the body move in unity in loving and coming closer to
God. This is what is meant by a sacred fast, a devotion of heart, thoughts, and will entirely to
God. To have a spiritual fast, one is required a special spiritual planning to match its
holiness. One then will feel that he has entered a time of joy and started extraordinary days
of self training in living a life of perfection.
Fasting is a process to connect ones thought with God. The thoughts should not be
separate from God in whatever affairs such as business, work, studies, family
responsibilities on so on. Moreover, fasting of the body empower the soul, for the spiritual
action is associated with the bodily and mental asceticism. Prayers and masses during
fasting are more meaningful during fasts for they originate from a body, which has submitted
to the soul. Prayer during fasting becomes powerful since they originate from a heart
abstained from worldly things and a soul abstained from the worldly lusts.
Virtues accompany fasting. Fasting is a period of strong spirituality, a period for
loving and coming closer to God, and adhering to Him.It a means of elavating above the
worldly things to taste the heavenly matters. It is a period of sacred feelings towards God. At
least it develops and nurtures the feeling of closeness and communion with God. It is a
period of spiritual struggle: with self, with God, and against the Devil.
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From the depth of spiritual fast, one gains spiritual strength that sustains him during
his period of not fasting.Fasting should be spiritual in aim and motive It is not an obligation,
for praise, or out of custom. One fast for the love of God above materialistic and bodily
things, to give the soul a chance to grow.
Fasting should be a period of repentance and clean the heart: In it, a person leads a
holy life, acceptable in the sight of God, confessing his sins, reproaches himself and then
partakes of the Holy Sacraments. Fasting should be a period of spiritual nourishment
accompanied by an effective spiritual agenda: To use all the spiritual media available and to
concentrate on spiritual rather than bodily matters.
Needless to say that fasting leads to the strength of the spirit. Virtues which are
intermingled are gained through fasting. The Christianity emphasizes that fasting leads to
virtues and accompanies repentance because Days of fasting days are sacred and man
lives them in holiness. During these days, the mind, heart and body must also be sacred.
This can be achieved by training. During which ones attempts to approach God and at the
same time, sin pulls one away.
It is clear that fasting was accompanied by repentance and weeping due to ones
mistake and also the consciousness to get closer to God. Therefore, it is not mere
abstention from food. Rather, it is inner emotions towards God. Through fasting, man heart
is purified, and this purity continues with him. In all this, be ready to strive against the Devil.
Fasting accompanies prayer and worship: Fasting without prayer is a bodily act. As such, it
loses its spiritual nature and benefit. Fasting does not mean depriving the body of food,
which is a negative aspect. The positive aspect manifests itself in giving the soul its
nourishment.Fasting provides an opportunity for prayer. A prayer while fasting is more
profound than one hundred prayers conducted with a full stomach full and a voice jolting
mountains. Therefore, cry to God during your fast, lifting up your abased heart to Him. Be
confident that God will respond to your fast and clamour, and that when He reproaches the
winds and the waves, the sea will become calm. How deep indeed are your prayers if
conducted on sacred days from a humbled hearts before God through fasting and purified by
repentance. Train yourself while fasting in the love of prayer and the struggle with God. In
Chapter five, we have written out a up a guide for your prayer. It is important in prayer, to
submit your heart and thought to God. Fasting is accompanied by self-abasement and
weeping: Fasting is a period for a lowered soul before God through repentance and feeling
so little. Thus one becomes aware of its weakness, knows that he is form dirt and ashes and
appeals to the Higher Power. When the body is modest by hunger, the soul too is humbled.
Thus, it humbles itself while it bows down before God in submission and humbleness
confessing its sins. Humility softens the heart of God and all the dwellers of Heaven.
When a person fasts, his soul is engaged with inside work with God. The other part
of the body also fast, for example the tongue, mind, heart and so on. Therefore, if your heart
refrains from sin, your tongue will abstain from every evil word. Therefore, what is important
is for the heart and thought to abstain from every wrong desire assisted by the fasting of the
body, which is the least of all.
Fasting accompanies self-control. As for the person who only controls his food and
is controlled by his lusts, his fast is a bodily one. He who cannot control his bodily fast is
consequently unable to control himself from bad thought, lusts, and conduct. Spiritual
preliminaries, such as self-examination or any spiritual reading to soften the heart, may
precede prostration.
DRILLS WHILE FASTING
Spiritual drills vary from one person to another according to their requirements.
These drills may include things like resisting some weak facets in the life of a fasting person,
gaining certain virtues that such a person lacks, or spiritual longings pervading his heart.
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According to Shenoda, there are a few ways to repentance such as:
(a) Concentration on a point of weakness or a sinful act: Each person knows perfectly well
which sin he easily falls into and which sin he repeatedly commits and repeatedly referred to
in his confessions. Try to discard on of these sins while fasting. In this way, your fast indeed
becomes sacred.
(b) Train yourself to quit a certain practice while fasting. An example of this is a smoker who
trains himself while fasting to quit smoking. Likewise he who is addicted to drinking coffee or
tea and cannot rid himself of this habit. Likewise the person who is addicted by to watching
television, wasting his time, discharging himself of his responsibilities. The period of fasting
is an opportunity for to all of them to quit their habits.
(c) Fasting could be a period of quitting a sin of anger or opinion of others. Many people fall
into this well-known sin. Drills may deal with reducing a number of verbal sins that one may
have become accustomed to saying. In fasting, he may train himself in taking away them
one by one.
(d) Whenever you feel hungry and want food, reprimand yourself: Say to yourself: When you
give up this sin, I shall allow you to eat.
(f) Take your point of weakness and make it the topic of your prayers and the target of your
efforts during your fast. Concentrate fully to be careful and exacting and in resisting it.
d) Days of fasting are a good opportunity for confession and self-reproach inside oneself
before God and before your Father confessor. It is a period to be honest with oneself,
holding yourself accountable and for rebuke and discipline. Remember not to justify yourself
by finding excuses however trivial these may be.
(e) Train yourself in labour of humility which are numerous and about which we shall write a
book for you, God willing.
CONCLUSION
Fasting was established in mans doctrine before people became different nations. It
even goes back to the time of Adam and Eve. It is known in every religion. Fasting is a
process to connect ones thought with God. The thoughts should not be separate from God
in whatever affairs such as business, work, studies, family responsibilities on so on. In
spiritual fast, neither the soul nor the spiritual body is concerned about bodily wants.
Therefore, one will suppress through fasting to make the body conform to the soul in its work
and allow the human soul to unite in God's Spirit. As a result he will enjoy his life because of
God's love and fellowship should be our manner throughout our lives. However, it should not
be forgotten, that it is during our times of fasting that we deepen and strengthen our training
and preparation for this enjoyment of God for other times of our life.
REFERENCES
PopeShenoudaIII, H.H.(1990). The Spirituality of Fasting. Dar El Tebaa El Kawmia.
Spiritual Fasting. Reaching higher levels of Spirit. The Concept of Christian Fasting.
Retrieved
on
27
October
2010,
from,
http://www.spiritualfasting.net/The_Concept_of_Christian_Fasting.html
Raylen, S. (2011). Christian Fasting- Whats it all about?. EzineArticle. Retrieved on 10
December
2010,
from,http://ezinearticles.com/?Christian-Fasting---Whats-it--allabout?&id=659994
150

