Earthquake Engineering

Research Institute
The Great Sumatra Earthquake and
Indian Ocean Tsunami
of December 26, 2004
An illustrated description of their causes and effects

Preface
This presentation was developed to explain the origins of the
Sumatra earthquake of December 26, 2004 and the ensuing
tsunami, and to document the damages caused by the
earthquake and tsunami in so many countries around the
Indian Ocean.

The presentation was created

largely by Widianto, a doctoral
candidate in civil engineering
and president of the EERI
student chapter at the
University of Texas at Austin.

Other contributors include

Sarah Nathe, Craig Comartin,
and Heidi Faison.

This project was supported by funds from the National Science Foundation through
EERIs Learning From Earthquakes Program under grant # CMS-0131895

The 26th December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman

earthquake is the fourth largest earthquake in the
world since 1900 and is the largest since the 1964
Prince William Sound, Alaska earthquake.
United States Geological Survey (USGS)

The tsunami that struck Southeast Asia on

December 26, 2004 has been confirmed as the most
devastating in modern history.
Guinness Book of World Records

Contents

Introduction: Plate tectonics, earthquakes

Sumatra Earthquake
- Tectonic activity
- Observations
- Damage

Indian Ocean Tsunami
- Basic mechanism
- Videos: before and after giant wave arrival
- Damage

Tsunamis in the USA

Tsunami Risk Reduction

The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute

Introduction Plate Tectonics

The Earth is characterized by a small number of lithospheric plates that
float on a viscous underlayer called the asthenosphere.

Geological evidence shows that plates undergo constant, gradual
change. Magma is continually upwelling at the mid-oceanic ridges and rises
as the seafloor spreads apart.

In some areas, large sections of plates are forced to move beneath other
plates (surface layers of rocks are absorbed into the earths interior). These
areas are called subduction zones.

A plate being subducted beneath another

Introduction Plate Tectonics

Source: Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt

Introduction Plate Tectonics

95% of earthquakes occur along the edges of the interacting plates

Source: Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt

Worlds Largest Magnitude Earthquakes

Earthquake

Magnitude

Year

Approx. casualties

1. Chile

9.5

1960

>2000

2. Prince William
Sound, Alaska

9.2

1964

125

3. Andreanof
Islands, Alaska

9.1

1957

Not reported

4. Kamchatka
Peninsula

9.0

1952

Not reported

5. Sumatra

9.0

2004

>283,100
(>173,000 in Indonesia)
Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

Earthquake Energy

Sumatra-Andaman (2004)

Source: Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt

Sumatra Earthquake
Magnitude: 9.0
Date-time: Sunday, December 26,
2004 at 7:58:53 AM (local time)
Depth: 30 km (18.6 miles)
Distances:
* 250 km (155 miles) SSE of Aceh,
Sumatra, Indonesia
* 310 km (195 miles) W of Medan,
Sumatra, Indonesia
* 1260 km (780 miles) SSW of
Bangkok, Thailand
* 1605 km (990 miles) NW of
Jakarta, Java, Indonesia
Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

Tectonic Summary

It occurred on the interface of
the India and Burma plates: an
interplate earthquake.

India plate subducts beneath
the overriding Burma plate at
the Sunda Trench.

In the region of the earthquake,
the India plate moves toward the
northeast at a rate of about
6 cm/year relative to the Burma
plate.

Thrust faulting caused the
earthquake (slip directed
perpendicular to the trench).

Fault rupture propagated to
the northwest from the epicenter
with a width 100 km and an
average displacement on the fault
plane 20 meters.

6 cm/yr

Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

Felt Shaking Reports

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale:
 Banda Aceh, Sumatra: IX

Medan, Sumatra: IV

Port Blair, Andaman Islands: VII

Subsidence and landslides

were observed in Sumatra.

A mud volcano near Baratang,
Andaman Islands began erupting
on December 28, 2004.

Intensity vs. Distance from
Epicenter Plot :

Source: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

Aftershock
Zone

Extends from
Northern Sumatra to
the Andaman Islands,
~ 1300 km to the north.

Largest aftershock
directly following the
main shock was M =
7.1 in the Nicobar
Islands.

On March 28, 2005, a
M = 8.7 earthquake
occurred in a region of
the fault southeast of
the Dec 26th mainshock
and its rupture zone.

