13 CURRENT DEMAND FOR ANCHORAGES

Anchoring techniques have evolved mainly in the last 30 years, and it is

interesting to mention that between 1953 and 1972 at least 35 patents were
taken out for work in soil and rock, sorne with many similarities and
common characteristics.
The ground anchor market at present appears quite sizable, yet it should
not be considered fully developed in terms of types and number of appli
cations. With the completion of major projects in construction work here
and abroad, anchor market temporarily reaches a limit leve! of activity. It
appears, therefore, that this type of work will have to be expanded since
current construction volumes are not sufficient to compensate for the de
creased activity following programs already completed. Furthermore, the
unique characteristics of underground projects and their associated depen
dence on the general economic conditions make anchorage work highly
sus ceptible to market tluctuations.
In general, the use of anchorages is favored by the following factors:
l. Development of conventional prestressing and miniaturization of ac
tive loads, allowing the preloading of structure.
2. Production of high-speed drills and injection methods under pressure
in alluvial terrains.
3. Extension of anchor longevity and improved monitoring methods, both
enhancing permanent construction.
4. Ability of anchors to resist tensile forces.
5. Production of high-capacity anchors that can be used in stiff clays and
in fine sands and silts. In fact, only the very soft and compressible
soils do not readily lend themselves to anchorage systems, since in
these conditions the cost per unit of resisting force increases to leveis
that make anchors rarely competitive with other methods.
6. Demand for more and deeper urban excavations often below the
groundwater table, including underground parking, gradually prompt
ing the abandoning of traditional bracing techniques in favor of an
chorages.

7. A remarkable technological awareness and judgment, which has en

abled engineers and contractors to successfully respond to special or
exceptional project conditions, even when a relevant precedent was
lacking.

Anchor Groups and Uses

In terms of anchor response to loading, the method may be regarded as a

special application of prestressing in foundation and graund work. On the
other hand, anchorages can be grouped into three main categories in terms
of ground terminology and according to the geology and topography of the
site: (a) soil anchors, covering 70-80 percent ofthe market; (b) rack anchors,
representing 10-20 percent of the market; and (e) marine anchors, also in
stalled in fluvial environment or aggressive water, accounting for about 10
percent of the market.
The clear predominance of soil anchors indicates the frequency of soil
substratum in the majority of urban and industrial excavations, consisting
mostly of alluvium, silty sand and clay. The most common and frequent
uses, whether temporary or permanent, are as follows:
Soil Anchors
l. Support retention systems in deep excavations.

2. Anchor and stabilize foundation slabs subjected to uplift caused by

graundwater or heave.
3. Preconsolidate unstable soils to increase their bearing capacity.
4. Provide reactions for pile load tests.

5. Compensate and balance the effect of overturning forces in power

transmission towers, special roofs, ski jumps, and mobile homes.
6. Tiedown underground storage tanks.
7. Provide lateral support of tunnel walls in cut-and-cover excavations.
8. Stabilize deep slabs of nuclear structures.
9. Carry out remedia!, salvage and repair work.
Rock Anchors
l. Protect and stabilize rack formations and slopes.

2. Support underground rock cavities and galleries, where anchors re

place timber and steel supports.
3. Raise and strengthen Iarge dams, often quite expensive and incon
ceivable without the use of high-capacity anchors.

4. Anchor abutments of cableways, television masts, and bridge abut ments where
large tension forces must be transmitted to the ground.
5. Consolidate mine shafts and other special structures.

Marine Anchors
l. Protect coastal structures and defenses.
2. Stabilize reclaimed areas.
3. Protect river embankments and navigation canals.
4. Strengthen sea and fluvial facilities.
5. Protect oil jetties.