FASTING AND AYURVEDA
Adiga Shripathi H1#, Adiga Ramya S2
1
Department of Ayurveda, KMC, Manipal University, Manipal- 576104,Udupi,Karnataka, INDIA,

#
Corresponding author; e-mail:adigayur@gmail.com
2
Ayurvedic Consultant, w/o Dr. Shripathi Adiga, Aryavartha Hegde temple, Handady, Brahmavara576213, Udupi, Karnataka, INDIA,e-mail:adigayur@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Ayurveda, the authenticated art of Indian holistic medicine, manoeuvres mankind to head a
healthy life in order to pursue the fourfold bliss. With a view to combat physical and mental
annoyances, classics have explicated two fold therapeutic modalities; langhana /depletion and
brihmana / nourishing. Upavasa /fasting is one among ten depletion therapies thus explained.
And also, fasting is envisioned at all three levels of Ayurvedic therapies- rational/objectively
planned, psychological, spiritual. Fasting is reckoned to be refraining from four forms of food
intake chewing, licking, swallowing and drinking for a given period under a qualified physician.
Acharya Charaka describes fasting as the treatment of choice in diseases of milder intensity, in
those due to aama (metabolic toxin), after purificatory procedures etc. Sushrutha samhitha
delineates fasting in the contexts of treatment of fever, conjunctivitis, vomiting, cough, diarrhoea
etc. The classics opine that the fasting person should avoid; beautifying oneself, anointing oil, day
sleep, sexual acts etc., and feasting prior and ulterior to fasting. Fasting is however,
contraindicated in very young, elderly, emaciated, pregnant lady, soon after strenuous exercise
etc. The principle avers that fasting kindles the metabolic/ digestive fire which, in the absence of
food, brings about paachana of the vitiated doshas, thereby riposting health. Sound fasting
ensues: proper elimination of excretory wastes, clear belch, sweat, taste for food, contentment
etc. Ashtanga Hridaya of Vagbhata wondrously explains the benefits of fasting, viz; lucidity of
sense organs, lightness of body &mind, control of diseases & drowsiness, enthusiasm etc. Yoga
Shastra describes fasting with respect to three levels of food physical, impressions, associations
and a means to unite three bodies astral, physical, causal. Ayurveda thus advocates fasting
depending upon the dosha, agni, vaya, kala, bala etc., of the individual, as a preventive as well as
therapeutic modality. The realisms of the classics, thus, demand intense apprehension and
immense admiration.
INTRODUCTION
India, the salient land of ancient civilizations and treasured medical heritage, is the
abode of Ayurveda, the authenticated, codified knowledge system pertaining to life science,
health & cure. Ayurveda is the ultimate art of holistic medicine. The science reckons the
importance of health in pursuing the fourfold bliss, Dharma(righteousness), Artha(wealth),
Kama(gratification of desires), Moksha (salvation)(Das & Sharma, 2001).
The classics explicate that the body and mind constitute the substrata of diseases
and the vitiation of Vata, Pitta, Kapha, the somatic doshas and Rajas and Tamas the mental
doshas result in various diseases (Desai, 1999).The two fold therapeutic modalities
explained include: langhana or depletion therapy and brihmana or nourishing therapy. The
depletion therapy is defined as that which brings about reduction or depletion of the bodily
virtues, causing lightness of the body. It comprises of four types of elimination therapies :
(therapeutic emesis, purgation, decoction enema, nasal inhalation/installation), control of
thirst, exposure to wind, exposure to sun, consumption of digestive stimulants, FASTING,
physical exercise (Sastri & Pandeya, 2004).
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Definition:
Ayurvedic classics delineate fasting as Upavasa. It is defined as abstinence from all
the four forms of food chewing, licking, swallowing and drinking (Chakrapanidasa, 1999).
The act, however, should be executed in a systematic form, under medical supervision.
Contraindications during fasting:
Application of oil to the body and scalp
Beautifying oneself
Day sleep
Indulgence in sexual activities
Walking long distances
Smoking, consumption of alcohol etc.,
However, feasting prior to and ulterior to fasting is not recommended (Radhakanthadeva,