Epicenter of mainshock,
28 Mar 2005

Earthquake Damage
Location: Banda Aceh,
Sumatra, Indonesia

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Photo: Jose Borrero

Structural damage to concrete frame building.

Earthquake Damage
Location: Banda Aceh,
Sumatra, Indonesia

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Photo: Murat Saatcioglu, Ahmed

Ghobarah, Ioan Nistor

Partial collapse of concrete frame building due to column failure.

Earthquake Damage
Location: Banda Aceh
Sumatra, Indonesia

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Photos: Murat Saatcioglu, Ahmed

Ghobarah, Ioan Nistor

Partial collapse of concrete frame building due inadequate column reinforcement.

Earthquake Damage
Location: Banda Aceh,
Sumatra, Indonesia

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Photo: Jose Borrero

Architectural damage to the

Grand Mosque tower.

Earthquake Damage
Location: Port Blair,
Andaman Islands

Port Blair

epicenter

Column of residential building damaged by ground motion.

Source: Geological Survey of India

Earthquake Damage
Longitudinal (50 m long)
crack on Kamraj Road after
the earthquake

Location: Port Blair,

Andaman Islands

Port Blair

epicenter

Major crack showing a rupture width of

15 cm on Kamraj Road after the
earthquake
Source: Geological Survey of India

Earthquake and Tsunami

Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis.

An earthquake must have certain characteristics in order to

generate a tsunami:
1. Epicenter is underneath or near the ocean.
2. Fault causes vertical movement of the sea floor (up to
several meters) over a large area (up to 100,000 km2).
3. Large magnitude ( > 7.5 ) AND shallow focus ( < 70 km).

Source: Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt

Basic Tsunami Mechanism

An earthquake causes a
vertical movement of the
seafloor, which displaces the
sea water.

Large waves then

radiate from the epicenter

in all directions.

Tsunami Explained

A tsunami is series of traveling ocean waves of extremely long length
generated primarily by earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor.

Tsunami waves propagate across the deep ocean with a speed exceeding
800 km/h ( 500 mph) and a wave height of only a few tens of centimeters or
less.

As they reach the shallow waters of the coast, the waves slow down and
their height increases up to tens of meters (30 ft) or more.

Source: NOAA

Tsunami Translated
Japanese word:
Tsu means
harbor
Nami means
wave

English translation:
Harbor wave

Tidal wave is a misnomer because the cause

is unrelated to tides.

Seismic sea wave is misleading because a
tsunami can be caused by non-seismic events,
and it is not dangerous in the open ocean.

Water Recession: A Precursor

Wave Generation

Draw Down Effect

From: Nature Publishing Group

From: Nature Publishing Group

Kalutara Beach, Sri Lanka

From: Digital Globe

Tsunami Wave Appearance

Source: www.waveofdestruction.org

A tsunami wave crest has

three general appearances
from shore:

Fast-rising tide
Cresting wave
A step-like change in the
water level that advances
rapidly (called a bore)

Series of waves

A bore on the Qian Tang Jiang River, China

Most tsunamis come in a series of waves that may last for several
hours
The outflow of water back to the sea between waves can cause
more damage than the original incoming wave fronts
The first wave is rarely the largest

Tsunami Propagation

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan

Tsunami Damage
Location: Lhoknga, Indonesia

Lhoknga

Before Tsunami
January 10, 2003
epicenter

After Tsunami
December 29, 2004
Source: National University of Singapore

Tsunami Damage
Location: Lhoknga, Indonesia

Lhoknga

Photo: Jose Borrero

Exposed
bridge piers of
road that
washed away. epicenter

High Water Mark

Overturned
ship

Broken Trees
Photo: Jose Borrero

Damage zone showing an

overturned tanker, trees
snapped in half, and the
high water mark on islands
where vegetation was
stripped away.

Tsunami Damage
Location: Gleebruk, Indonesia

Gleebruk

Before Tsunami
April 12, 2004
epicenter

After Tsunami
January 2, 2005

Source: Digital Globe

Tsunami Damage
Gleebruk

epicenter

Before Tsunami
April 12, 2004

After Tsunami
January 2, 2005

Source: Digital Globe

Tsunami Damage
Location: Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Banda Aceh

Before Tsunami
June 23, 2004
epicenter

After Tsunami
December 28, 2004

Source: Digital Globe

Tsunami Damage
Location: Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Photo: Jose Borrero

A boat was
lifted on top
of houses
by the
waves.

