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Biology Notes For Olevel

Tuesday, 29 January 2013

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Biology Notes For O-level

2013 (1)

Cell Structure and Organization

A cell is the smallest unit that can carry o n all the pro cesses o f life.
All o rganisms are made o f cells, o rganisms are made o f several o rgan
systems, each o rgan system co ntains several o rgans, each o rgan
co ntains several tissues; each tissue is made o f cells. Cells are very
tiny they co uld be seen o nly thro ugh a micro sco pe. We have two
types o f cells:

1. Planet Cells
2. Animal Cells

As yo u can see fro m the diagram, there are so me features fo und in

plant cells but no t in animal cells.

Features fo und in bo th plant and animal cells:

Cell surface membrane: T his is a partially permeable
membrane separating the cell fro m the enviro nment its
made o f lipid and pro tein, it co ntro ls mo vement o f
substances in and o ut, its stro ng but flexible.
Cyto plasm: T his is a jelly like substance, its made o f mo stly
water and pro tein. Metabo lic reactio ns o ccur in it.
Nucleus: T his determines ho w the cell behaves and it
co ntains chro mo so mes made o f strings o f DNA which also
determines which pro teins the cell sho uld make etc.
Features fo und in o nly plant cells:
Cell Wall: T his is a rigid layer surro unding the cell made o f

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Biology Notes For O-level

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cellulo se, it gives the plant its shape and prevents it fro m
bursting.
Chlo ro plasts: T hey are sacs which co ntain chlo ro phyll which
is a green pigment that traps sunlight fo r pho to synthesis.
Vacuo le: T his is a large ro o m in the center o f the cell, it
sto res sugars and salts and co ntro ls mo vement o f water in
and o ut o f the cell.
Animal cells sto re sugars in glyco gen fo rm but plant cells sto re it as
starch. Animal cells have an irregular shape but plant cells have a
regular shape.
Bo th types o f cells co ntain Mito cho ndria these are structures that
co nvert chemical energy in fo o ds to energy that co uld be used in
mo ving, dividing, etc., it is evidence that the cell is an Active Cell.

Specialised Cells:
Red Blood Cells:
Red blo o d cells are fo und in the
blo o d o f animals, its functio n is
to transpo rt o xygen fro m the
lungs to all the bo dy cells, and
carbo n dio xide fro m the bo dy
cells to the lungs.
T hey are adapted by fo ur ways:
T hey have a bico ncave disc shape that gives it a large
surface area to carry mo re o xygen.
T hey co ntain a chemical called hemo glo bin that co mbines
with o xygen and carbo n dio xide.
T hey have no nuclease to carry mo re o xygen and CO2
T hey are tiny eno ugh to squeeze thro ugh capillaries.

Muscle Cells:
T hey are cells fo und in
muscles in animals, they
co ntract and relax
to gether to mo ve the
o rganisms.
T heir functio n is to
co ntract to suppo rt and
mo ve the bo dy.
T hey are adapted by two ways, First, Is that they are made o f
co ntractile filament to help in co ntractio n. Seco nd is it co ntains lo ts
o f mito cho ndria to supply the cell with energy.

Ciliat ed Cells:
Ciliated cells are present in the trachea and bro nchi o f o ut respirato ry
system.
T heir functio n is to use their cilia to mo ve the mucus up the trachea
to the thro at. T he mucus traps bacteria and dust particles. When it
reaches the thro at, mucus is swallo wed to the sto mach where the
acid kills the bacteria.
T hey are adapted by
the tiny hair like
pro jectio ns called cilia
which sweeps the
co ntaminated mucus
upwards.
T he mucus is secreted by go blet cells which are next to ciliated cells.

Root Hair Cells:

T hese are cells situated in the

ro o ts o f plants. T hey co ntain no
chlo ro plasts.
T heir functio n is to abso rb water
and minerals fro m the so il. And to
ancho r the plant in the so il.
T hey are adapted by 3 ways. One,
they have an extensio n that
increases the surface area fo r
mo re water intake. T wo , they
have a large number o f
mito cho ndria fo r respiratio n to
beco me mo re active. T hree a
co ncentrated vacuo le to help
abso rbing water by o smo sis.

Xylem Vessels:
T hese are dead lignified cells that exist in the stem o f a plant.
T heir functio n is to transpo rt water and minerals fro m the ro o ts to
the leaves and the rest o f the plant thro ugh the stem. And to suppo rt
the plant.
T hey are adapted by 2 ways. Firstly, they are ho llo w to allo w water
and minerals to pass thro ugh them with no resistance. Seco ndly they
are stro ng and lignified to suppo rt the plant.
T he Divisio n Of Labo ur: the specialization of cells to carry out particular
functions in an organism.

Movement In And Out Of Cells

Substance mo ve in and o ut o f cells by three ways:
Diffusio n: T he net mo vement o f particles fro m a regio n o f
their higher co ncentratio n to a regio n o f their lo wer
co ncentratio n do wn a co ncentratio n gradient, as a result o f
rando m mo vement.
Osmo sis: T he diffusio n o f water mo lecules fro m a regio n o f
their higher co ncentratio n (dilute so lutio n) to a regio n o f
their lo wer co ncentratio n (co ncentrated so lutio n) thro ugh a
partially permeable membrane.
Active T ranspo rt: T he mo vement o f io ns, in and o ut o f a cell,
thro ugh a cell membrane, fro m a regio n o f their lo wer
co ncentratio n to a regio n o f their higher co ncentratio n,
against the co ncentratio n gradient, using the energy
released by respiratio n.

Diffusion:
Diffusio n is the pro cess by which o xygen enters the blo o d fro m the
lungs, and by which carbo n dio xide enters the leaf fro m the
atmo sphere. T here are many mo re examples o f diffusio n in bio lo gy.
Diffusio n always takes place do wn a co ncentratio n gradient, that
means that the particles that diffuse try to spread evenly in all
spaces, so it mo ves fro m where its very co ncentrated to where its
no t co ncentrated.
T here are so me facto rs affecting the rate o f diffusio n, like
the steepness o f the co ncentratio n gradient. T he steeper the
gradient the faster the particles diffuse.
T he surface area o f the exchange membrane also affects the rate o f

diffusio n. T he larger the surface area o f the exchange membrane the

faster particles diffuse.
T hickness o f exchange membrane to o determines the diffusio n rate,
the thinner it is, the easier it will be fo r particles to go thro ugh it, the
faster the diffusio n rate.
T emperature is ano ther facto r affecting the diffusio n rate, increasing
the temperature will give particles mo re kinetic energy, making them
mo ve faster, thus increasing the rate o f diffusio n.

Osmosis:
Osmo sis is the diffusio n o f water mo lecules. When we speak abo ut
o smo sis, we do nt say water co ncentratio n; instead we use the
term water po tential. A dilute so lutio n means it has lo ts o f water
mo lecules, and a high water po tential. A co ncentrated so lutio n has
few water mo lecules and lo w water po tential. Osmo sis has to take
place thro ugh a partially permeable membrane (o r Semipermeable)
this means that the Water mo lecules mo ve fro m a place o f their high
co ncentratio n to a place o f their lo w co ncentratio n thro ugh a
membrane with po res in it that lets so me mo lecules thro ugh but no t
o thers.

T he diagram sho ws two so lutio ns, o ne dilute and o ne co ncentrated,

separated by a semipermeable membrane. T he so lutio n o n the right is
diluted while the co ncentratio n o n the left is co ncentrated. T he water
mo lecules will mo ve fro m the right handside so lutio n where they are
very co ncentrated to the left handside so lutio n where they are o f a
very lo w co ncentratio n, o smo sis to o k place.
Osmo sis happens all the time in cells. If yo u place an
animal cell in distilled water. Osmo sis will result in the
water mo lecules mo ving fro m the distilled water where
they are very co ncentrated to the Cell Where they are
o f lo w co ncentratio n T hro ugh the cell surface
membrane. T he cell beco mes fat. As mo re Water
mo lecules enter the cell, the cell will eventually burst
and die.
If we do the o ppo site, and place a red blo o d cell in a co ncentrated
salt so lutio n, the water in the cell has a higher water po tential that
the co ncentrated salt so lutio n. Water mo lecules will mo ve fro m the
cell to the salt so lutio n causing the cell to beco me shrunken and
shrivel as in the diagram.

Hypotonic Solution

Isotonic Solution

Hypertonic Solution

Animal
Cell

Plant
Cell

In plant cells, if a plant cell is placed in distilled water, water

mo lecules will mo ve fro m the distilled water to the cell, the cell
swells up and beco mes turgid but it will never burst because plant
cells are surro unded by cell walls, which are made o f cellulo se and is
elastic, it will stretch but never break, the cell beco mes turgid.
If we place a plant cell in a co ncentrated salt so lutio n whith lo w
water po tential, water will mo ve fro m the cell to the so lutio n causing
the cell to beco me plasmo lysed as in the diagram.

Active T ransport:
Active transpo rt o ccurs in cells, it is basically the mo vement o f
mo lecules o r io ns fro m a regio n o f their lo w co ncentratio n to a
regio n o f their high co ncentratio n (against the co ncentratio n
gradient) using energy o f respiratio n. Active transpo rt o ccurs in
living, active cells o nly because it needs energy, these cells usually
have a structure called mito cho ndria which respires pro ducing energy
to be used in active transpo rt.

Active transpo rt happens in ro o ts to abso rb mineral salts fro m the

so il. It also o ccurs in the digestive system o f mammals.
If o xygen is absent, respiratio n wo nt take place, active transpo rt will
sto p. Mo lecules are taken into the cell by pro tein carriers within the
cell membrane.

Enzymes
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are prot eins t hat funct ion as a biological cat alyst .
They are prot eins in nat ure.
A cat alyst is a subst ance t hat speeds up a chemical react ion
but isnt changed by t he react ion.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a subst ance t hat decomposes
int o Wat er (H2O) and Oxygen (O2) if it is left in room
t emperat ure for a period of t ime. This react ion could a long
t ime, but it could be sped up if we add a cat alyst . Each
cat alyst can cat alyse a specific subst ance and not hing but it .
The cat alyst for Hydrogen peroxide is called Manganese4
oxide. If it is added we will get wat er and oxygen gas in a very
short t ime, and t he manganese4 oxide could be obt ained
again as it was, it remains unchanged.

How Do Enzymes Work?

Enzymes work t he same way as cat alyst s do, t hey can work wit h only one subst rat e
and t hey can be used more t han once.
Enzymes have a st ruct ure t hat is called act ive sit e. Only one subst ance can fit int o
t he act ive sit e t o be digest ed, and it is t he only subst rat e t hat t his part icular
enzyme works wit h.
ht t p://www.xt remepapers.com/images/gcse/biology/enzymes/enzyme_lock_key.png

The figure above shows t he funct ion of enzymes:

The subst rat e ent ers t he act ive sit e of t he enzyme.
The react ion t akes place.
The subst rat e exit s t he enzyme as t wo simpler product s.
You can also t hink of t he way enzymes work as a key and a lock, t he key is t he
subst rat e and t he lock is t he enzyme. The key should be exact ly t he right shape t o
fit in t he lock, so does t he subst rat e t o fit in t he act ive sit e of t he enzyme. The key
could only open only one lock, and t he lock could be unlocked by only t hat key.
Enzymes are t wo t ypes, Builders and Breakers. Builder enzymes do t he opposit e of
breaker enzymes. Breakers break large molecules int o smaller simpler ones, builders
combine smaller ones t o make large molecules.
Breaker enzymes are used in t he digest ive syst em t o break down large insoluble
molecules int o simpler soluble ones t o be used by t he body. They are also present
in cells t hat respire t o break down sugars and oxygen int o carbon dioxide, wat er and
energy. Builder enzymes are present in plant s t o be used in phot osynt hesis, t he
opposit e of respirat ion, in phot osynt hesis, oxygen and wat er are combined
t oget her t o form carbon dioxide and sugars.
Naming enzymes depends on t he subst rat e t hey work on. For example:
The sucrase enzyme works on sucrose.
The malt ase enzyme works on malt ose.
Enzymes are reusable and are only affect ed by t he change in t emperat ure and pH.

Affect of temperature on the enzymes activity:

Each enzyme has an opt imum t emperat ure, t his is t he t emperat ure at which t he
enzyme is most act ive, below t his t emperat ure t he act ivit y of t he enzyme
decreases unt il it becomes inact ive at low t emperat ures, above t his opt imum
t emperat ure t he enzyme becomes denat ured and can no longer work.
At low t emperat ures t he enzyme is and t he subst rat e are moving very slowly and
collide weakly, t he enzyme is said t o be inact ive and doesnt work. As t he
t emperat ure increases, t he enzyme and subst rat e gain more kinet ic energy and
move fast er colliding more, t he enzyme becomes more act ive and t he react ion
t akes place. When t he enzyme reaches it s opt imum t emperat ure, it is in it s most
act ive mood, if t he t emperat ure crosses t he opt imum t he enzyme begins t o die
and become denat ured. The enzymes become denat ured when t he shape of t heir
act ive sit e changes as a result of high t emperat ure, t hus t he subst rat e cannot fit
int o t he act ive sit e and t he enzyme is useless.
Each enzyme has it s own opt imum t emperat ure, enzymes in humans have opt imum
t emperat ures of around 40 degrees. Plant s have enzymes wit h opt imum
t emperat ure of about 25 degrees.

T he Effect of pH on the enzymes activity:

As in t emperat ure, enzymes have an opt imum pH. The pH is a scale measuring t he

acidit y or alkalinit y of a subst ance or solut ion. The scale runs from 1 t o 14. pH 7 is
neut ral, below t hat it is acidic and above t hat it is alkaline.
Each enzyme has an opt imum pH, if t his pH changes, t he shape of t he act ive sit e of
t he enzyme is changed, t hus t he subst rat e will not be able t o fit in it , and t he
enzyme becomes useless.