2002). Ayurveda advocates the intake of freshly prepared rice gruel, which is easy for
digestion and a good appetiser soon after fasting. The drugs to be administered during
fasting should be; light for digestion, hot, dry, subtle, fast acting/ sharp, fluid in consistency.
Principle of fasting:
The ash particles on fire reduce its intensity and thereby adversly affect the process
of cooking. Similarly.the vitiated dohas in the body, particularly the Aamashaya ( the
digestive viscera) reduce the intensity or impair the digestive fire and cause digestive
impairment, producing aama(metabolic toxins), which is the root cause of all diseases. They
together block the minute channels of the body, resulting in various diseases. Fasting, in the
absence of food in the viscera, however, brings about digestion of the metabolic toxins,
kindles the digestive fire, removes the blockage in the channels and there by aids in
minimizing the disease.
Signs and Symptoms of proper, adequate fasting:
152
Proper elimination of urine, flatus and faeces
Feeling of lightness in the body
Feeling of freshness/ purity of heart, throat and mouth
Proper belching
Disappearance of drowsiness and exertion
Appearance of sweat
Excessive hunger and thirst with taste for food
Tranquility of mind

Astanga hridaya of Vagbhata wondrously explains the same as the benefits of fasting
and further adds bestowment of clarity of sense organs, enhanced digestive capacity,
enthusiasm, decreased signs and symptoms of diseases (Kunte & Navre, 2000).
Signs and Symptoms of inadequate fasting:
Increased kapha dosha
Excessive salivation
Frequent expectoration
Loss of taste
Malaise
Signs and Symptoms of excessive fasting:
Cracking pain in joints
Cough, dryness of mouth
Anorexia, loss of appetite, excessive thirst, excessive belching
Impairment of the power of hearing and sight
Loss of strength, memory
The classics of Ayurveda, intricately explain that fasting is contraindicated in:
Diseases due to increased Vata dosha
Subjects with excessive hunger and thirst
Emaciated/weak, very young, very old, pregnant lady
Those with excessive anger, jealousy and such other psychological extremities etc.,
Fasting is indicated in the treatment of diseases such as fever, conjunctivitis, vomitting,

cough, diarrhoea, skin diseases, herpis,urinary disorders, obesity, diabetes, abscess,
splenic disorders, disorders of the head and neck etc., (Kunte & Navre, 2000). Adding to
this, Acharya Sushruta explains about fasting, in the context of indigestion and the diseases
due to aama. (Shastri, 2003)
Fasting is considered to be the treatment of choice in diseases of milder intensity.
Similie: Just as the atmospheric air and the heat dry up the small water bodies on the
surface of the earth, the act of fasting increases the air and fire components in the body,
which inturn, dry up the mildly vitiated doshas (Acharya, 1992).
Fasting should be associated with intake of digestive stimulant diet in diseases with
moderate intensity and purificatory procedures in those with maximum intensity.The duration
of fast depends upon the dosha involved; it is of longer duration in Kaphaja disorders and
shorter in those due to Vata dosha. Classics putforth the fact that a clever physician should
153