Banda Aceh

epicenter

Damage was caused by

both water and water-borne
debris.
Photo: Jose Borrero

Tsunami Damage
Location: Banda Aceh & Lhoknga,
Indonesia
Banda Aceh

epicenter

The tsunami waves came

from many directions and
flowed across the tip of
northeastern Sumatra.
Graphic: Jose Borrero

Tsunami Damage
Location: Thailand

Kerala
Coast
Thailand

Damage to Kao
Lak Resort from
tsunami waves.
epicenter

Photo: Curt Edwards

Despite the presence of debris,

this naval base building had
little structural damage due to a
retaining wall at its frontage.
Photo: Chitr Lilavivat

Tsunami Damage
Location: Sri Lanka
Flow depths were
about 4.5 m at Yala
Safari Resort, where
water levels were
determined by debris
in the trees (see door
impaled on branch).

Damage to house in Tangala.

Kerala
Coast
Sri Lanka

epicenter

Tsunami Damage
Location: Kerala, India

Kerala Coast

The collapsed front

portion of a concrete
house.

epicenter

In the village of Alappad, the foundations and

the soil beneath many of the houses were
scoured out.
Source: Geological Survey of India

Tsunamis in the U.S.A.

The west coast, from California to Alaska, is vulnerable to

tsunamis from nearby or distant earthquakes.
Hawaii is extremely vulnerable to all tsunamis in the Pacific
Ocean.
California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska and Hawaii all have
tsunami education programs for residents and visitors,
coastal signage, and warning response plans.

Photo: Kirkpatrick, NISEE Collection

Tsunami induced damage in Seward, Alaska

from 1964 Alaska earthquake

Photo: Eugene Schader, NISEE Collection

Warped pier in Crescent City, CA caused by

1964 Alaska earthquake tsunami

Historical Tsunamis in the U.S.A.

Tsunami Source

Year

Affected States

Tsunami Casualties

Cascadia Fault
Earthquake

1700

West coast

unknown

Aleutian Earthquake
(Mw = 8.3)

1946

AK, HI , WA, OR, CA

159 (Hilo, Hawaii)

165 (total)

Lituya Bay, Alaska

Landslide

1958

AK

Chile Earthquake
(Mw = 9.5)

1960

CA, HI

61 (Hilo, Hawaii)

Alaska Earthquake
(Mw = 9.3)

1964

AK, HI , WA, CA

120 (total)

Sources: NOVA; International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC)

Tsunami Risk Reduction

1. Determine & understand community tsunami risk

Hazard:



Vulnerability:


Study the shape of the sea floor and the coastal topography
Run simulations of tsunamis
Develop maps of potential risk areas

Exposure:


Costal communities, especially with tsunami history

2. Avoid new development in tsunami run-up areas

1.
2.

Designate risk areas as open-space, i.e., parks and agriculture

Zone to minimize human risk
1.

Low density residential zoning

2.

Large single-residence lots

Tsunami Risk Reduction

3. Locate and configure new development in the run-up
areas to minimize future tsunami losses

Avoid inundation areas

i.e. build on high ground

SLOWING

Slowing water currents

i.e. Conserve or replant coastal belts
of forest and mangrove swamps

STEERING

Steering water forces

i.e. angled, by-pass walls

Blocking water forces

i.e. Build sea walls

BLOCKING

Source: National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP)

Tsunami Risk Reduction

4. Design and construct new buildings to minimize
tsunami damage

Heavy and rigid structure

Raise building on stilts*

Many openings on the

ground floor *

Orient perpendicular to the

shoreline:

*Use caution with this design in areas

with high earthquake-shaking risk.