Uses Of Enzymes In Seeds Germination:

Seeds grow int o plant s by germinat ing. Seed germinat ion involves enzymes
breaking t he mat erials st ored in t he seed down t o be used in growt h, energy and
building cells. The seed cont ains st ored subst ances such as:
Starch: St arch is broken down by amylase enzyme int o malt ose, malt ose
is t hen broken down by malt ase enzyme int o glucose which is used in
respirat ion.
Pro teins: Prot eins are broken down int o amino acids by Prot ease
enzyme, amino acids are used in building up cells and growt h.
Fats: Fat s are broken down int o fat t y acids by lipase enzyme, t hey are
used in making cell membranes.
In order for a seed t o germinat e, some condit ions must be present :
Water: To act ivat e t he enzymes.
Oxygen: To be used for respirat ion.
Warm T emperature: For providing t he best condit ions for enzymes t o
work and opt imum t emperat ure.

Uses Of Enzymes In Biological Washing Powders:

Washing powders cont ain det ergent s t hat help in cleaning
clot hes by dissolving st ains in wat er. Some st ains are
made of insoluble subst ance, t hese cannot be removed by
normal washing powders, inst ead, a biological washing
powder is used.
Biological washing powders cont ain enzymes t hat break
down t he insoluble st ain int o smaller soluble subst ances,
which are t hen dissolved in t he wat er.
For example, if your shirt get s st ained by egg yolk or
blood, t here is an enzyme called prot ease in t he washing
powder t hat will break down t he insoluble prot ein int o
amino acids, which are dissolved in t he wat er and sucked
away. Thus t he shirt becomes clean.
The best removal of st ains is maint ained by providing t he opt imum t emperat ure for
enzymes, presoaking t o leave t ime for t he enzymes t o digest , put t ing t he suit able
amount of t he powder.

Use Of Enzymes In Food Industry:

Enzymes are oft en used in t he manufact uring of different foods.

Baking Brewing Cheese Making:

In baking, bot h yeast and sugar are used. Yeast cells cont ain enzymes
t hat ferment sugar by anaerobic respirat ion producing carbon dioxide
bubbles which causes t he dough t o rise as in t he phot o.
Brewing is t he process of making wine or beer. In t his process
ferment at ion is Involved producing alcohol which and carbon dioxide
t hat gives wine and beer it s sparkle.
In making cheese, an enzyme called rennin ext ract ed in enzymes,
helps by clot t ing milk.

Making Juices:
In fruit s such as apples or oranges, a subst ance called pect in holds t he cells
t oget her making it
hard t o squeeze t hem. An enzyme called pect inase digest s pect in making it
much easier t o squeeze t he fruit and t o make t he juice more clear t han
cloudy.

Making Baby Foods:

It is hard for new born babies t o digest food such as high prot ein foods. That is why
foods like t hat are t reat ed wit h prot eases t o break down prot ein t o amino acids,
making it easier for newborns t o absorb and assimilat e t hem.

Making Sugar:
Sugar producing companies get sugar from st arch by using t he amylase enzyme t o
digest st arch int o malt ose. For diet ers a sugar called fruct ose is very useful
because it provides a sweat er t ast e t han ot her sugars from a less quant it y.
Fruct ose can be obt ained by using t he isomerase enzyme t o convert glucose t o
fruct ose.

Meat And Leat her Product ion:

Prot eases are used t o make meat less t ough and accept able for consumers by
t reat ing cut s of meat .
In leat her indust ries hairs are removed from animal skin by digest ing t hem using
prot ease enzymes.

Enzymes Extraction:
The Enzymes used in t he indust ries are t aken from eit her fungi or bact eria. This
t akes place in a Fermenter, t his is a large st erilized cont ainer wit h a st irrer, a pipe
t o add feedst ock and air pipes.
The following st eps t ake place:
The micro-organisms and t he feedst ock are added and t he liquid is
maint ained at 26 degrees and pH of 5-6.
The micro-organisms produce t wo t ypes of enzymes, eit her ext ra-cellular
or int ra-cellular.
Ext ra-cellular enzymes are ext ract ed from t he feedst ock by filt ering.
Int ra-cellular enzymes are ext ract ed by filt ering t he micro-organisms from
t he feedst ock, crushing t hem, wash t hem wit h wat er t hen ext ract ing t hem
from t he solut ion.

Enzymes And Antibiotics:

Ant ibiot ics are powerful medicines t hat fight bact erial infect ions. Micro-organisms
are used for t he product ion of ant ibiot ics.
Some Ant ibiot ics, like bact ericides, fight bact eria by damaging it s cell walls causing
t hem t o burst and die. Ot her ant ibiot ics int erfere wit h t he prot ein synt hesis and
st op t he bact eria growing.
Ant ibiot ics have no effect on human cells because human cells have no cell walls and
t he st ruct ures involved in prot ein product ion are different t han t hat of bact eria.
Ant ibiot ics are obt ained from sources like:
Bacteria (Actino bacterium Strepto myces): t his bact erium
produces t he ant ibiot ic st repmycin.
Fungi (Penecillum fungus): penicillin, t he first ant ibiot ic discovered is
produced by t hing fungus.
Different t ypes of penicillin are produced by different species of t he fungus. They
are chemically alt ered in lab t o make t hem more effect ive and make t hem able t o
work wit h different diseases.
St eps of product ion:
1. The Ferment ing t ank in filled wit h nut rient solut ion of sugar (lact ose) or corn

liquor which cont ain sugars and amino acids,

2. Minerals are added,
3. pH is adjust ed around 5 or 6,
4. Temperat ure is adjust ed about 26 degrees,
5. The liquid is st irred and air is blown t hrough it ,
6. The micro-organisms are added and allowed t o grow for a day or t wo in st erile

condit ions,
7. When t he nut rient supply is decreased, micro-organisms secret e t heir

ant ibiot ics,

8. The fluid cont aining t he ant ibiot ic is filt ered off and t he ant ibiot ic is ext ract ed.

Nutrition
Nut rit ion is t aking in nut rient s which are organic subst ances and mineral ions,
cont aining raw mat erials and energy for growt h and t issue repair, absorbing and
assimilat ing t hem. Nut rit ion is one of t he charact erist ics of living organisms. All
organisms do it , t hey do it t o obt ain energy for vit al act ivit ies and raw mat erials
needed for growt h and repair.
Every Individual needs t o t ake in a
cert ain amount of each nut rient
daily, depending on t heir age, size,
sex and act ivit y.
There are 7 Types of nut rient s,
t hese are:
Carbohydrat es
Prot eins
Fat s
Vit amins
Minerals
Roughages
Wat er
Carbohydrat es, prot eins, fat s and vit amins are all organic subst ances. This means
t hat t hey are made by living organisms (plant s) and cont ain carbon at oms in t heir
st ruct ures. Plant s make organic subst ances from inorganic mat erials like carbon
dioxide, wat er and inorganic minerals. Animals are unable t o do t his.

Carbohydrates:
This nut rient is an organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Funct ion:
It is used as an energy resource, essent ial in respirat ion t o release energy.
It is used in creat ing t he cellulose, t he subst ance forming cell walls of plant cells.
Carbohydrat es are 3 t ypes:

Monosaccharides:
The smallest and simplest form
Wat er soluble
Chemical formula C6H12O6
Examples: Glucose-Fruct ose-Galact ose
Sources: Fruit s-Honey

Disaccharides:
Each molecule consist s of t wo Monosaccharide joined
t oget her
Wat er soluble
Examples: Lact ose-Sucrose-Malt ose
Sources: Table sugar- Milk

Polysaccharides:
Each molecule has many joined monosaccharide forming
a long chain.
Insoluble in wat er
Examples: St arch-Glycogen-Cellulose
Sources: Bread-Pot at oes-Past a, Cellulose in plant cells
and Glycogen in livers.
Monosaccharide and Disaccharides are sugars, t hey are reducing for Benedict s
reagent , except for t he disaccharide sucrose, it is non-reducing.
Polysaccharides are not considered as sugars and dont have a sweet t ast e. Excess
polysaccharides are st ored in t he liver and muscles.

Lipids (Fats):
These are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. But t heir rat ios are different
t han t hat of carbohydrat es. One fat molecule is made of a glycerol unit and t hree
molecules of fat t y acids.

Fat s are essent ial in a diet because t hey are needed t o:

Release high amount s of energy
Make cell membranes
St ore t hem under t he skin t o insulat e heat .
Forming a layer of fat s around organs t o prot ect t hem from damage
St oring energy (bet t er t han glycogen)

When fat s are respired, t hey produce about t wice as much energy as
carbohydrat es.

Proteins:
These are also organic compounds; t hey cont ain t he element s Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, Nit rogen and somet imes Phosphorus or Sulfur.
A molecule of prot ein is a long chain of simpler unit s called amino acids.

These amino acids are linked t oget her by what 's called pept ide bond.
Types of prot ein:
Animal Pro tein: It cont ains t he most biological value because it
cont ains all essent ial amino acids (Meat , Milk, Fish, Eggs et c).
Plant Pro tein: It cont ains a lower biological value t o humans because it
cont ains fewer essent ial amino acids (Cereals, Peas, Beans et c).

Needs of prot eins:

Making and new body cells
Growt h and repair
Making enzymes (t hey are prot eins in nat ure)
Build up hormones
Making ant ibodies
Alt hough prot eins are needed in high amount s, t he body will only absorb as much as
needed, so excess prot ein is delaminat ed in t he liver and excret ed as urea.

Vitamins:
These are organic, soluble subst ances t hat should be present in small
amount in our diet s, t hey are very import ant t hough.
Most of t he amount of vit amins in our bodies was t aken in as
nut rient s, t he body it s self can only make few Vit amins, so we have t o
have t o get t hem from organisms t hat make t hem, such as plant s.
Each t ype of Vit amin helps in chemical react ions t hat t ake place in our
cells.

T ypes Of Vit amins:

Vitamin C: This is present in most fruit s and veget ables specially
cit rus fruit s like lemon and oranges, however, it is damaged by heat ing
so it t hese foods have no value of Vit amin

C if t hey are eat en cooked.

Vit amin C is essent ial for t he format ion of Collagen,
a prot ein t hat funct ions as cement ing layer
bet ween cells, Vit amin C also increases immunit y.
Vitamin D: This is present in fish oils, egg yolk,
milk and liver. Unlike Vit amin C, Vit amin D is made by
animals as well as plant s, t his occurs when t he skin
is exposed t o t he Ult ra Violet Rays of t he sun.
Vit amin D plays a big role in absorbing Calcium from
t he small int est ine and deposit ing it in bones. So it
is responsible for having healt hy bones.

Minerals (Inorganic Ions):

These are a lot of t ypes, each needed in small quant it ies. Iron and Calcium are t he
most import ant minerals, and t hey are needed in higher amount s.
Types Of Minerals:
Calcium: This mineral is needed for t he format ion of bones and t eet h as
t hey are made of calcium salt s, it also helps in blood clot t ing and
t ransmission of nerve impulses. Good sources of t he mineral Calcium are
milk, dairy product s and hard wat er.
Iro n: This mineral is needed for t he format ion of t he red pigment
haemoglobin which is essent ial for t he t ransport of oxygen around t he
body in red blood cells. Good sources of Iron include red meat specially
liver and green leafy veget ables.

Roughages (Fibre):
Alt hough roughages are not even absorbed by t he body, t hey are a very import ant
nut rient in our diet . Roughages are most ly cellulose, which is t he subst ance t hat
makes up t he cell walls of plant s we eat . We humans, have no enzyme t hat could
digest cellulose, t hat means t hat roughages ent er t he body from t he mout h, go
t hrough t he digest ive syst em, and out t hrough t he anus unchanged. But as it goes
t hrough t he digest ive syst em, roughages t ake space in t he gut t o give t he gut
muscles somet hing t o push against , t his process of pushing t he food t hrough t he
gut is called perist alsis, wit hout roughages perist alsis is very slow and weak. Quick
and st rong perist alsis means t hat food st ays in t he aliment ary canal for a short er
period, t his prevent s harmful chemicals of cert ain foods from changing t he DNA of
cells of t he aliment ary canal causing cancer, so roughages also helps st ay away from
cancer. Roughages are found in leafy veget ables.

Water:
About 70% of your weight is wat er. Wat er is perhaps a very
essent ial nut rient we should t ake in. The funct ions of wat er
include:
As a solvent which react ant s of met abolic react ions are
dissolved in.
It makes up most of t he blood plasma which red blood
cells, nut rient s, hormones and ot her mat erials are carried
in.
It helps in lowering t he body t emperat ure in hot
condit ions by secret ing it as sweat on t he skin, t he
sweat evaporat es using heat energy from t he body,
t hus lowering t he t emperat ure.

Balanced Diet:
A perfect diet cont ains all of t he nut rient s
in reasonable proport ions, not t oo much
and not t oo lit t le. The perfect diet should
also cont ain energy as much as t he t ot al
energy used by t he individual.

Unbalanced Diet (Malnutrition):

Malnut rit ion is eat ing inadequat e
proport ions of food. In ot her words, an
unbalanced diet means it is rich in a
nut rient and low in anot her, or even lacking
of a subst ance. There are lot s of effect s
of malnut rit ion, such as st arvat ion, obesit y
or deficiency diseases.

Starvation:
St arvat ionis a severe reduct ion in vit amin, nut rient and energy int ake. It is t he most
ext reme form of malnut rit ion. In humans, prolonged st arvat ion can cause permanent
organ damage and event ually, deat h. The t erm inanit ion refers t o t he sympt oms
and effect s of st arvat ion. In case of st arvat ion t he body t ends t o feed on it s own
self. When t he glucose level is decreased in t he body, t he liver breaks down fat s t o
respire for energy, when t he body is out of fat s, it st art s respiring prot eins from t he
muscles t o release energy.

Obesity:
is t he opposit e of st arvat ion. It is eat ing t oo much of every nut rient , especially
carbohydrat es and fat s. Obesit y doesnt st rike alone, it brings wit h it several ot her
diseases such as high blood pressure, cardiac diseases, diabet es, st ress on joint s
and bones as well as ot her psychological issues like low self est eem and lack of
confidence. To prevent obesit y, you have t o cont rol your carbohydrat es and fat s
int ake and exercise regularly.
Anot her consequence of malnut rit ion is deficiency diseases.
These are result s of a cert ain nut rient in t he diet :
Scurvy is t he deficiency disease of vit amin C. It s sympt oms include
bleeding gums.
Rickets is t he deficiency disease of bot h Vit amin D and Calcium. Bones
are made of calcium which Vit amin D helps in deposit ing in t he bones, if any
of bot h is lacking in t he diet , ricket s is developed.
Anemia is t he deficiency disease of iron. The amount of haemoglobin
decreases causes short breat h and t iredness.
Kwashio rko r affect s children whose diet s are lacking in prot ein. It
causes weakness and t iredness.