advice fasting to the subject until niraama lakshanas such as reduction of symptoms, proper
excretion, proper salivation, lightness of the body and mind etc., appear.
A healthy individual can benefit from fasting to the optimum level by observing it in
Shishira Rtu(late winter). This season is also best suited for therapeutic fasting and even in
the diseases due to vitiated Vata dosha. And also, the time of the day, the season, the
characteristic features of the particular land, the sevearity of the disease, the strength of the
patient , his age, are all to be considered while advising fasting (Kunte & Navre, 2000).
Ayurveda considers human beings to be the tripod of body, mind and soul. Thus, it
believes in three levels of therapies;
a) Yukti vyapashraya rational/ objectively planned for physical ailments- includes
various therapeutic modalities
b) Satvavajaya psychological for mental disturbances includes meditation, yama,
niyama etc.,
c) Daiva vyapashraya spiritual for ailments whose exact causes cannot be traced
includes subtle, religious, occult methods such as homa, upavasa, mantraetc.,
Fasting is envisioned in all the levels of therapies. Yoga shastra adds to the above
view and explains that a proper fast can bring about union of all three bodies: the astral
body/ spirit, the physical body and the causal body with the mind and emotions, thereby
optimizing the ability to reach a higher state of consciousness.
Ayurveda considers Upavasa also as aho ratri bhojana abhavaha i.e., the state of
overnight deprivation of food (Radhakanthadeva, 2002).The human body seldom cleanses
and rejuvinates itself by completing a mini-fast every night and eliminating the metabolic
wastes the next day. There is also mentioning of Upavasa as sarva bhoga vivarjitaha i.e.,
withdrawal from all worldly pleasures (Radhakanthadeva, 2002). These refer to the physical
and mental aspects of fasting respectively.
And also, the Yoga Sutras of sage Patanjali incorporates eight major limbs, of which
the fifth limb, Pratyahara, which literally means "control of ahara". Yoga Shastra describes
three levels of food;
a)
Physical food which nourishes the body
b)
Impressions , sensations which nourish the mind
c)
Associations - the bondage which nourishes our soul and influences the
satva, rajo and tamo gunas (Frawley).
Thus, fasting touches all the virtues of the tripod of human life.
Conclusion:
In the present global scenario, human beings are constantly exposed to numerous
toxic substances through water, air, food, medications etc., along with increasing life style
disorders and sensory overload.This increases the rate of toxin accumulation in the body.
There by, the natural process of elimination and cleansing is not sufficient to keep oneself
154

healthy. This boosts up the importance of fasting in both preventive and therapeutic
contexts.
Ayurveda advocates that langhanam paramoushadam i.e., depletion therapy, which
includes Upavasa / fasting is the best treatment modality, a physician should adopt. The
science owes such wondrous importance to this concept that separate chapters are
dedicated to the same in texts such as Charaka Samhitha, Astanga Sangraha, Astanga
Hridaya while Sushruta Samhitha, Bhavaprakasha, Bhaishajya Rathnavali etc., elaborately
explicate the same at various instances.
The realisms of the classics, thus, demand intense apprehension and immense admiration.
References
Acharya, J. T. (1992). In J. T. Acharya, The Charaka Samhita of Agnivesa. New Delhi, India:
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 246.
Bhavamisra. (2005). In Bhavamisra, & B. S. Mishra (Ed.), Bhavaprakasa (Ninth ed., Vol. 2).
Varanasi, India: Chaukhambha Sanskrit Sansthan. pp. 9-16.
Chakrapanidasa. (1999). In Chakrapanidasa, Abhinava Chintamani (P. Kishore, & S. D.
Nanda, Trans). New Delhi, India: Kendriya Ayurveda and Siddha Anusandhana Kendra.
p. 67
Das, B., & Sharma, R. (2001). In B. Das, & R. Sharma, Agnivesas' Caraka Samhitha (Vol.
1). Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p. 19.
Desai, R. R. (1999). In R. R. Desai, Ayurvediya Kriya Shareera . Allhabad: Sri Baidyanath
Ayurveda Bhavan Limited. pp. 18- 21.
Frawley, D. (n.d.). Pratyahara: the forgotten limb of yoga. Retrieved October 28, 2010, from
www.abuddhistlibrary.com:
http://www.abuddhistlibrary.com/Buddhism/H%20%20World%20Religions%20and%20Poetry/World%20Religions/From%20the%20Indian
%20Tradition/Teachers%20from%20the%20Indian%20Tradition/David%20Frawley/Praty
ahara%20-%20the%20Forgotten%20Limb/Pratyahara%20the%20Forgo
Kunte, A. M., & Navre, K. R. (2000). In A. M. Kunte, K. R. Navre, & B. H. Vaidya (Ed.),
Astangahrdayam. Varanasi, India: Krishnadas Academy. pp. 224- 229.
Radhakanthadeva. (2002). In Radhakanthadeva, Shabda Kalpa Druma (Vol. 1). New Delhi,
India: Rashtriya Sanskrit Pratishtana. pp. 260.
Sastri, K., & Pandeya, G. (2004). In K. Sastri, & G. Pandeya, Caraka Samhitha of Agnivesa
(Eighth ed., Vol. 1). Varanasi, India: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan. pp. 289-290.
Shastri, A. (2003). In A. Shastri, Susrutasamhita (14th ed., Vol. 1). Varanasi, India:
Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan. pp. 223-224.
155