Elevated restaurant in Hilo, Hawaii. Lower level is designed

to allow waves to pass through.
Source: National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program

Tsunami Risk Reduction

4. Tsunami-resistant buildings (cont.)
Overturning

Tsunami forces on
structures

Sliding

WAVE
Water pressure
& debris impact

Scouring

Rigid connection

Buoyancy
Lowest
horizontal
structure
above wavecrest

Structure designed to resist

tsunami forces

Horizontal
member
perpendicular to
the wave
Lateral bracing

Deep protected piles

Source: National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP)

Caveat: Remember EarthquakeResistant Design Principles

Most communities at risk from tsunamis are also at risk from

damaging earthquakes
Buildings designed well for earthquakes typically perform
well in tsunamis

Photo: Jose Borrero

Well-designed building standing amidst the

rubble in Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Photo: Jose Borrero

Well-designed building withstood tsunami forces

without collapse in Banda Aceh, Indonesia

Tsunami Risk Reduction

5. Protect existing development through

redevelopment, retrofit, and land reuse plans and

projects

6. Take special precautions in locating and designing

infrastructure and critical facilities

Locate critical infrastructure (water plants, hospitals, etc)

outside the tsunami danger zone
Relocate or protect critical infrastructure
Plan for emergency and recovery

Tsunami Risk Reduction

Plan for Evacuation

Identify vertical evacuation buildings

Create horizontal evacuation routes
Develop early warning systems
Educate and inform public

Tsunami Risk Reduction

Tsunami early warning system:



Pressure sensors sit on the ocean

bottom and measure the weight of
water column above them.
If a tsunami passes overhead, the
pressure increases and the sensor
sends a signal to a buoy sitting on the
sea surface.
The buoy then sends a signal to a
satellite, which in turn alerts a staffed
early warning center.

Tsunami Risk Reduction

The least expensive and the most important mitigation effort is

"Even without a warning system, even in places where they

didn't feel the earthquake, if people had simply
understood that when you see the water go down, when
you hear a rumble from the coast, you don't go down to
investigate, you grab your babies and run for your life,
many lives would have been saved."
Lori Dengler, Humboldt State University
New Scientist Magazine
January 15, 2005

The power of knowledge:

Victor Desosa saved the

village of Galbokka in Sri
Lanka because he knew
what to do when the water
receded.
Only one inhabitant in his
village was killed.
Casualty rates in nearby
villages were 70 90 %

Natural hazards are inevitable.

Natural disasters are not.
John Filson, USGS retired
New York Times
December 27, 2004

Earthquake Engineering
Research Institute

EERI is a professional, association dedicated to

reducing earthquake risk.

Members of EERI work in the many different

fields of research and professional practice
dedicated to reducing earthquake losses.

EERI Programs

Publications Website, Monthly Newsletter and

Quarterly Technical Journal--Earthquake Spectra

Technical Seminars & National Conferences

Web based World Housing Encyclopedia
5 Regional Chapters -- Political Advocacy
20 Student Chapters
Learning From Earthquakes Program
Field reconnaissance of earthquake impacts to learn
lessons for research and practice

To contact us or become a member of EERI, visit our website:

www.eeri.org

References

United States Geological Survey (USGS)

U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

UNESCO / Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)

International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC)

Laboratoire de Geophysique, France (LDG)

Earthquakes: A Primer, Bruce A . Bolt, W.H. Freeman, 1978

Digital Globe

Geological Survey of India

National University of Singapore

New Scientist magazine, Issue #2482, January 15, 2005

BBC News

Nature, Vol. 433, January 27, 2005, Nature Publishing Group

Sri Lanka Reconnaissance Teams:
http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/srilanka05/ &
http://www.gtsav.gatech.edu/cee/groups/tsunami/index.html

References (cont.)

Natural Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (NTHMP), Designing for
Tsunamis, March 2001

National Information Service for Earthquake Engineering (NISEE),
Earthquake Image Database, Karl Steinbrugge Collection

www.wavesofdestruction.org

Field Survey of Northern Sumatra, Jose Borrero, EERI Newsletter,
March 2005

Pacific Tsunami Museum

NOVA: The Wave that Shook the World, PBS
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tsunami/

Metro TV, Surabaya Citra Televisi Indonesia (SCTV), Rajawali Citra

Televisi Indonesia (RCTI)

Prof. Wiratman Wangsadinata, Wiratman & Associates Consulting
Company, Indonesia

EERIs Virtual Clearinghouse:
http://www.eeri.org/lfe/clearinghouse/sumatra_tsunami/overview.html