Special Needs:
There are cert ain t ypes of people whose diet s need t o be different t o normal ones.
Such as pregnant women, breast -feeding women or children going t hrough pubert y.

Pregnant Women:
The diet of a pregnant woman needs t o be very rich of cert ain nut rient s because
she is not only feeding her self, she is feeding her baby as well. In order for t he fet us
t o develop well, it needs ext ra Prot ein, Iron, Calcium and Vit amin D. Prot eins are t o
develop t he t issues of t he fet us, Iron is t o make haemoglobin and t o st ore in t he
liver, while Calcium and Vit amin D are t o develop t he babys bones.

Breast -Feeding Women (Lact at ion):

Lact at ion means t he product ion of breast milk. Aft er pregnancy, t he mot her breast feeds t he baby for about 6 mont hs or more. Breast milk needs t o be high in
Prot eins, Calcium, and Vit amins t o guarant ee a healt hy growt h for t he infant .

Growing Children (Passing Pubert y):

At some point , each child get s a growing spurt . This is a very high growt h rat e t hat
increases t he childs size and mass in a short period of t ime. A growing childs diet
needs ext ra Prot eins t o develop cells and enzymes because t heir met abolic rat e is
higher, Calcium and Vit amin D t o develop bones and Iron t o make hemoglobin.

Food Additives:
These are chemical compounded added t o foods by t he manufact urer because t hey
have some benefit s such as increasing t he lifespan, prevent rot t ing et c.
Most food addit ives are good, such as ones t hat add colors or flavors t o foods. But
t here are ot hers which have been proven hazardous t o humans.
Good food addit ives include flavorings and colorings which are used t o make t he
food more appealing, ant ioxidant s which prevent foods from combining wit h oxygen
and rot , and st abilizers which st ops foods like ice-cream from separat ing int o wat er

and fat t y component s.

Food preservat ives t hough, are a widely used food addit ives which increase t he
lifespan of foods, making it cheaper t o st ore and t ransport . However, scient ist s
claim t hat some preservat ives cont ain nit rit es which combine wit h chemicals making
a subst ance (nit rosamines) t hat causes cancer in animals.
Food Addit ives

Disadvant ages
Advant ages
Prevent s rot t ing
Improve color
Improve flavor
Keeps t ext ure
Increases lifespan
Prevent s poisoning

Allergic
react ions
Cause
hyperact ivit y
Damages
liver/kidney
Carcinogenic
Makes bad
food look good

Microorganisms And Food Industry:

Product ion of Single Celled Prot ein (Mycoprot ein):
Mycoprot ein is a prot ein made from microscopic fungus. Humans need large
amount s of prot eins in t heir diet s, in some poor areas, sources of prot eins like meat
are unaffordable, mycoprot ein is used.
The process t akes place in a st erilised cont ainer called ferment er. The microorganisms are grown in t he ferment er and supplied wit h air which cont ains oxygen
for aerobic respirat ion, ammonia as a source of nit rogen t o be used by t he microorganisms t o make prot eins, and met hanol which cont ains carbon for t he format ion
of carbohydrat es.
Advant ages of mycoprot eins are t hat it is cheaper t han any source of prot ein but
equal in value, and t hat it cont ains much less fat s and more roughages and
carbohydrat es

Product ion Of Yoghurt :

Milk is st erilised by boiling
Cert ain t ypes Bact eria are added t o t he milk
The milk is kept warm t o provide best condit ions for bact eria growing
Bact eria respire producing lact ic acid, t hickening t he milk and giving it t he
pleasant flavour
Yoghurt is cooled and flavours or fruit s could be added.

Food T ests:
St arch T est :
Put sample in a t est t ube
Add wat er t o make it a solut ion
Add iodine solut ion
Is st arch is present t he solut ion changes colour from yellowish brown t o
Blue Black.
If st arch is not present t he solut ion remains yellowish brown.

Reducing sugars (carbohydrat es) t est :

Not e: This t est is only applicable on all sugars (monosaccharide and disaccharide)
EXCEPT FOR SUCROSE.
Add sample t o a t est t ube
Add Benedict s Reagent
Put t est t ube in wat er bat h for heat ing
If reducing sugars are present t he solut ion t urns from blue t o
yellow,orange,red (fire colours)

If reducing sugars are not present t he solut ion remains blue.

Prot eins T est :

Put sample in a t est t ube
Add wat er t o make a solut ion
Add Buiret Reagent
If prot eins are present in t he solut ion t urns Purple
If prot eins are not present t he solut ion remains blue.
Not e: Biuret Reagent is blue in colour and made of copper sulphat e and a small
amount of sodium hydroxide.

Fat s T est :
Add sample t o a t est t ube
Add et hanol
Add wat er and shake well
If fat s are present t he solut ion becomes unclear
If fat s are not present t he solut ion remains clear

General T able:
Nut rient
St arch

Test
Iodine sol.

Colour
Yellow / Brown

Posit ive
Blue / Black

Negat ive
Yellow / Brown

Carbs
Prot eins

Benedict s
Biuret reagent

Blue
Blue

Red (fire)
Purple

Blue
Blue

Fat s

Et hanol/wat er

Cloudy

Clear

Animal Nutrition
Animals eat t o grow, repair et c. They simply eat t o live. In t his unit we will st udy how
animals make use of what t hey eat . The journey of t he food from t he mout h t o t he
anus t hrough t he aliment ary canal includes 5 st eps:
1. Ingestio n: Taking in pieces of food int o t he mout h
2. Digestio n: The break down of large, insoluble food molecules int o smaller

more soluble ones by chemical and mechanical means.

3. Abso rptio n: Taking t he digest ed food molecules int o t he cells
4. Assimilatio n: Making use of t he digest ed food molecules for example t o

release energy or grow et c.

5. Egestio n: The eliminat ion of undigest ed food mat erials t hrough t he anus

*Dont confuse egest ion wit h excret ion, excret ion is t o get rid of wast e product s of
met abolism.
The aliment ary canal (gut or digest ive t ract ) is made up of several organs working
t oget her t o perform all t he processes ment ioned above. St art ing wit h t he mout h
and ending wit h t he anus.

T he Mouth:
The mout h performs several funct ions:
Mechanical Digestio n: The act ion of t he t eet h bit ing a small piece of food from
a large one is considered mechanical digest ion, t he t eet h also t ears and grinds t he
food int o a bolus t o give it larger surface area for fast er chemical digest ion.
Chemical Digestio n: beneat h t he t ongue lies a salivary gland which secret s
saliva int o t he mout h, t his saliva cont ains wat er and mucus t o lubricat e t he food
bolus and amylase enzyme t hat breaks down st arch in t he food int o malt ose.
Aft er t his t he t ongue pushes t he food bolus int o t he oesophagus.

T he Oesophagus:
This is a t ube t hat t ransport s t he food from t he mout h
deep int o t he body t o t he st omach.
The food is pushed downwards by t he muscles in t he walls
of t he oesophagus, t his process is called Peristalsis.
Muscles cont ract and relax creat ing a wavy mot ion t o push
t he food down.

T he Stomach:
Here t he food st ays for a while. The st omach is a flexible bag t hat performs bot h
mechanical and chemical digest ion.
Mechanical Digestio n: The walls of t he st omach cont ain muscles t hat cont ract
and relax t oget her mixing t he food wit h t he cont ent of t he st omach and t urning it
int o liquid chyme, t his process is called churning.
Chemical Digestio n: The walls of t he st omach also secret es a liquid called
Gast ric Juice which cont ains Hydrochloric acid, Mucus, and pepsin enzyme. The
pepsin enzyme digest s prot eins int o simpler polypept ides, while t he hydrochloric
acid is t o provide opt imum pH for t he enzyme and t he mucus is t o lubricat e t he
food and prot ect t he walls of t he st omach from t he acid.
Aft er a few hours, t he sphinct er which is a muscular valve opens allowing t he food
int o t he small int est ine.

T he Small Intestine:
The small int est ine is where most digest ion and absorpt ion t akes place. It is divided
int o t wo sect ions, duodenum and ileum. The walls of t he small int est ine cont ain
several t ypes of liquids t hat help in providing suit able condit ions and digest t he
food. These liquids are:
Bile Juice: it comes from t he liver, st ored in t he gall bladder. It is squirt ed along
t he bile duct in t he duodenum. The bile works on fat s only, fat s are very difficult t o
digest because t hey are very insoluble, t he bile cont ains bile salt s t hat breaks fat s
int o t iny droplet s t hat float in t he cont ent of t he small int est ine, making it easier
for t he lipase t o digest fat s int o fat t y acids and glycerol, t his process is called
emulsificat ion.
Pancreatic Juice: it comes from t he pancreas and secret ed along t he pancreat ic
duct . It cont ains enzymes and sodium hydrogen carbonat e, which neut ralises t he
hydrochloric acid t hat was added t o t he food in t he st omach, creat ing bet t er
condit ions for t he enzymes t o work. The pancreat ic juice cont ains t he following
enzymes:
Amylase t o digest st arch int o Malt ose

T rypsin t o digest prot eins t o polypept ides

Lipase t o digest fat s int o fat t y acids and glycerol
Small intestine liquid: The small int est ine it self also secret s a liquid t hat
consist s of lot s of enzymes t o make sure carbohydrat es, fat s and prot eins are
digest ed t o t heir simplest form, t hese enzymes are:
For carbohydrat es:
Maltase t o digest malt ose int o glucose + glucose
Sucrase t o digest sucrose int o glucose + fruct ose
Lactase t o digest lact ose int o glucose + galact ose
For Fat s:
Lipase t o digest fat s int o fat t y acids and glycerol
For prot eins:
Pro tease for furt her digest ion of polypept ides t o amino acids.

Absorption in small intestine:

Absorpt ion in t he small int est ine t akes place in t he second sect ion, t he ileum. The
walls of t he ileum are fully adapt ed for absorpt ion. The int erior walls of t he ileum is
covered wit h a layer of villi, each villus is covered wit h anot her layer of micro villi.

Each villi has a branch of blood capillaries in it as well as a lact eal which is a lymph
vessel, t he lact eal absorbs fat s and lipids wit h vit amins dissolved in t hem int o The
lymphat ic syst em.
Villi and microvilli are adapt ed t o
absorpt ion by:
They give a very large
surface area for fast er
diffusion of food molecules
Each villus cont ains a large
net work of blood capillaries
t ransport ing more blood,
t hus fast er diffusion
Each villis is one cell t hick,
reducing t he diffusion
dist ance and making it
fast er
Each villi cont ains a lact eal
which absorbs fat s

T he Large Intestine:
By t he t ime t he food reaches t he large int est ine, t here is not much left of it , only
some wat er, minerals, and fibers. The wat er and t he minerals are absorbed int o t he
blood, while t he fibers and dead cells of t he aliment ary canal are st ored in t he
rect um t hen excret ed t hrough t he anus (egest ion).

Assimilation Of T he Absorbed Food Molecules:

Aft er t he food molecules are absorbed from t he aliment ary canal, it is t ransport ed
t o t he liver by a special blood vessel called T he Hepatic Po rtal Vein. The liver is
an organ t hat is considered a gland t oo. It carries out several jobs t o sort out t he
food molecules it receives. Each t ype of nut rient has it s own fat e in t he liver.
Gluco se: when t he absorbed glucose reaches t he liver, t he liver allows as much as
needed by t he body t o pass t o t he circulat ory syst em t o by used for respirat ion or
ot her processes. The excess glucose is convert ed t o glycogen and st ored in t he
liver cells, when t he blood is short in glucose, glycogen will be convert ed back int o
glucose and secret ed t o t he blood. Some glucose will also be convert ed t o fat s as
an energy reserve. These funct ions are cont rolled by t he Insulin and Glucagon

hormones which are made in t he pancreas.

Amino Acids: some amino acids will be used by t he liver cells t o make prot eins,
t he rest will be allowed int o t he blood st ream t o be absorbed by t he body cells
which also convert it t o prot eins. If t he body cont ains enough amino acids, t he
excess will undergo a process called Deaminatio n, t his involves t he break down of
amino acids int o carbohydrat es and amino group, which is t hen convert ed t o
ammonia t hen convert ed int o urea, which is part of t he wast e product of t he body,
urine.
A part from sort ing out food molecules, t he liver performs t he following jobs t oo:
Dealing with o ld red blo o d cells:
The liver changes dead red blood cells t o iron and bile. Iron is st ored in t he
liver, large amount s of iron give it t he red colour and used t o build up new
red blood cells. The bile is st ored in t he gall bladder t o be used in digest ing
food again.
Deto xificatio n:
The liver breaks down t oxic mat erials such as alcohol which damages cells
t o fat s. Alcoholics are known t o have liver diseases.
Helps in generating heat:
The liver cont ains a very large number of cells, which means a lot of
met abolic react ions t ake place in it producing lot s of energy t o warm t he
blood.
Making fibrino gen:
This is a plasma prot ein which helps in blood clot t ing when t he skin is cut .

T eeth:
Teet h are small, calcified, whit ish st ruct ures found in t he jaws (or
mout hs) of many vert ebrat es t hat are used t o break down food.
Types of mammalian t eet h:

Incisors:
They are 4 in front of each jaw.
They act like a blade t o cut food(eg. To cut a bit e of a sandwich)
t hey have a (chisel-like surface).

Canines:
They are t wo in each jaw.
They are very point ed, in humans t hey are used for t he same
purpose as incisors.
However in carnivores t hey are longer and sharper and used t o kill
t he prey.

Premolars:
4 on t he sides of each jaw
They are used t o cut and grind food.