BELIEF IN RELIGIOSITY, SPIRITUAL WELL BEING AND FASTING
Vipin Sobti#
Panjab University, H-1,Chandigarh,160014,India.
Corresponding author; Email: aasthasobti_2003@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
In a medical context fasting may refer to the metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and
absorption of a meal. Research suggests that there are major health benefits to caloric restriction.
Benefits include reduced risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, insulin resistance, immune
disorders, reduced morbidity and increased life span. According to Greek tradition (Sarri et al., 2003),
fasting periods contributes to an improvement the blood lipid profile, including a decrease in total and
LDL cholesterol and a decrease in cholesterol ratio. Many people have a personal belief that fasting is
a healing process and mode to maintain spiritual well being. Fasting is more common among people
with spiritual well being. Fasting is more common among people with spiritual orientation. Belief in
religiosity is closely aligned with participation in religious activities and fasting. Such subjects feel that
fasting enhances and strengthens personal and subjective resources promotes well being, leads to
better coping with stress and sustainable happiness. The aim of the present investigation was to
study the relationship of Religiosity and Spiritual Well being with fasting. For this purpose, purposive
sampling was done. 100 subjects in the age range of 30-40 years were recruited after confirming their
practice of regular fasting. They were administered measures of Religiosity & Spiritual Well being. In
addition, they were intervened to assess their cognitions about reasons for fasting & their belief
regarding role of fasting and their belief regarding role of fasting in promoting well being. In
conclusion, the paper will clarify the results obtained (positive relationship between the rituals of
fasting and spiritual well being) in the context of religious philosophy.
INTRODUCTION
FASTING, TYPES AND BENEFITS
Fasting is a multidimensional experience in which total bodys transformation occurs.
It is primarily the act of controlling the intake of some or all food, drink or both for a period of
time. It may be absolute or partial fast. Basically it is a body cleaning procedure during which
food is restricted and many times liquids in the form of juices, fresh fruits, teas or milk are
consumed and it is less harsh than other treatment plans. Now-a-days many chronic health
problems result from bad eating habits, bad diet (over nourishment and malnourishment)
and unhealthy life style. Every fasting method is suited individually to the needs of the
persons body, various cultures and religions. It is a safe preventive method to enhance
existing well-being as it has successful treating conditions like allergies (food and
environmental), aches, fever, cold bronchitis, asthma, fatigue, insomnia and many more. But
people with life threatening conditions, pregnant women, infants should be discouraged from
fasting.
There are many types of fasts
Strict fast means the abstention from taking anything into the body outside of pure
water, which is sipped in small quantities throughout the day. Fasts of this type rarely
exceed seven days unless under direct supervision by a medical practitioner or holistic
healer with direct experience in the field.
Dry fast most intense of fasts does not typically exceed three days duration
156

Food specific fast certain types of foods are avoided, eating only fruits and
vegetables.
Common fast usually involves consuming only water, diluted fruit juices, herbal teas,
and/or other liquid.
There is both a physical and a spiritual fast. In the physical fast, the body abstains
from food and drink whereas in the spiritual fasting the person abstains from evil intentions,
words and deeds including anger, rage, revenge, flattery, foul talk, lying etc. Saint Basil
(329-379 A.D., Doctor of Catholic Church) remarked by fasting it is possible both to be
away from the future evils (as much as you subtract from the body, so much you add to the
strength of the soul) and to enjoy the good things to come. We fall into disease through sin,
let us receive healing through repentance, which is not fruitful without fasting. Because of
this mental benefit has also been added when one reassert control to ones own mind.
Dr. Arnold Ehret (1866-1922), German Father of Naturopathy very rightly said
Fasting is the master key to mental and spiritual unfoldment and evolution. It is the single
greatest natural healing therapy. According to a Muslim proverb Prayer carries us half way
to God, fasting brings us to the door of His palace and alms-giving procures us admission.
There are several ways that religious beliefs can affect the degree of problems, stress and
strain that people experience and the ability to come out of it (Pargament, 1997).
RELIGIOSITY AND SPIRITUALITY