Molars:
They are 6 at t he back of
Each jaw, 2 of t hem are wisdom t eet h. They have t he same use as
Premolars.

Not e: remember t hat we have t wo jaws, so 4 incisors in each jaw means t hat we
have a t ot al of 8 incisors in our mout h. We have 16 t eet h in each jaw, 32 in t he whole
mout h.

The t oot h is divided int o t wo part s, t he crown and t he

root .
Part s of t he t oot h:
Enamel: Made of calcium salt s, it is very st rong.
Dentine: It is covered by t he enamel and surrounds t he
pulp cavit y.
T he pulp cavity: It cont ains t he nerves and blood
vessels.
The part of t he t oot h above t he gum is called t he crown,
t he part buried in t he jawbone is called t he root . The
enamel covers t he crown, t he root is covered by cement .
And t he t oot h is held in place by fibres.
T o o th Decay: when we eat , some food part icles st ay in
our mout h. Bact eria t hat lives in our mout h feed on t hese
food part icles, t hey respire anaerobically producing lact ic
acid. Like any acid, lact ic acid react s wit h t he enamel and
dissolves it away reaching t he dent ine, here we feel t he
t oot hache.

Met hods Of prevent ing T oot h Decay:

Reduce sugar int ake t o prevent bact eria respiring
Brush t eet h t o remove t he plaque layer of bact eria and saliva on our t eet h
and nuet ralise mout h
Use t oot hpast e or wat er cont aining fluoride because it is absorbed by t he
t eet h and helps st opping t he at t ack by acid
Pay regular visit s t o t he dent ist .
Adding Fluoride To Wat er

Advant ages
Suit able amount s prevent
t oot h decay
It is a cheaper met hod of
t eet h caring

Disadvant ages
Too much causes
t eet h molt ing, illness
and abdominal pain
It is expensive

Transport In Humans

The human t ransport syst em is a syst em of t ubes wit h a pump

and valves t o ensure one way blood flow. We need a t ransport
syst em t o deliver oxygen, nut rient s and ot her subst ances t o all
our body cells, and t ake away wast e product s from t hem.
The oxygenat ed blood (high in oxygen, red in color) comes t o
t he heart from t he lungs in t he pulmonary vein; t he heart pumps
it t o t he aort a (an art ery) t o t he rest of t he body. The
deoxygenat ed blood ret urns t o t he heart from t he body in t he
vena cava (a vein), t he heart pumps is t o t he lungs t o get rid of
t he carbon dioxide.
Oxygenat ed Blood: Red color, high oxygen low Carbon
dioxide.
Deoxygenat ed Blood: Blue color, low oxygen high
Carbon dioxide.
Did you not ice t hat during one circulat ion, t he blood went
t hrough t he heart t wice, t his is why we call it double circulat ion.
When t he blood is flowing away from t he heart , it has a very
high pressure, when it is flowing t owards t he heart it has a lower
pressure.

T he Blood:
The blood is a fluid consist ing of several t ypes of cells float ing in a liquid called
plasma.

Red Blood Cells:

These are one of t he smallest cells in your body,
t hey are round wit h a dent in t he middle, we call t his
shape a Biconcave disc.
The funct ion of t he red blood cells is t o t ransport
oxygen from t he lungs t o t he body cells. A red
prot ein called Haemoglobin, when t he blood reaches
t he lungs, oxygen diffuses from t he alveoli t o t he
red blood cells and combines wit h haemoglobin
forming an unst able compound called
oxyhaemoglobin. When t he blood reaches t he body
cells, t he oxyhaemoglobin is easily split int o oxygen
and haemoglobin again, t he oxygen diffuses t hrough
t he blood plasma t o t he cells.
Red blood cells are fully adapt ed t o t heir funct ion by t he following charact erist ics:
Biconcave disc shape gives it large surface area t o carry more oxygen
Haemoglobin t o combine wit h oxygen
No nucleus t hat t akes up space.

White Blood Cells:

Whit e blood cells are one of t he subst ances float ing in t he blood plasma. They are
complet ely different in funct ion t han red blood cells. Whit e blood cells are part of
t he Immune Syst em, t hey play a big role in prot ect ing t he body by killing bact eria
which cause disease, also known as pat hogens. Whit e blood cells can be
dist inguished from red blood cells easily because t hey are much bigger, wit h a
nucleus, and present in fewer amount s.

T ypes Of Whit e Blood Cells:

Phagocyt es:
They kill bact eria by engulfing t hem, t aking t hem in t he cell t hen kill t hem
by digest ing t hem using enzymes, t his process is called phagocyt osis.
Most whit e blood cells are t he phagocyt e t ype.

Lymphocyt es:
Unlike phagocyt es, lymphocyt es have a large nucleus. They are produced in
t he lymph nodes (in t he lymphat ic syst em). Lymphocyt es kill bact eria by
secret ing ant ibodies and ant it oxins which kill t he pat hogens direct ly or
make t hem easier t o kill. Each pat hogen could be killed by a cert ain t ype of
ant ibody

T he Platelets:
Plat elet s are t iny cell fragment s t hat prevent bleeding when t he skin is cut , and
st ops bact eria from ent ering our syst ems t hrough t he wound. This works by blood
clot t ing, when t he skin is cut , some react ions t ake place t hat result s in plat elet s
producing a prot ein, t his prot ein will change t he fibrinogen (anot her soluble prot ein in
t he plasma) t o insoluble fibrin. The fibrin forms long fibres t hat clot t oget her
blocking t he cut , t hus prevent ing any bleeding, t his is called blood clot t ing.

Blood Plasma:
This makes up most of t he blood. It is most ly wat er wit h some subst ances
dissolved in it , t hese include carbon dioxide, hormones, food nut rient s, urea and
ot her wast e product s. The blood plasma t ransport s subst ances from one place t o
anot her.

Functions of the blood:

Transport at ion of R.B.Cs, W.B.Cs, oxygen, food nut rient s, hormones, and
wast e product s.
Defence against disease, by whit e blood cells phagocyt osis and
product ion of ant ibodies.
Supplying cells wit h glucose t o respire and keep a const ant t emperat ure.

Blood Vessels (Vascular System):

This is a number t ubes carrying blood away from and t o t he heart and ot her organs.
The main t ypes are Art eries, Veins and Capillaries.

Art eries:
Their funct ion is t o
t ransport blood
away from t he
heart t o t he lungs
or ot her body
organs.
The blood in t he
art eries always has
a high pressure. The
heart pumps t he
blood quickly int o
t he art eries,
result ing in t he
pressure, each t ime
t he vent ricle of t he
heart cont ract s,
t he pressure in
art eries increase,
when t he vent ricle
relaxes, t he
pressure falls. The
lumen of art eries is
also very narrow,
adding t o t he
pressure.
The st ruct ure is simple, beside t he narrow lumen, t he art eries have a st rong t hick
wall t o wit hst and t he pressure. Their walls are also elast ic and st ret chable.
Brief descript ion of charact erist ics of art eries:
Transport ing blood away from t he heart
Always in a high pressure
St rong but st ret chable walls
Narrow lumen.

Veins:
Their funct ion is t o t ransport blood t o t he heart from t he body.
The veins always always have a low blood pressure because by t he t ime t he blood
wit h high pressure reaches t he veins, it loses most of t he pressure. This means t hat
blood flows very slowly in veins, t o help t his, veins lie bet ween muscles so t hat t he
blood is squeezed when t he muscles cont ract .
They have a simple st ruct ure. Because t hey have a low pressure, t hey dont need
st rong, t hick walls like t he art ery, inst ead t hey have t hin less elast ic walls. Their
lumen is much wider t oo. Veins have a unique feat ure, t hat is valves. Because blood
in veins flows slowly wit h a low pressure, t here is a risk of a backflow, specially in
veins t hat move blood upwards against gravit y, like t he ones in t he leg. The valves
ensure t hat t he blood is always flowing in t he direct ion of t he heart . When t he
muscles squeeze t he blood, t he valves are open t he let blood t hrough, when
muscles relax, valves close t o prevent a backflow.

Brief descript ion of charact erist ics of veins:

They carry blood t o t he heart
Always in a low pressure
Thin less elast ic walls

Wide lumen
Valves present .

Blood Capillaries:
Blood capillaries are very we
Blood capillaries are t he smallest blood
vessels in our syst ems. Their funct ion is t o
get blood from t he art eries
as close as possible t o t he t issues in order
t o exchange mat erials wit h t he cells, and
t o link art eries wit h veins.
When art eries come near and organ or a
t issue, it divides int o art erioles, t hese
art erioles divide more int o several blood
capillaries t hat go t hrough t he t issue, t his
is when t he exchange of oxygen and food
nut rient s wit h carbon dioxide and wast e
product s such as urea t ake place by
diffusion.
ll adapt ed t o t heir jobs. They are one cell t hick t o reduce t he diffusion dist ance of
mat erials for fast er diffusion. They also have pores in t heir walls bet ween t he cells,
t o allow t he plasma t o get out of t he blood and become t issue fluid.

T he Heart:
The heart is a pumping organ t hat is responsible for t he movement of blood around
t he body. The funct ion of t he heart is t o give t he blood a push, keeping it flowing
around t he body all t he t ime. That is why t he heart is const ant ly working, if it st ops
for a minut e, t he ot her organs will not receive any oxygen or nut rient s, t hus t he
body fails and t he person dies. The heart is locat ed in t he chest , t he t horiac cavit y
bet ween bot h lungs.

St ruct ure:
The heart is hollow, it has 4
chambers. Two of t hem are
at ria and t wo are vent ricles.
One of each of t hese on each
side. When looking at t he
diagram of a heart , not ice t hat
your right is t he left side of t he
heart , and your left is t he
heart s right , as if you are
looking at your own heart on a
mirror.
The sides of t he heart are
separat ed by a wall called
sept um. Each side cont ains an
at rium (at t he t op) and a
vent ricle (at t he bot t om), t here
is a valve bet ween t he at rium
and t he vent ricle in each side, it
is called bicuspid valve in t he
left side and t ricuspid valve in
t he right side. There are several
blood vessels associat ed wit h
t he heart , t hese are:
The Pulmonary vein, it t ransport s oxygenat ed blood from t he lungs t o t he

right at rium.
The Aort a, which is t he biggest art ery in t he body, it t ransport s
oxygenat ed blood from t he heart t o t he rest of t he body.
The Vena Cava, t he biggest vein in t he body, it t ransport s deoxygenat ed
blood from t he whole body t o t he heart .
The pulmonary art ery, it t ransport s deoxygenat ed blood from t he heart t o
t he lungs.
Not e t hat blood vessels ent ering t he heart are veins, and t he ones leaving t he heart
are art eries. The left side of t he heart always cont ains oxygenat ed blood because it
receives blood fresh from t he lungs and pumps it t o t he body, t he right side always
cont ains deoxygenat ed blood because it receives is from t he body. You can
memorise t his by t he word LORD:
L eft Oxygenated

Right Deoxygenated
The heart receives blood from t he lungs at t he left
at rium and pumps it t o t he body from t he left vent ricle,
t hen it receives it again from t he body at t he right
at rium and pumps it t o t he lungs from t he right vent ricle.
The red shows oxygenat ed blood and t he blue shows
deoxygenat ed blood.
Not ice t hat t he walls around t he left vent ricle are much
t hicker t han t he ones in t he right vent ricle. The reason
for t his is t hat because t he left vent ricle pumps blood
t o t he whole body, so blood will t ravel a long dist ance,
so it needs lot s of muscles t o cont ract and pump t he
blood more st rongly.
However, t he right vent ricle pumps blood t he lungs
which are very close t o heart , t he blood does not need
t o be pumped very st rongly.

Mechanism of t he heart :
When t he heart is being filled wit h blood (whet her from t he body or t he lungs), t his
is called t he diast ole. When t he heart is pumping t he blood out of it (whet her t o t he
body or t o t he lungs), it is called t he syst ole.
During diast ole, t he heart is get t ing filled wit h blood, t he blood ent ers t he at ria first ,
t he at ria cont ract t o force blood int o t he vent ricles, bot h t ricuspid and bicuspid
valves are open t o allow blood int o t he vent ricles and t he semilunar valves are shut .
Once t he vent ricles get filled wit h blood, it is syst ole, t he bicuspid and t ricuspid
valves get shut and semilunar valves are open, t he vent ricles cont ract st rongly
forcing t he blood int o t he Aort a or pulmonary art ery.
During diast ole t he semilunar valves are shut t o keep t he blood out of t he art eries.
During syst ole t he t ricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed, t o prevent blood from
flowing back int o t he at ria when it is pumped. The t ricuspid and bicuspid valves are
kept fixed by fibres called t endons, t hey prevent t he valves from opening in t he
opposit e direct ion, allowing backflow.
ht t p://www.xt remepapers.com/images/gcse/biology/t ransport _in_humans/heart _mechanism.png

The t endons also cont rol t he opening and closing of t he cuspid valves, when t he

t endons are loose, t he valves are open. When t he

close.
Diast ole
Vent ricles:
Relax
At ria:
Cont ract
Cuspid Valves:
Open

t endons are t ight ened t he valves

Syst ole
Cont ract
Relax
Close

Tendons:
Loose
Tight ened
Semilunar Valves: Close
Open
If you list en t o your heart beat , you will hear t wo sounds, one low and one high.
These are result s of t he syst ole and diast ole. They are t he sounds of t he cardiac
valves opening and shut t ing.

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD):

The heart , like any ot her organ,
needs a supply of blood cont aining
oxygen and nut rient s. In fact , t he
heart needs a higher amount of
blood supply t han any ot her organ
because it is working all t he t ime,
and cont ains a lot of muscles. The
coronary art eries are t hose which
supply t he heart t issues wit h blood,
t hey branch from t he aort a. CHD
develops when cholest erol layers
build on t he walls of t he coronary
art eries, part ially blocking t he pat h
of blood, t hus t his t issue of t he
heart is not supplied wit h oxygen
nor nut rient s, so it st ops working
properly. If it is not t reat ed at t his
age, a blood clot may form near t he
part ially blocked area, complet ely
blocking t he art ery, when t his
happens, t he blood cannot funct ion
anymore, a heart at t ack occurs,
which is ext remely fat al.
The causes of CHD are most ly in t he
diet . A diet wit h lot s of fat s,
increases t he chance of cholest erol
building up on t he walls of t he
art ery, causing CHD, Same t hing wit h
salt s. Smoking also increases t he
rat e of fat deposit ion. It was also
said t hat Causes Of CHD are:
Diet full of fat s increases t he fat s level in blood
Diet full of salt s, salt s can be deposit ed in t he art ery leading t o CHD, same
as fat s or cholest erol
Smoking, carbon monoxides increases fat deposit ion
St ress was also said t o cont ribut e t o CHD by raising blood pressure
Lack of exercise, regular workout s improve t he blood flow wearing layers of
fat s or salt s deposit ed on t he walls of art eries away.
So t o prot ect yourself from CHD you need t o avoid diet s full of fat s and salt s, avoid
smoking, t ry t o be less st ressed out , and exercise regularly.

T issue Fluid And Lymph:

Tissue fluid is a fluid surrounding t he cells of a t issue. It supplies t hem wit h all t heir
needs of oxygen and nut rient s, and t akes away all t heir wast e product s including
carbon dioxide. Tissue fluid plays a very big role in subst ance exchange bet ween
blood and cells.
Plasma from t he blood capillaries move t o t he t issue t hrough gaps in t he walls. They
become t issue fluid. They exchange t heir cont ent of oxygen and nut rient s wit h t he
cells and t ake carbon dioxide and wast e product s. At t he end of t he capillary bed,
t he t issue fluid leaks back int o t he blood, and becomes plasma again, but not all of
it . A lit t le of it is absorbed by t he lymphat ic vessel and becomes lymph. The
lymphat ic vessel t akes t he lymph t o t he blood st ream by secret ing t hem in a vein
near t he heart , called subclavian vein. The lymph in t he lymphat ic vessels are moved
along by t he squeeze of muscles against t he vessel, just like some veins.

The lymphat ic syst em plays a big role in t he prot ect ion against disease. It produces
t he whit e blood cells lymphocyt es. Which kill any cell wit h a different ant igens t han
t he ones in your body cells. So if bact eria get int o your body, your lymphocyt es
quickly recognise t hem as foreigners and will divide and kill t hem.
Lymphocyt es are considered a problem when it comes t o organs t ransplant . For
example if someone (recipient ) wit h renal failure receives a kidney from anot her
person (t he donor), t he cells of t he kidney will have different ant igens t han t he
ot her cells in t he pat ient s body. The lymphocyt es will consider t he cells of t he
kidney an enemy and st art at t acking it , t his is called t issue reject ion. Organ
t ransplant is perfect in one case, t his is when t he donor and t he recipient are
ident ical t wins, because t he ant igens of t heir cells perfect ly mat ch. In ot her cases
t he recipient is given immunosuppressant drugs t o act ually weaken t heir immune
syst em t o prevent t issue reject ion.
Brief Summary Of Funct ions Of The Lymphat ic Syst em:
Product ion of whit e blood cells lymphocyt es
Transport of digest ed fat s from villi t o blood st ream
Transport of lymph from t he t issue fluids t o t he blood st ream at t he
subclavian vein.

Plant Nutrition
Plant s are living organisms, t hey need food in order t o keep living. The way t hey
obt ain t heir nut rient s however, is complet ely different t han t hat of ours. Plant make
most of t heir nut rient s by t hem selves, t hey just need 2 raw mat erials, t hese wat er
and carbon dioxide.
The leaf of a plant is considered t he kit chen of it . It is where food is made, lat er on
you will see how t he leaf is adapt ed t o making food.

ht t p://www.xt remepapers.com/images/gcse/biology/plant _nut rit ion/st ruct ure_of_a_leaf.png

Upper Epidermis: it is a layer of cells t hat cover t he leaf and prot ect it , it is
covered by a layer of wax calledcuticle.
Meso phyll Layer:
Palisade Meso phyll: a layer of palisade cells which carry out most of
phot osynt hesis
Spo ngy Meso phyll: a layer of spongy cells beneat h t he palisade layer,
t hey carry out phot osynt hesis and st ore nut rient s.
Vascular Bundle: it is a group of phloem and xylem vessels
t hat t ransport wat er and minerals t o and from t he leaves.
Lo wer Epidermis: similar t o t he upper epidermis, only t hat
it cont ains a special t ype of cells called guard cells. Guard
cells are a specialised t ype of cells t hat cont rol t he passage
of carbon dioxide int o t he cell and t he passage of oxygen out
of t he cell by opening and closing t he st omat a (a hole in t he
leaf t hrough which gases pass) so guard cells are responsible
for t he gas exchange.

Photosynthesis:
Phot osynt hesis means making wit h light . It is t he process by
which plant s make useful glucose out of t he raw mat erials wat er
and carbon dioxide, using light energy from t he sun.
Wat er is essent ial for phot osynt hesis, it is sucked up from t he soil
by t he root s and t ransport ed up t he st em t o leaves where it is
put int o use.
Carbon dioxide, just like wat er is essent ial for phot osynt hesis. It
moves int o t he leaf from t he air by diffusion, t hrough t he st omat a
(t iny wholes in t he leaf).
Once carbon dioxide and wat er are present in t he leaf, one
condit ion for phot osynt hesis is needed, t hat is light . The t wo cells
in t he diagrams are called palisade cells (t he rect angular one) and
spongy mesophyl cell (t he circular one), t hese are t he cells where
phot osynt hesis t akeplace. They a st ruct ure called chloroplast s,
t hese st ruct ures cont ain a green pigment named chlorophyll, t his
is t o t rap sunlight t o be used in energy, a large number of
chloroplast s is required for phot osynt hesis.

How phot osynt hesis happen:

Carbon dioxide and wat er ent er t he cell

The cell t raps light energy using chloroplast s

The energy is used t o split wat er (H2O) int o hydrogen and oxygen
The oxygen is excret ed out side t he leaf t o t he at mosphere as a wast e
product
The hydrogen react s wit h carbon dioxide forming glucose.

Overall equat ion for t he Phot osynt hesis

Carbon Dioxide Supply:

The carbon dioxide moves t o t he leaf from t he at mosphere by diffusion t hrough
t iny holes in t he leaf called st omat a. Carbon dioxide is not present in a high
concent rat ion in air, but compared t o it s concent rat ion inside t he leaf, it is more in
t he air. This is because t he cells inside t he leaf are always doing phot osynt hesis (at
dayt ime), convert ing t he carbon dioxide int o t he glucose quickly, t hus t he
concent rat ion of it inside t he leaf decreases, making a concent rat ion gradient for
diffusion from t he at mosphere t o t he leaf.

Wat er Supply:
The wat er is absorbed by t he root s of t he plant s, t hen t hey are t ransport ed
upwards t hrough a hollow t ube called t he xylem vessel, t ill it reaches t he leaf where
phot osynt hesis t akes place, it ent ers t he leaf t hrough holes in t he xylem. Excess
wat er leaves t he cell t hrough t he st omat a, t his is called t ranspirat ion

Sunlight Supply:
The leaves are always exposed t o sunlight at dayt ime. The sun penet rat es t he
t ransparent layers on t he leaf t ill it reaches t he mesophyll layer, where
phot osynt hesis t ake place. Palisade cells are nearer t o t he surface of t he leaf t han
t he spongy cells, so t hey receive more of t he light and make more phot osynt hesis.

Fact ors Needed For Phot osynt hesis:

Wat er
Carbon Dioxide
Light

Fact ors Affect ing T he Rat e Of Phot osynt hesis:

Amount of wat er: t he rat e increases as it increases
Concent rat ion of carbon dioxide: t he rat e increases as it increases
Light int ensit y: t he rat e increases as it increases
ht t p://www.xt remepapers.com/images/gcse/biology/plant _nut rit ion/uses_gulucose.png

Plant s at night :
At night , t he plant performs several process t o convert t he st ored st arch int o many
useful nut rient s like:
Sugars for respirat ion
Cellulose and prot eins for making cells
Vit amins t o help in energy act ion
Fat s as a long t erm st orage mat erial
Remaining st arch is t emporarily st ored.

Mechanism of Guard Cells:

At dayt ime, t he guard cells open t he st omat a t o allow gaseous exchange, t his
occurs according t o t he following st eps:
Sunlight increases t he pot assium concent rat ion in t he vacuoles of t he
guard cells, t he wat er pot ent ial decreases making a gradient bet ween t he
guard cells and t he surround epidermal cells,
Wat er moves by osmosis int o t he guard cells from t he epidermal cells,
The wat er raises t he pressure inside t he guard cells,

The cell wall adjacent t o t he st omat a is t hicker and less st ret chable t hen
t he cell wall on t he ot her side,
The pressure expand t he whole cell except for t he inner cell wall (adjacent
t o t he st omat a) creat ing a curve and a pore bet ween t he t wo guard cells,
The st oma opens.
At night however, t he mechanism is opposit e:
Pot assium level decreases in t he vacuole of t he guard cells,
Wat er pot ent ial increases in t he cell and wat er diffuses out of it ,
The guard cells st raight en up because of low pressure closing t he st oma.

Mineral Requirement s:
The plant is also in need for mineral ions t o cont rol chemical act ivit ies, grow, and
produce mat erials. The most import ant minerals are:
Mg+2 (Magnesium ions): t hey are import ant for t he product ion of t he
green pigment chlorophyll. Lack of it result s in lack of phot osynt hesis and
wilt ing of t he leaves,
Nit rat es: t hese are t he sources of nit rogen, t hey are required t o make
amino acids and prot eins by combining wit h glucose. Lack of it result s in
deformat ion of t he plant st ruct ure making it small and weak.
Bot h mineral ions are absorbed from t he soil.

Fert ilisers:
Somet imes t he soil is lacking of t he mineral ions needed, t his
problem can be solved by adding fert ilisers t o t he soil.
Fert ilisers are chemical compounds rich in t he mineral ions
needed by t he plant s. They help t he plant s grow fast er,
increase in size and become greener, t hey simply make t hem
healt hier and increase t he crop yield. But t here are
disadvant ages of fert ilisers, such as:
Excess minerals and chemical can ent er a nearby river
pollut ing it and creat ing a layer of green algae on t he
surface of it , causing lack of light in t he river, t hus
prevent ing t he aqua plant s phot osynt hesizing.
When living organisms in t he river or lake die,
decomposers such as bact eria mult iply and decay,
respire using oxygen. Eut rophicat ion t akes place
event ually.

Green House:
A green house is a placed covered by t ransparent polyt hene. In
green houses, t he limit ing fact ors of phot osynt hesis are
eliminat ed, and t he plant s are provided t he most suit able
condit ions for a healt hy, rapid growt h.
The soil in green houses is fert ilised and very rich in mineral ions,
assuring healt hy, large yields. More carbon dioxide is supplied t o
t he crops for fast er phot osynt hesis. The polyt hene walls and
ceiling allow heat waves and light rays only t o ent er and prevent
harmful waves, t hus providing a high light int ensit y and opt imum
t emperat ure, somet imes a heat ing syst em is used t oo. A
wat ering syst em is also present . The disadvant ages of green
houses are t hat it is t oo small t o give a large yield and t hat it is
expensive.

The Respiratory System

We rarely t hink about breat hing unless were out of breat h. The act of breat hing is
part of t he respirat ory syst em, a complex process where air t ravels int o and out of
t he lungs.
Respirat ion is slight ly different , where exercise causes muscles t o release energy in
t he form of glucose. Bot h syst ems are co-dependent , especially when youre
playing sport and inhaling great er quant it ies of oxygen.

Human Respiratory System:

The human respirat ory
syst em is made up of air
passages, lungs and t he
respirat ory muscles.
No se: most breat hing and
gas exchange occur
t hrough t he nose. It is lined
by a layer of mucus and hair
t o t rap t he dust and germs
in t he air. It is also supplied
wit h a dense net work of
blood capillaries t o warm
t he air ent ering t he body.
Pharynx: Works t oget her
wit h t he epiglot t is t o block
t he nasal cavit y and t he
t rachea during swallowing
food, t o prevent it from
ent ering t he respirat ory
syst em.
T rachea
(windpipe): t his is a t ube
t hat connect s t he nasal
cavit y and larynx t o t he
lungs. It is lined wit h a layer
of ciliat ed epit helium cells
and goblet cells which
secret e mucus t hat t raps
bact eria and dust from
inhaled air and get s moved
upwards t o t he larynx by
t he cilia.
It is t hen eit her spit out or swallowed t o t he st omach where it is eliminat ed by acid.
Bro nchi: when t he t rachea reaches t he lungs, it is divided int o t wo t ubes, one
goes t o t he right lung and one goes t o t he left lung. These are called t he bronchi.
The bronchi are t hen divided bronchioles t hat ext ended deeper int o t he lungs.
Alveo li (air sacs): t hese are t iny bags full of gas; t hey are present in t he
lungs in large amount s (several million alveolus in each lung). They give t he
lungs a much larger surface area (about 70 m2) for fast er diffusion of gases
bet ween t hem and t he blood.
Rib Cage: t he lungs are prot ect ed by t his cage of bones. It surrounds all t he
t horacic cavit y. They are 12 pairs of ribs; one pair ext ends from one of t he
first 12 vert ebrae of t he vert ebral column. All of t he ribs except for t he last
t wo pairs are connect ed t o t he st ernum, t he chest bone. Each pair of ribs is
connect ed t o t he pairs above it and below it by muscle fibres called int er
cost al muscles. The rib cage and t he lungs are separat ed by an elast ic layer
called pleural membrane, or pleura for short . It prot ect s t he lungs from
damage caused by frict ion wit h t he rib cage during breat hing.
Diaphragm: t his is a sheat h of muscles t hat separat es t he t horacic cavit y
from t he abdominal cavit y. Toget her wit h t he ribs and t he int er cost al
muscles, it plays a big role in breat hing and gas exchange.

Gas Exchange (Breathing):

Breat hing is different from respirat ion. Breat hing is just t he exchange of wast e
gases from t he body wit h fresh air from t he at mosphere. The act ion of breat hing
fresh air in is called inhaling; t he act ion of breat hing wast e gases out is called
exhaling.