In the present materialistic world, interest in religion and spirituality has dramatically
increased both within culture, in general, and in psychology in particular (Worthington,
1998). The emergence of Positive Psychology movement has fuelled attention on the
question, to what extent religious and spiritual beliefs are related to behaviours in the
absence of mental health problems. Probing has also been done in the way spirituality is
related to positive emotional and psychological states (Joseph et al., 2006).
For many years, religiosity or religiousness has been considered as construct that
includes both internal and external aspects of religious thought and behaviour. Recently, the
concept of "spirituality" has taken precedence in reference to internal struggles in the search
for its meaning. Religiosity or religiousness is a comprehensive sociological term used to
refer to the numerous aspects of religious activities, dedication, and belief (Wikipedia, 2005).
There are several recent theoretical and empirical studies emphasizing the different
experiences and outcomes associated with diverse types of religiosity. Foremost among
them is the intrinsic versus extrinsic religious orientation (Wulff, 1997). Numerous studies
have explored the different components of human religiosity (Hill and Hood, 1999). Cornwall
et al. (1986) identified six dimensions of religiosity based on the understanding that there are
at least three components to religious behaviour: knowing (cognition), feeling (affect), and
doing (behaviour). For each of these components of religiosity, two cross classifications
have resulted in six dimensions:
x
x
x
Cognition
o Traditional orthodoxy
o Particularistic orthodoxy
Affect
o Spiritual
o Church commitment
Behaviour
o Religious behaviour
o Religious participation
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Spirituality, as typically defined, encompasses a search for meaning, for unity, for
connectedness, for transcendence and for the highest of human potential (Pargament,
1997). It refers to belief in a power apart from one's own existence and implies a connection
with a universal force transcending everyday sense-bound reality. It is also viewed as the
search for purpose and meaning within which ideas of transcendence and immanence form
an integral part (King et al., 2003).
Many researchers have concluded that both spirituality and religion are multifaceted
and are related to each other, and can be defined in a multitude of ways (McFadden, 1996).
Accordingly the consensus document from the National Institute for Healthcare
Research affirms spirituality as "the feelings, thoughts, experiences, and behaviours that
arise from a search for the sacred" (Hill and Hood, 1999). They have defined religion as (a)
the feelings, thoughts, experiences, and behaviours that arise from a search for the sacred
and/or (b) a search or quest for a non-sacred goal (such as identity, belongingness,
meaning, health, or wellness) in a context that has [as] its primary goal the facilitation of (a),
and (c) the means and methods (e.g., rituals or prescribed behaviours) of the search that
receive validation and support from within an identifiable group of people.
In the Webster's Dictionary (1988) the word "spiritual" has been described as a
synonym for "ecclesiastical" or "religious". According to Pargament (1997) religion is "the
search for significance in ways related to the sacred" and spirituality is "the search for the
sacred". Therefore, spirituality and religiousness represent both broad constructs, with
spirituality acting as the "heart and soul of religion". Thus, religion and spirituality are not
necessarily interchangeable terms but are related to each other.
Attempting to define Spiritual Well-Being, the National Interfaith Coalition on Aging
(1975) proposed that Spiritual Well-Being is the affirmation of life in a relationship with God,
self, community and environment that nurtures and celebrates wholeness. Spiritual WellBeing involves a religious and a social-psychological components. It is probably because
such terms as "spiritual" and "well-being" appear to have subjective meanings.
Spiritual well-being seems a continuous variable, rather than dichotomous. It is not a
matter of whether or not we have it, but a question of how much and in what manner we may
enhance the degree of Spiritual well-being that we have. Perceiving Spiritual well-being as a
continuous variable has enabled researchers to consider spirituality as having positive effect
on different dimension of health.
STRESS
The term Stress means many things to many people. The nature of stress has
undergone considerable changes over many years. It is also the non-specific response of
the body to any demand. Lazarus andFolkman (1984), stated that psychological stress is a
particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the
former as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and them endangering their well-being.
Stressors are circumstances that represent a threat, obstacles, loss or scarcity of
resources (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). A stressor is an environmental stimulus that
affects an organism in physically or psychologically injurious ways, usually producing
anxiety, tension, and physiological alterations.
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Stress Symptoms
When faced with a stressful situation, there are some internal and surface reactions
that occur which may be seen as the symptoms of stress.
Heilbrun and Pepe (1985), opined that checklist of stress symptoms is a response defined measure of stress in distress or stressful conditions. Coping styles vary from
problem focussed to emotional ones and different coping styles are used by different
individuals to manage stress.
GENERALISED SELF-EFFICACY
Bandura (1977), introduced the concept of self efficacy. The expectancy of being
able to cope with successive high risk situations as they develop is closely associated with
the idea of self efficacy. Expectancy has two components: (1) cognitive (informational)
component, which is associated with what a person "knows" or expects to happen as a
result of performing significant behaviors and (2) motivational (incentive) component, which
is related to the interest "reinforcement values" of the specific outcomes or effects. The
feelings of confidence to cope effectively with high risk situations is enhancing the
perception of self efficacy.
Self-efficacy is defined as the 'belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the
course (s) of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1977). It has been
related to both general and diabetes-specific health behaviors (Schwarzer, 2010). The belief
that one can succeed at something that one wants to do is known as self efficacy (Bandura,
1997). One decides whether or not to carry out a healthy behavior by deciding whether it will
achieve the desired effect and then whether one is capable of doing it or not.
Most people who hold strong religious beliefs belong to a religious organization and
attend regular religious functions, which provides the person social support system. People
do not feel alone in their struggle, both, literally because of the people who surround them in
their religious community and spiritually because of the intangible presence of their deity
(Koenig et al., 1999). Rituals and rites in religion help people feel better about personal
weaknesses, failures or feelings of inadequacy (Koenig et al., 2001). Religious beliefs can
give meaning to things. Many religions also encourage healthy behaviour and eating habits
through their prohibitions on such activities as overeating, drinking alcohol, smoking drug
use and sexual activity outside marriage may be by observing different types of fasts.
Thoresen and Harris (2002) believed religious belief enhances longer life expectancies.
Kaufman et al. (2007) suggested another mechanism to explain
spirituality/religion affect cognitive function other than by improving quality of life.
how
Religion, regardless of ones personal religious or spiritual beliefs, matters. McFaul