During Inhaling, t he brain sends elect ric impulses by nerves t o t he diaphragm and
t he int er cost al muscles. The diaphragm cont ract s becoming flat t er. The int er
cost al muscles also cont ract and move t he ribs in an out er upwards direct ions.
These act ions expand t he t horacic cavit y making t he lungs expand, t hus increasing
t he increasing t he volume, wit h t he volume increasing t he int ernal pressure
decreases which makes air ent er t he lungs t hrough t he mout h, nose and t rachea.
During Exhaling, t he diaphragm and t he int er cost al muscles relax again,
cont ract ing t he t horacic cavit y t hus squeezing t he air out of t he lungs t o t he
t rachea and mout h and nose t o t he at mosphere.

Respiratory System in Action:

Inhaling occurs, air is absorbed by lungs, it ent ers t he
nose where bact eria and dust in it are t rapped by mucus
and warmed by blood capillaries. The air ent ers t he
t rachea where it is cleaned again by cilia.
The bronchi t ake t he air from t he t rachea t o each lung.
Bronchi divide int o several bronchioles; each one has a
group of alveoli at t he end of it .
In t he alveoli gas exchange t akes place where t he
oxygen rich air diffuses int o t he blood capillaries of t he
pulmonary art eries and t he carbon dioxide rich gas
diffuses int o t he alveoli t o be exhaled.
The pulmonary vein carries t he oxygenat ed fresh air t o t he heart where it is pumped t o all t he
body cells.
The int er cost al muscles and diaphragm relax squeezing t he wast e gases out of t he lungs, t his
is exhalat ion.

Gas Exchange in Alveoli:

Each alveolus is supplied wit h blood capillaries. These come from t he pulmonary
art ery and t hey cont ain deoxygenat ed blood rich in carbon dioxide. The
concent rat ion of oxygen is very high inside t he alveolus and very low in t he blood, so
oxygen molecules diffuse from t he alveolus t o t he red blood cells and combine wit h
haemoglobin. At t he very same t ime t his occurs, carbon dioxide diffuses from t he
blood t o t he alveolus because t he concent rat ion of it is very high in t he blood and
low in t he alveolus.

Adaptations of Alveoli:
Gas exchange happens because of several fact ors in t he alveolus and t he blood
capillaries t hat cont rol t he rat e of gas exchange:
Very t hin wall of bot h t he alveolus and t he capillary, t hey are one cell t hick
which makes t he diffusion dist ance short er, increasing t he rat e.
The difference in concent rat ion of gases bet ween t he alveolus and t he
capillary is very large, increasing t he diffusion rat e of gases.
The alveolus are balloon shaped which gives it a very large surface area for
fast er diffusion.
The walls of t he alveolus are lined by a t hin film of wat er in which gases
dissolve in during diffusion, t his makes it fast er.

Composition of Inspired and Expired Air:

Gas
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide

Inspired Air
21%
0.04%

Expired Air
16%
4%

Nit rogen
Wat er Vapour

79%
Variable

79%
High

Lung Capacit y:
When lungs of an adult are fully inflat ed t hey have a volume of about 5 lit res.
T idal Vo lume: This is t he volume of air breat hed in and out at rest , t his is 0.5
lit res.
Vital Vo lume: The maximum volume of air t hat can be breat hed in and out , at
exercise for example is 3 lit res.
Residual Vo lume: The lungs have t o have a cert ain volume of air inside t hem all
t he t ime t o keep shape. This is t he residual volume and it is 1.5 lit res. This air is
renewed t hrough breat hing.

Aerobic Respirat ion:

A chemical, met abolic react ion t hat burns down glucose wit h oxygen producing
carbon dioxide, wat er vapour and lot s of energy
Aero bic Respiratio n: t he release of relat ively large amount s of energy in cells by
t he breakdown of food subst ances in t he presence of oxygen.

Anaerobic Respirat ion:

Some organisms are able t o respire and release energy when oxygen is lacking. This
is anaerobic respirat ion. These are like yeast , bact eria and ot her organisms. Humans
can also respire anaerobically for a short period of t ime. The amount of energy
produce is much smaller t han t hat produced during aerobic respirat ion t hough.
Anaero bic respiratio n: t he release of relat ively small amount of energy by t he
breakdown of food subst ances in t he absence of oxygen.
C6 H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) 6 O2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
Anaero bic Respiratio n I Yeast: Yeast is able t o respire anaerobically by
breaking down glucose molecules int o et hanol and carbon dioxide.
C6 H12O6 2C2H5OH + 6CO2
Et hanol is produced here, so it is a ferment at ion react ion. Do remember t hat
glucose is t he only react ant .

Anaerobic Respirat ion in Humans:

When t he amount of oxygen received by t he muscle cells of t he body is not enough
t o carry out all respirat ion aerobically, t he cells respire anaerobically. But t hey

cannot go like t hat for a long t ime. The anaerobic respirat ion in humans is different
t han of yeast . Lact ic acid is produced inst ead of et hanol, and no carbon dioxide is
produced.
C6 H12O6 2C3H6 O3
The lact ic acid produced is very t oxic and harmful t o t he body. That is why it has t o
be broken down wit h oxygen as soon as possible. This is called oxygen debt .
Breaking down lact ic acid releases energy t oo, if you add up t he amount of energy
produced during breaking down lact ic acid and anaerobic respirat ion, you will find
t hat it is t he same as t he amount produced during aerobic respirat ion.

Effects of Smoking:
Short T erm Effect s:
Cilia cant vibrat e anymore, t he air inhaled isnt clean. Goblet cells release
more mucus which makes t he t rachea narrower.
Nicot ine increases heart beat rat e and blood pressure.
Carbon monoxide combines wit h haemoglobin inst ead of oxygen combining
wit h it .
Carboxyhaemoglobin is formed which is st able.
Less oxygen t ransport ed t o cells.

Diseases Caused By T ar:

Chro nic Bro nchitis:
Tar makes goblet cells in t rachea produce excess mucus
Mucus falls int o lungs
Bact eria in mucus breed causing infect ions like bronchit is
The layer of excess mucus lining t he walls of t he alveoli increase t he
diffusion dist ance of gases making gas exchange slower
Emphysema:
The excess mucus lining t he alveoli irrit at es it , causing st rong coughs which
damage t he alveoli.
The alveoli lose it s shape and surface area making gas exchange much
slower.
This cause short breat hes and sounds while breat hing.
Lung Cancer:
When t ar reaches t he lungs, it is absorbed by cells of t he bronchi,
bronchioles and t he lungs.
The t ar causes excessive division and reproduct ion of t hese cells which
develops int o cancer
The cancer can be spread t o ot her organs t oo.

Diseases Caused By Nicot ine:

Co ro nary Heart Disease:
Nicot ine helps cholest erol deposit ion on walls of coronary art eries. This
causes at heroma.
Carbon monoxide also increases risk of blood clot s forming which might
result s in blocking t he art ery.
Less oxygen is delivered t o heart cells, a heart at t ack or failure can t ake
place leading t o deat h.

Excretion in Humans
Excret ion is t he removal of t oxic mat erials, t he wast e product s
of met abolism and subst ance in excess of requirement s from
organisms. Met abolism is chemical react ions t aking place inside
cells, including respirat ion.
The body excret es t hree main wast e mat erials. These are Carbon
Dioxide, Urea and Wat er. Excret ion is a very import ant feat ure t o
us because wit hout it t oxic subst ances will build up in our bodies
and kill us. It also helps in maint aining t he composit ion of body
fluids.
The Excret ory Syst em of humans is made up of 4 st ruct ures: Two
kidneys, t wo uret ers, a bladder, and t he uret hra. The kidneys act
as a filt er t o filt er t he wast e product s from t he blood, t he
uret ers are t ubes t hat t ransport t he main wast e product s (urine)
from t he kidneys t o t he bladder, where it is st ored unt il it is
excret ed out of t he body t hrough t he uret hra.

Formation of Urea:
When you eat a food high in prot ein, it is digest ed in t he small int est ine
int o amino acids.
The villi on t he walls of t he small int est ine absorb t he amino acids int o t he
hepat ic port al vein.
Hepat ic port al vein is a special vein t hat t ransport s digest ed mat erial from
t he small int est ine t o t he liver.
The liver plays a big role in maint aining t he level of prot ein in our body. It
absorbs all amino acids from t he hepat ic port al vein. If t he body needs
prot eins, t hey will pass t hrough t he liver int o t he blood st ream t o be used
by t he body cells t o make prot ein.
If t he body does not need prot eins. The liver will absorb excess amino
acids and break t hem down int o carbohydrat es and nit rogen. The formula
of amino acids is CHON; here we remove t he nit rogen from t he molecule,
t o get a carbohydrat e. This is called deaminat ion. Nit rogen is made int o
urea which is a nit rogenous wast e product .
The product s are t hen released t o t he blood st ream.

Kidneys Structure:
A kidney consist s of t wo main st ruct ures:
Cort ex (out er layer)
Medulla
Bet ween t he cort ex and t he Medulla, t here is a st ruct ure called
t henephro ne.
The nephrone is t he where filt rat ion of t oxic mat erials from t he
blood t akes place. We have many of t hem in each kidney.
In t he cent re of t he kidney t here is a cavit y called
t he pelvis which leads t o t he uret er.

Structure of Nephrone:
The nephrone st art s wit h a cup shaped st ruct ure called Bowmans capsule. Inside
t he Bo wmans capsule t here is a very dense net work of blood capillaries
ent ering as capillaries from t he renal art ery and exit ing as capillaries from t he renal
vein. This dense net work of capillaries is called Glo merulus. The rest of t he
nephrone is a long coiled t ube where mat erials filt ered from t he blood flow in. At
some point t he coiled t ube becomes st raight and is bent in a U shape t ube, t his
part is called lo o p o f Henle and it is surrounded by a net work of capillaries from
t he renal vein, it is where reabsorpt ion t akes place. All nephrones end at a large
t ube called t he Co llecting duct where cont ent of t he nephrones are t ransport ed
t o t he pelvis, t o be secret ed in t he uret er.

Mechanism of the Kidneys:

Ult rafilt rat ion:
The blood in t he renal art ery cont ains large amount s of urea, glucose, wat er, mineral
ions and some amino acids. When it reaches t he glomerulus, t he high pressure of
t he blood and t he concent rat ion gradient of t hese mat erials bet ween t he blood and
t he nephrone cause most of t hese subst ances t o diffuse from t he blood t o t he
bowmans capsule and become cont ent of t he nephrone, which is called glomerular
filt rat e (glomerular filt rat e is a mixt ure of urea, wat er, glucose and mineral ions t hat

diffused from t he blood t o t he nephrone).

Reabsorpt ion:
The glomerular filt rat e moves in t he nephrone t ill it reaches t he loop of henle, which
is surrounded by a dense net work of blood capillaries of t he renal vein. Here t here is
a concent rat ion gradient of t he cont ent of t he cont ent of nephrone bet ween t he
nephrone and blood. Bot h diffusion and act ive t ransport occur t o ensure t he
complet e reabsorpt ion of valuable subst ances from t he glomerular filt rat e back t o
t he blood; t hese subst ances are glucose and amino acids. Some wat er also moves
by osmosis t o t he blood, as well as minerals.
That leaves urea, excess wat er and minerals t o cont inue in t he nephrone t ill it
reaches t he collect ing duct and t he pelvis. This mixt ure is called urine. Urine is
t ransport ed from t he pelvis t o t he urinary bladder by t he uret ers. It is t hem
secret ed out of t he body t hrough t he uret hra.

Dialysis:
If a person get s a kidney failure, which means his kidneys
cannot funct ion anymore, t hey have t o wash t heir blood
on regular basis wit h a machine t hat is an alt ernat ive t o
t he damaged kidneys. This process is called dialysis.
During t his process, a t ube is at t ached t o t he pat ient s
vein; t he t ube is at t ached t o t he dialysis machine on t he
ot her end. There is anot her t ube coming out of t he
machine t o t he pat ient s vein. The blood is sucked from
t he pat ient s vein, it goes t hrough t he machine, and out
from t he ot her side back t o t he pat ient s vein.
When t he blood ent ers t he dialysis machine, it is very
rich in wast e mat erials (urea, excess wat er and
minerals). The t ubes inside t he dialysis machine are
made of a part ially permeable membrane t o allow
diffusion. The t ubes are also surrounded wit h dialysis
fluid
which is t he same as blood plasma. The concent rat ion of wast e product s in t he blood is much higher in
t he blood t han in t he dialysis fluid. This creat es a concent rat ion gradient , diffusion occurs and wast e
product s leave t he blood t o t he dialysis fluid, which t hen exist s t he machine and get s disposed. The
dialysis fluid has t o be renewed cont inuously t o keep t he concent rat ion gradient of wast e product s
higher in t he blood, t hus ensuring t hat all wast e product s leave t he blood. The clean blood is t hen
ret urned t o t he pat ient s vein.

Homeostasis
The human body has t he abilit y t o maint ain a const ant int ernal environment so t hat
every organ and cell is provided t he perfect condit ions t o perform it s funct ions. This
is called homeost asis. There is no organ syst em for t his funct ion. However, every
organ plays a role in maint aining a const ant int ernal environment . For example t he
lungs are responsible for t he supply of oxygen t o cells. The liver is t o maint ain a
const ant level of glucose and amino acids, and so on..

T emperature Regulation:
A healt hy human should have a body t emperat ure of 37C. If t he body t emperat ure
drops below 37C, met abolic react ions become slower because molecules move
slower and have less kinet ic energy. If t he t emperat ure rises above 37C, t he
enzymes of t he body begin t o get denat ured and met abolic react ions will be much
slower.
Somet imes, t he t emperat ure of t he area you are at is low enough t o decrease your
body t emperat ure. Somet imes it is high enough t o raise your body t emperat ure.
This is why t he body has t he abilit y t o cont rol it s body t emperat ure. Our skin is
responsible for t his process.

T he Human Skin:
The skin is an organ t hat coat s
your ent ire body. The skin is made
up of t wo layers, t he Epidermis
and t he dermis.
The epidermiss main funct ion is t o
prot ect t he dermis which cont ains
most of t he st ruct ures, and
prot ect t he body from ult ra-violet
rays. The surface of t he epidermis
is made of t ough, dead cells.
The dermis cont ains many useful
st ruct ures. Hairs, sweat and
sebaceous glands, sense
recept ors and erect or muscles are
responsible for cont rolling t he
body t emperat ure. Blood vessels
t ransport oxygen and nut rient s t o
t he cells of t he skin.
A healt hy body is cont inuously gaining and losing heat . Met abolic react ions like respirat ion release a lot
of heat energy, muscular act ivit y increase t he met abolic rat e and release more heat energy. The body
can also gain t emperat ure from t he surroundings like t he sun or by eat ing hot food. Heat is lost by t he
body t hrough exposed skin by conduct ion. If t here is sweat or wat er on t he skin, it will absorb body heat
t o evaporat e which drops t he t emperat ure. All t hese fact ors are normal however, but it is considered
dangerous when t he body t emperat ure keeps on dropping or rising severely.

Cooling Down the Body:

When t he body is overheat ed, t he body t akes
several act ions t o drop it by t rying t o lose heat
in several ways:
Vaso dilatio n: t his act ion causes t he
body t o lose heat quickly. It involves
widening t he lumen of blood vessels of
t he skin, t his increases blood flow and
rat e of heat loss. The vessels are also
brought near t he surface of t he skin t o
reduce t he dist ance heat has t o t ravel
t o escape.
Sweating: Sweat glands near t he skin
begin t o secret sweat on t he surface
of t he skin t hrough t he pores. This
sweat act s as a heat consumer t o
absorb t he body heat and use it in
evaporat ion. The act ivit y of sweat
glands is increased when t he
t emperat ure of t he body rises.
Hairs lie flat: The muscle erect ors of t he hairs relax making t he hairs lay flat of t he skin.
When t he hairs are erect , t hey t rap air in t he gaps bet ween t hem, t his act s as an insulat ion and
prevent s heat loss. But when t he hairs are flat , less air is t rapped bet ween t hem so t here is no
insulat ion and more heat can be lost .

Heating Up the Body:

When t he body t emperat ures drop, t he body t akes
several act ions t o regulat e it s t emperat ure by
insulat ion t o prevent heat loss and producing heat
energy:
Vaso co nstrictio n: t his causes t he blood
vessels t o become narrower t o reduce heat
loss. They also sink deep int o t he skin t o
increase t he dist ance heat has t o t ravel t o
escape t hus reducing heat loss.
Shivering: t he muscles in t he limbs st art t o
cont ract and relax rapidly, t hus increasing t he
rat e of respirat ion and amount of heat
energy released by it .
Hairs beco me erect: muscle erect ors
cont ract and make t he hairs erect and st and
up vert ically t rapping air in t he gaps bet ween
t hem. This act s as insulat ion t o reduce heat
loss.

How the Body Senses Change in internal environment:

When t he bodys int ernal t emperat ure changes t he t emperat ure of t he blood
changes wit h it . When t he blood flows t hrough t he brain, a part of it called

t he hypo thalamus det ect s t he drop or rise in t emperat ure. The brain t hen st art s
sending elect rical impulses t o t he rest of t he body so t hat it works on heat ing or
cooling it s self.
This process is called Negat ive Feedback. Negative feedback is not for change in
t emperat ure only t hough, it is for any change in t he int ernal t emperat ure including
t he blood glucose level.

Regulating Blood Glucose Level:

For blood glucose level however, t he pancreas is t he organ which monit ors it s level
not t he hypot halamus. When t he blood flows t hrough t he pancreas, t he pancreas
det ect s t he level of glucose in it . If it is higher t han normal, t he pancreas secret es a
hormone called insulin. Insulin flows in t he blood t ill it reaches t he liver. When it
reaches t he liver, insulin hormone will make it convert excess glucose in t he blood
int o glycogen and st ore it in t he liver cells. When t he blood glucose level becomes
normal, t he pancreas will st op secret ing insulin so t hat t he liver st ops convert ing
glucose. If t he blood glucose level decreases below normal, t he pancreas secret es
anot her hormone called glucago n. When glucagon reaches t he liver, it makes t he
liver convert t he glycogen it made from excess glucose back int o glucose and
secret e it int o t he blood st ream so t hat t he blood glucose level goes back t o
normal. When t his happens t he pancreas st ops secret ing glucagon.
Normal Blood Glucose Level: 80-100 mg per 100cm3.

Co-ordination and Response

You have previously learned t hat one of t he 7 charact erist ics of living organism
is irritability or sensit ivit y. And t his is t he abilit y t o det ect a change in t he out er
environment and respond t o it . A change in t he environment is also called
a stimulus (plural st imuli). Act ions t aken by t he body in order t o co-operat e wit h a
st imuli are called responses. The body det ect s a st imulus by part s in t he body
called recepto rs and is able t o respond t o it t hrough ot her part s
called effecto rs. Two organ syst ems are cont inuously working t o det ect and
respond t o st imuli, t hese organ syst em are called t he nervo us system and
t he endo crine system.

T he Nervous System:
The nervous syst em is a syst em of organs working t oget her t o det ect and respond
t o st imuli. The nervous syst em is made up of t wo syst ems, t he Central Nervo us
System (C.N.S) and t he Peripheral Nervo us System (P.N.S) t he peripheral
nervous syst em connect s t he cent ral nervous syst em t o t he ot her part s of t he
body.

Cent ral Nervous Syst em (CNS):

The cent ral nervous syst em is made up of t he brain and t he spinal cord. The spinal
cord is basically a big bundle of nerve cells running t hrough a t unnel inside t he
backbone which prot ect s it while t he brain is prot ect ed by t he skull. The cent ral
nervous syst em is what gives out orders t o ot her part s of t he body t o perform
cert ain jobs.

T he Peripheral Nervous Syst em PNS:

The peripheral nervous syst em is t he ot her part of t he nervous syst em. The main job
of t he PNS is t o det ect st imuli and send impulses t o t he CNS according t o t he st imuli.
The PNS is made of recept ors and nerves t hat carry t he impulses.
Recept or cells are ones whose funct ion is t o det ect somet hing about it s
environment . There are many recept ors in t he body t hat are able t o det ect many
changes like t emperat ure, t ouch, light , sound and chemicals. There are some organs
in t he body t hat are t here t o det ect just one st imulus, like t he eye for example.
These are called senso ry o rgans and t hey can be defined as a group of recept or
cells responding t o specific st imuli.
Effect ors are t he opposit e of recept ors. Recept ors are t wo det ect t he st imuli while
effect ors are t wo respond t o it . Effect ors are usually muscles and glands.

Neurons (Nerve Cells):

Neurones are one of t he most import ant st ruct ures of t he nervous syst ems.

Neurones act as a wire t hat t ransmit s elect rical impulses all over t he body. Like a
cable t hat consist s of many wires, a bundle of neurones is called a nerve. There are
3 t ypes of neurones, each t ype is t o t ransmit elect rical impulses from a specific
place t o anot her.
Mo to r Neuro ne: This is a neurone t hat t ransmit s elect rical impulses from t he
Cent ral nervous syst em t o t he effect ors.

This neurone is made up of t hree segment s; t he cell body which is t he st art of t he

mot or neurone and is in t he CNS, axon which st ret ches out from t he cell body all t he
way t o end of t he neuron, and t he mot or plat e which is t he end of t he neurone and
is in t he effect or muscle.
Neurones have feat ures t hat are common bet ween most animal cells like a nucleus,
cymiddlelasm and cell surface membrane, but t hey also have some exclusive
feat ures like t he axo n. The axon is an ext ended cymiddlelasm t hread along which
elect rical impulses t ravel. Some mot or neurones have axons of lengt h 1 met re.
Axons are coat ed by a layer of myelin called myelin sheath, t his is an elect rically
insulat ing layer which is essent ial for t he proper funct ioning of t he nervous syst em.
Anot her exclusive feat ure of neurones is dendrites, t hese are several short
t hreads of cymiddlelasm coming out of t he cell body. Their funct ion is t o pick up
elect rical impulses from ot her cells.
The last exclusive feat ure of mot or neurones only is mo to r end plate. This is just
t he end of t he axon which is in t he muscle. It passes t he elect rical impulses from
t he neurone t o t he muscle fibres.
Senso ry Neuro nes: like ot her neurones, sensory neurones carry elect rical
impulses from one place t o anot her. But sensory neurones carry elect rical impulses
in t he direct ion different t o t hat of mot or neurones, from t he recept ors t o t he CNS.

The sensory neurones shape is unique. This is because it is made of a cell body,
wit h t wo arms ext ending out of it . The first arm is t he axon whichs ot her end is in
t he CNS. The second arm is dendrit e whichs ot her end is in t he recept or. The
dendrit e is similar in st ruct ure t o t he axon except t hat it joins t he recept or wit h t he
cell body. The elect rical impulses of t he sensory neurone flow from t he recept or,
t hrough t he dendrit e t o t he cell body, t hen from t he cell body t o t he CNS t hrough
t he axon.
Relay Neuro ne: Relay neurones are locat ed in t he CNS. Their job is t o pass
elect rical impulses from t he sensory neurone ont o t he mot or neurone, so it act s like
a diversion.

Where neurones meet , t hey are not act ually t ouching each ot her. Inst ead t here is a
gap called synapse or junct ion box. When t he elect rical impulses reach t he end of a
neurone, t he neurone secret es a chemical t ransmit t er which passes by diffusion t o
t he ot her neurone causing t he impulses t o be carried from t he first neurone t o t he
second.

Reflex Arc (Nervous Syst em in Act ion):

If your finger t ouches a hot surface, recept or cells in t he skin of your finger det ect a
st imulus, which is a sudden rise in t he t emperat ure. The recept or uses t he energy of
t he st imulus t o generat e elect rical impulses. These impulses are t hen carried by t he
axons of t he dendrit es of t he sensory neurone t hrough cell body t o axon and from
t he axon t o t he CNS. At t he CNS t he elect rical impulses t ravel t hrough t he synapse
t o t he relay neurone, which passes it ont o t he mot or neurone. The nerve impulses
are t ransmit t ed t hrough t he axon of t he mot or neurone t o t he t arget ed muscle
which cont ract s when elect rical impulses reach it , result ing in your finger being pulled
away from t he hot surface. This pat hway is called t he reflex arc and happens in
about a fract ion of a second.

Reflex Arc:

RECEPTOR Sensory Neurone CNS Motor Neurone

EFFECTOR

Volunt ary and Involunt ary Act ions:

The reflex arc is a reflex act ion. Reflex means it is aut omat ically done wit hout your
choice. This is because when t he elect rical impulses reach t he relay neurone in t he
CNS from t he recept ors, some impulses are carried by ot her neurones t o t he brain,
and some impulses are passes ont o t he mot or neurone t o t he effect or muscle and
t he response t akes place. The elect rical impulses going t o your brain are much
slower t hat t he ones going t o t he effect or muscle direct ly. This is why t he reflex
act ion t akes place before you realise it , it is uncont rollable. Reflex act ions are said
t o be invo luntary actio ns. Involunt ary act ions st art at t he sense organ heading
t o t he effect or. They are ext remely quick. Vo luntary actio ns are t he ones t hat
you make t he choice t o do. Like picking up a bag from t he floor for example. Your
brain sends elect rical impulses t o t he effect or muscles ordering t hem t o cont ract
so you could pick t he bag up. Volunt ary act ions are slower t han involunt ary act ions

and t hey st art at t he brain.

T he Human Eye:
The human eye is a sensory organ. This means it is an organ of t issues working
t oget her t o det ect and respond t o a specific st imulus, which is light .

Feat ures of t he Human Eye:

Lens: changes shape t o focus light on ret ina
Ciliary muscles: cont ract s and relaxes t o adjust t hickness of t he lens
Suspenso ry ligaments: loosens and t ight ens t o adjust t hickness of
lens
Iris: widens and narrows t o cont rol amount of light ent ering t he eye
depending on light int ensit y
Cho ro id: middle layer surrounding t he eye. It cont ains many blood vessels
Sclera: out er most t ough, prot ect ive layer of t he eye.
Retina: inner most layer. It is sensit ive t o light and it is where t he fovea is
and it has rods and cons
Fo vea: very light sensit ive spot
Blind spo t: Where t he opt ic nerve t ouches t he eye. No light sensit ive
cells in t his area.

How We See:
When t he light hit s an object , it is reflect ed in all direct ions. When a light ray
reflect ed from t he object hit s your eye you see t hat object . At t he back of your
eye, t here is a spot on t he ret ina called t he fovea (blind spot ). This spot is full of
light sensit ive cells. When t he light ray falls on t he fovea, t he light sensit ive cells
generat e elect rical impulses t hat t ravel t hrough t he opt ic nerve t o brain. When t he
elect rical impulses reach t he brain, t he brain generat es t he image you see. This all
happens in less t han a fract ion of a second.
But t his is t he general idea only. Light rays
ent er t he eye from every direct ion. If t hey are
not focused on t he fovea, t hey will most
probably not hit it and we wont see. Here
comes t he role of t he front part of t he eye.
When t he light ray hit s t he eye at an angle, it
first has t o penet rat e t he cornea which
refract s (bends) t he light ray inwards. The
cornea act s as a converging (convex) lens.
Then t he light penet rat es t he lens which
refract s t he ray a lit t le more inwards focusing
t he light ray on t he fovea. And t hus t he light
ray is focused on t he ret ina. When t he ray hit s
t he ret ina, t he closer t o t he fovea t he
sharper t he image is.