(2006) points out that while two out of every three people in the world belong to one of the
three major religions of Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism, there are hundreds of religions in
the world today. McFaul contends that religion is one of the major driving forces of the
future.
How people are impacted in their quality of life and their spiritual well-being both
when they are part of a homogeneous religious group and when they are part of a
heterogeneous religious group.
Religion and spirituality are intensely personal experiences, there is an important
social component that cannot be overlooked. A persons religious beliefs shape his or her
159

attitude towards life and towards others and are a large factor in most peoples philosophy of
life. Despite this internal, personal aspect, Donahue and Nielsen (2005) define religion as
an inherently social phenomenon. Religious and spiritual belief systems act as global
meaning systems and are pervasively present (Parks, 2005). The Pew Center (2002)
found that only 18% of Americans held their religion to be the one true faith, with a full 75%
holding that there were many possible path to eternal life. This openness to other religions
being viable and valid leads to the opportunity to test whether there is an impact on life
satisfaction and spiritual well-being.
A lot of psychological research converges in the topic: religion, relationships,
subjective spiritual well-being, and life satisfaction. The psychology of religion remains a
fairly contentious and fractured field with little overarching theory to guide it (Paloutzian and
Park, 2005), difficulty in operationalizing definitions of both religion and spirituality (Miller and
Thoreson, 2003), and little consistency in the measurement of religious and spiritual
constructs (Rippentrop, 2005). Despite the obstacles, a growing body of research points to
the importance that religious and spiritual beliefs play in multiple domains (Paloutzian and
Park, Miller and Thoreson).
Perrone et al. (2006) also examined how spirituality was linked to life satisfaction,
but focused on how it related to work and family satisfaction in gifted adults who were being
followed longitudinally. Perrone et al. (2006) found that existential well-being (a subcomponent within the Spiritual Well-Being) and life satisfaction were positively related.
Roemer (2006) took a different route in measuring the religious/spiritual component
when considering how life satisfaction and religious belief impacted people in Japan and did
not use a measure specific to spiritual well-being or religiosity, instead data was extracted
from the 2002 Japan General Social Survey. Roemer did find a positive relationship
between religion and life satisfaction among people in Japan.
In order to compare studies measuring life satisfaction and spiritual well-being or
religiosity across cultures, genders, and ages, psychology of religion and spirituality has its
greatest challenge for the present study with respect to fasting was undertaken.
HYPOTHESIS
1. Fasting group is expected to score higher on Total Spiritual Well Being and SelfEfficacy in comparison to Non-fasting.
2. Non-fasting group is expected to score higher on Stress Symptoms and Perceived
Stress in comparison to Fasting group.
METHOD AND SAMPLE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
160
General Self Efficacy Scale (Jerusalem and Schwarzer, 1995)

Stress Symptoms Rating Scale (Heilbrun and Pepe, 1985)
Spiritual Well Being Scale (Paloutzian ad Ellison, 1982)
Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen and Sheldon, 1998)
Religiousness was assessed on the pattern of Saroglou and Galand (2004) by
asking questions like
(a) Do you believe in God ?
(b) Is God important in our lives ?
(c) Is religion important in our lives and frequency of prayer and fasting ?

Sample comprised of 100 subjects in the age range of 30-40 years. The subjects were
recruited from among general population. Purposive sampling technique was employed. Half
of the subjects chosen reported to be fasting regularly. The other half did not practice
fasting.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The raw scores were obtained on Religious Well Being, Existential Well Being,
Spiritual Well Being, Stress and Self efficacy. Means, SDs and t-ratios were calculated. In
addition, the subjects were interviewed regarding religiousness cognitions about fasting and
impact of fasting on Well Being. 100% among fasting subjects reported their belief in God
and importance of God in their lives.
They opined that fasting and prayer is the greatest spiritual discipline and pathway to
seek Gods intervention. God is the main locus of control and belief in God gives them hope,
resilience and strength to resolve crisis and reduce stress.
Some also felt that fasting is a way to move God fulfill our desires and reduce chaos
in their lives.
Some other cognitions about fasting were :
x
x
x
It reduces fear of future

It strengthens relationship with God
It helps to cope better
Results in Table 1 reveal that fasting subjects scored consistently higher on

Religious Well Being, Existential Well Being and Spiritual Well Being as the significance of
difference is high in two (fasting and non-fasting) groups.
Balboni et al. (2007) findings indicated that 88% of patients said that religion was
atleast somewhat important. Patients who indicated that either the religious community or
the medical system was providing spiritual support reported significantly higher quality of life.
Actually influence of religion and spirituality on well-being is complex and subtle. Spirituality
contributed an additional 7% of unique variance over and above personality whereas the
effect of religious practices on subjective well-being was completely mediated by personality.
Walsh et al. (2007) concluded spiritual intervention can improve the recovery rates. Reiter et
al. (2007) indicated that no serious side-effects occurred as a result of prolonged fasting with
type I diabetes.
Means, SDs and t-ratios between fasting and non-fasting groups on Religious Well
Being, Spiritual Well Being, Stress dimensions and Self efficacy.
Table 1 shows clear cut difference among fasting and non-fasting groups.
1. Religious Well Being
Fasting group
Non-fasting group
(n=50)
(n=50)
SD
SD
41.73
9.9
36.8
7.3
2.5
.01
161

2. Existential Well Being
40.9
10.2
36.77
6.7
2.2
.03
3. Spiritual Well Being
83.08
19.5
74.57
12.4
2.4
.01
4. Stress Symptoms
38.84
19.4
51.87
16.7
3.2
.00
5. Perceived Stress Scale
17.25
4.5
19.73
5.4
2.2
.04
6. Self Efficacy
29.86
6.5
27.94
6.4
1.5
Fasting subjects scored higher on self-efficacy a belief in can do cognition. Stress is more
perceived in Non-fasting group in comparison to fasting group as fasting subjects scored
lower both on Perceived Stress and effect of stress measured by way of assessing stress
symptoms.
There are more than several research studies that illustrate the benefits of fasting.
The medical researcher Sir Robert McCarrison discovered patterns of health within the
subcontinent of India that correlated with their eating habits. As the nutritive value of their
food got progressively worse from north to south, so did the health of the people. He saw
that the people in the south ate more processed foods, stripped of their vitamins and
minerals, while the people in the north consumed more fruits and vegetables. McCarrison
developed an experiment with rats in which he mimicked the groups. He gave different
groups of rats varying levels of nutritive foods. After 140 days, the rats with a diet abundant
in nutrients were much healthier than the rats with a diet high in poor quality carbohydrates
and deficient in protein and other nutrients. His experiments provided a basis for
understanding the relationship between nutrition and health, and the need to have the right
nutrients, whether fasting or not, in order to sustain healthy living. (Chaitaw, no date)
A Norwegian research study tested fasting on rheumatoid arthritis patients. They
found that fasting was an effective treatment, but patients lost the benefits of the fast once
they fell back into their normal lifestyle and began eating unhealthy again. In this study the
patients took a fast for four weeks and maintained a strict vegetarian diet for a year
afterwards. The benefits of the fast included reduction in swollen joints, increased strength,
and overall better health. They were still evident at the end of the year. They found that there
was a substantial reduction in disease activity as well. The researchers concluded that
sustained long-term health benefits result from fasting and keeping a strict diet (KjeldsenKragh, 1991).
Hormonal changes are one of the many biochemical changes that take place during
a fast. Most of these changes are unpredictable and depend largely on your state of health
at the beginning of the fast. In a study by Kernt et al. (1982) they discovered a change in the
production of Growth Hormone (GH) by the pituitary gland. This is seen to have a positive
role in strengthening the immune system.
These three studies show how important our diet is to our well-being. It effects our
growth patterns and the health of our body systems.
The good news is that fasting provides an experience that simple words do not
convey. The whole body, mind, and spirit feel lighter, more focused, and more aware.
Energy levels, which may drop significantly during the first few days quickly rebound to new
heights. As stress and tension drains from your body, your Yoga is instantly improved by
allowing you to move more freely without obstruction.
162

Like a plant,
x
x
x
the body can be trained

to exist on nothing,
to take its nourishment from the air.
I would offer these final words of advice to you. Make fasting a very personal, very
important part of your life. This is when the true magic begins to happen.
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FASTING and

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FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

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FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

Since meals occupied important aspects in activities of worship,

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

The prophetic books in general embraced a careful

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

whenever presupposes a common practise of fasting, whereas the stipulation if,

The confrontational question was put

The Practice of Fasting in the New Testament, 456.

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

churches that demanded attention to be dealt with.

During the Patristic

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 108-112.

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

However, a handful of names in later

Berghuis, Christian Fasting: A Theological Approach, 147-150.

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

In the Protestant churches, the practices of

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

These narratives should therefore be regarded as

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

Several references to fasting in the Bible involve repentance from

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

The book of Jonah recounts another

One can say from this incident that

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

On numerous accounts, he was able to interpret dreams and visions

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010

Hence Jesus statement in Matthew 9:14 has been

Wallis, Gods Chosen Fast, 25.

FASTING and SUSTAINABLE HEALTH CONFERENCE 2010