Accommodat ion:
The angle at which t he light ray hit s t he hit s t he eye depends on t he dist ance of t he
object . Every light ray t hat hit s t he eye needs a cert ain amount of refract ion in
order t o be direct ed t o t he fovea. This is why t he lens has t he abilit y t o widen and
narrow according t o t he dist ant of t he object youre looking at in order t o make t he
light ray hit t he ret ina at t he right spot . This is called accommodat ion. Light rays
refract ed from close object s are diverging (spreading out ), t hey need t o be
refract ed inwards t o be focused on t he fovea. When you look at a close object , it

t akes some t ime t ill t he vision becomes clear. This is because at first , t he light ray
is not correct ly refract ed, so it hit s t he ret ina away from t he fovea. The elect rical
impulses are generat ed and sent t o t he brain which realises t hat t he image is not
clear. The brain t hen sends elect rical impulses t o t he ciliary muscles making t hem
cont ract . When t he ciliary muscles cont ract t he suspensory ligament s become
loose, t his makes t he lens become t hicker and rounder for more refract ion of t he
light rays. Now t he light rays are correct ly refract ed and hit t he ret ina at t he fovea,
t he image becomes clear.

For far visions it is t he exact opposit e. The rays reflect ed from far object s are
almost parallel. Very lit t le refract ion should be done. The brain sends elect rical
impulses t o ciliary muscles making t hem relax, t he suspensory ligament s now
t ight en up and pull t he lens which become narrow.

Dist ance

Ciliary muscles

Suspensory
ligament s

Lens

Near
Far

Cont ract
Relaxes

Loosen
t ight en

Widens
narrows

Rods and Cones:

The ret ina is full of light sensit ive cells called phot orecept ors. There are t wo t ypes
phot orecept ors, t hey are rods and cones. Rods and cones are specialised t ypes of
neurons. They look alike but t hey are a lit t le different in funct ion.
Rods are sensit ive t o dim light . At night or in dark places, most light det ect ion
elect rical impulses t ransmission is done by rods. Vit amin A is essent ial for proper
funct ioning of rods, if Vit amin A lacks it can lead t o night blindness. Rods are spread
all over t he ret ina.
Cones are sensit ive t o bright and coloured light . All cones are packed in one area,
t he fovea.

T he Pupil:
The pupil of t he eye is t he dark round area in t he cent re of it . It is
surrounded by a coloured ring st ruct ure called t he iris. The pupil and
t he t oget her play a big role in prot ect ing t he eye from damage by
limit ing t he amount of light ent ering t he eye. If t oo much light fall on
t he ret ina, t he rods and cones get damaged. The iris and pupil
change t heir size t o smiddle t hat happening. The iris cont ains t wo
set s of muscles; Circular and Radial muscles. Circular muscles run
around t he iris and radial muscles run from t he cent re t o t he out side.
When circular muscles cont ract t hey make t he pupil smaller. When
t he radial muscles cont ract t he st ret ch t he pupil out wards making it
wider.
In bright light , t oo much light st art s ent ering t he eye, which is dangerous for t he
rods and cones, which det ect t he high light int ensit y. The rods and cones st art a
reflex arc by sending elect rical impulses t o t he brain via sensory neurone. The brain
responds by sending elect rical impulses t o t he muscles of t he iris via mot or
neurone. These impulses make t he circular muscles cont ract and t he radial muscles
relax limit ing t he amount of light ent ering t he eye, t hus prot ect ing t he rods and
cones from damage.
If you walk int o a dark room, t he rods and cones sense t he lit t le amount of light .
They st art anot her reflex arc and send elect rical impulses t o t he brain which
responds by sending elect rical impulses t he muscles of t he iris. The radial muscles
cont ract and t he circular muscles relax widening t he pupil t o let more light in.

Antagonistic Muscles:
You have just learned t hat in order for t he pupil t o get narrower or wider, t wo
muscles work simult aneously, when one cont ract s t he ot her relaxes. Pairs of
muscles like t hat are called ant agonist ic muscles.
The most known ant agonist ic muscle pair is t he biceps and t riceps of t he arm. The
bi and t he t ri for short , t hey are what causes t he movement of t he arm. They work
simult aneously t o bend or st raight en t he arm. The biceps is locat ed in front of t he
humerus bone of t he upper arm. The biceps is joined t o t he radius bone of t he lower
arm and t he t riceps is joined t o t he ulna bone of t he lower arm. Muscles are
at t ached t o bones by st rong fibres called t endons.
When you want t o bend
your arm t he brain send
t wo elect rical impulses,
one t o t he bi making it
cont ract and one t o
t he t ri t elling it t o relax.
When t he bi cont ract s,
it becomes short er
pulling t he bones t o
which it is at t ached
close and bending t he
arm. This causes t he
fibres of t he t ri t o
st ret ch while t hey are
relaxed.
To st raight en your arm,
t he brain send elect rical
impulses t o bot h
muscles making t he bi
relax in order t o leave
t he muscle it is
at t ached t o free. The
t ri cont ract s and
becomes short er
pulling t he muscle it is
at t ached t o int o place
and st raight ening t he
arm.
The biceps can be called a flexor because it flexes (bends) t he arm. The t riceps can
be called an ext ensor because it ext ends (st raight ens) t he arm.

Drugs:
A drug is a chemical subst ance t hat modifies and affect s chemical react ions of t he
body when t aken in. Many drugs are useful t o us like ant ibiot ics, painkillers and
caffeine.
Some drugs however are abused by users t o feel relaxed, or reach euphoria.
Euphoria is a st at e of mind at which t he abuser feels ext remely happy and relaxed.
These drugs include alcohol and heroin.

Alcohol:
Alcohol is a depressant drug. This means t hat it reduces t he act ivit y of t he brain
and slows down t he nervous syst em and reflex act ions. Alcohol can be ext remely
dangerous when t he user is in a sit uat ion in which t hey need fast reflex act ions.
Alcohol is addict ive. The more you drink it t he more you need it . The user may reach
a point where t hey cannot do wit hout alcohol, t his is when t hey become alcoholics.
Alcohol is broken down int o fat s by t he liver. If t he abuser drinks t oo much alcohol,
t he cells of t he kidney may die short ening t heir life.

Heroine:
Heroine is a narcot ic drug. This means t hat it relieves pain and induces sleep.
Heroine is ext ract ed from a plant called opium poppy. Most heroine abusers become
addict s. For t he addict s heroine become t he number one priorit y in t heir lives. They
would do anyt hing t o get t he drug even become criminals and possess a t hreat t o
t heir societ y. If not rehabilit at ed, a heroine abuser will end up homeless or dead.
Some heroine users inject t he drug in t heir veins by an unst erilized, shared needle,

t his increases t he risk of get t ing AID/HIV.

T he Endocrine Syst em:

You have previously learned t hat messages are delivered
around body as elect rical impulses by t he nervous syst em.
Anot her way messages are t ransport ed around t he body
is by chemicals calledho rmo nes secret ed by t he
endocrine syst em.
Hormones are chemical subst ances produced by a gland,
carried by t he blood, which alt ers t he act ivit y of one or
more specific t arget organs and is t hen dest royed by t he
liver.
Hormones are produced in organs called endo crine
glands which make up t he endocrine syst em. The
following diagram shows t he glands of a human body.
Glands are organs made of secret ory cells whichs funct ion
is t o produce hormones and secret t hem int o t he
bloodst ream. Glands have a dense net work of blood
capillaries in t hem t o secret t he hormones in. hormones
are carried around t he plasma like all ot her cont ent of t he
blood but cert ain organs are able t o use t hem, t hese
are target o rgans.
Gland

Hormone
produced

Adrenal
gland

Adrenaline

Pancreas
Test is
Ovary

Funct ion of hormone

Insulin

Prepares t he body for act ivit ies t hat need energy and quick reflex
act ions
Makes liver reduce blood glucose level

Glucagon
Test ost erone
Oest rogen
Progest erone

Makes liver increase blood glucose level

Produces male secondary sexual charact erist ics
Produces female secondary sexual charact erist ics
Helps cont rol menst rual cycle and maint ain pregnancy

Adrenaline:
When you get a fright you feel some changes in your body like a sudden increase in
heart beat rat e, blood flowing quickly in veins and your breat h becomes deeper and
fast er. This is because t he fright you got caused t he brain t o send elect rical
impulses t o t he adrenal glands making t hem secret e adrenaline hormone in your
bloodst ream. Adrenaline is a hormone t hat is secret ed from t he adrenal glands t o
prepare t he body for sit uat ions t hat need lot s of energy and fast reflex act ion, like
fight s or running away for example. Adrenalines main object ive is t o increase your
met abolic rat e so t hat you have enough energy for fight ing or running away et c. This
is why adrenaline is called t he t hree Fs hormone (Fight , fright , flight ). One of
adrenalines t arget organs is t he heart . When adrenaline reaches t he heart it causes
t he cardiac muscle t o cont ract and relax much rapider so t hat oxygen and glucose
reach t he muscles of t he body fast er. Adrenaline also makes t he liver convert
glycogen int o glucose and secret it in t he blood t o be used in respirat ion. When
adrenaline reaches t he diaphragm and t he int ercost als muscles of t he ribs, t hey
make it cont ract and relax fast er t oo t o increase rat e of breat hing. These changes
cause an increase in t he respirat ion rat e so t hat lot s of energy is being released.
Generally, adrenaline is secret ed when you are nervous or anxious.

Use of Hormones in Food Indust ries:

Technologies and science have advanced enough t hat we can now gut much more
money out of farming and animal keeping. Hormones are now being used in farms t o
increase milk yields in cows and growt h rat e in cat t le and fish.
In farms, t he cows are being inject ed wit h a hormone called Bovine Somat ot ropin or
BST. BST is a hormone t hat is nat urally produced in cows. The funct ion of BST is t o
produce milk. Inject ing cows wit h ext ra BST will boost milk product ion and bring in
more money for t he farmers. Some people however are against t he use of BST and
claim it is safer for bot h t he cows and t he consumer t o keep it nat ural and keep
more cows if we want an increased milk yield.
Growt h hormones are also being mixed wit h t he food fed t o cat t le t o increase t heir
growt h rat e and make t hem grow larger. But again many people are against t his and
prefer buying meat and fish t hat were nat urally grown.

Comparing Nervous and Endocrine Systems:

Nervous Syst em
Informat ion sent in form of elect rical
impulses
Informat ion t ravel neurones
Informat ion t ravels ext remely rapidly
Informat ion is headed t o one t arget
(effect or)

Endocrine Syst em
Informat ion sent in form of chemical
hormones
Informat ion t ravel in bloodst ream
Informat ion t ravels relat ively slow
Informat ion may be used by several
t arget ed organs

Elect rical signals have an effect t hat

ends quickly

Hormones have a longer last ing effect

Coordinates and Responses in Plants:

Plant s cannot move t hemselves t o areas of preferable condit ions. This is why plant s
have t he abilit y t o det ect a st imulus and respond t o it by growing or bending in it s
direct ion or away from it . These responses are called t ropisms. For example a plant
t ends t o grow it s st em in t he direct ion of sunlight for more phot osynt hesis, t his is
atro pism. There are t wo t ypes of t ropism, t hese
are pho to tro pism and geo tro pism.
Pho to tro pism: t he response in which a plant grows t owards or away
from t he direct ion from which light is coming.
Geo tro pism: t he response in which a plant grows t owards or away from
gravit y.
A t ropism can be eit her posit ive or negat ive. If a t ropism is in t he direct ion of t he
st imulus, it is posit ive. If t he t ropism is away from t he st imulus it is negat ive.
For example, a plant s shoot t ends t o grow in t he direct ion of sunlight , t his is
posit ive phot ot ropism. But t he plant s root grows in t he opposit e direct ion deeply
int o t he soil, t his is negat ive phot ot ropism. However, posit ive phot ot ropism can
also be described as negat ive geot ropism because it involves t he plant growing in
t he direct ion opposit e t o gravit y. And negat ive phot o t ropism can be described as
posit ive geot ropism because it involves t he plant growing t owards gravit y.

Auxins:
Tropisms are cont rolled by a chemical called Auxin. Auxin is a plant hormone. It is
produced by cells at t he t ip of root s and shoot s of plant s. At t he t ip of a shoot ,
t here is an area in which cells are being produced by dividing so t hat t he shoot
grows. Old cells do not divide, but t hey grow longer inst ead. The growt h of t hese
cells longer is cont rolled by auxins. Auxins is what makes t he plant grows t his is why
a plant doesnt grow if you cut it s t ip off.

Auxins Role in Phot ot ropism:

If t he sun shines on t he right side of a plant s shoot , auxins will accumulat e on t he
dark opposit e left side. Auxins accumulat ing t here makes t he cells on t he left side
grow much fast er t han t he cells on t he right side. When t he left side of t he shoot
st art s growing fast er t han t he right side, t he shoot will st art t o bend t o t he right
side t owards sunlight . This is phot ot ropism.

Auxins Role in Geot ropism:

Auxins t end t o set t le at t he bot t om end of t he root . However, t his does not make
t he sells of t he t ip of t he root grow longer. Inst ead, auxins prevent t he cells at t he
bot t om t ip of t he root from growing, making t he cells at t he middle of t he root
grow fast er. When t he cells of t he middle of t he root grow fast er, t hey push t he
root deeper int o t he soil and t he root get s longer. The root grows in t he direct ion of
t he gravit at ional pull. This is geot ropism.
Root s show posit ive geot ropism and negat ive phot ot ropism because t hey grow
t owards gravit y and away from sunlight at t he same t ime. Shoot s show posit ive
phot ot ropism and negat ive geot ropism because t hey grow t owards t he sunlight
and away from gravit y at t he same t ime.

Advant ages of Posit ive Phot ot ropism:

Leaves exposed t o more sunlight and are able t o do more phot osynt hesis,
Flowers can be seen by insect s for pollinat ion,
The plant get s higher for bet t er seed dispersal.

Advant ages of Posit ive Geot ropism:

By growing deeply int o t he soil, t he root fixes t he plant int o t he ground
firmly,
Root s are able t o reach more wat er,

Root s have a larger surface area for more diffusion and osmosis.

Select ive Weed Killers:

Auxins can be used t o kill weeds t hat grow over grass or cereal crops. If weed grows
on crops, auxins are sprayed everywhere. Weeds absorb auxins fast er t han crops or
grass. Auxins accumulat e in t he weeds making t hem grow very rapidly. Fast growt h
of weed kills it leaving t he crops or grass alive. Auxins are used ass select ive weed
killers.

Posted by Hamza Afzal at 07:46

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