Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines
by
Pradeep Kumar Ramancharla, Terala Srikanth, Vasudeo Chaudhary, Chenna Rajaram, Bal Krishna Rastogi,
Santhosh Kumar Sundriyal, Ajay Pratap Singh, Kapil Mohan
Report No: IIIT/TR/2014/-1
Centre for Earthquake Engineering

International Institute of Information Technology
Hyderabad - 500 032, INDIA
March 2014
VACI/IIIT-H/Report: 04
Assessment of Vulnerability of Installation near Gujarat

Coast Vis--vis Seismic Disturbances
Title: Draft Report on Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Hyderabad
Institute of Seismological Research

Government of Gujarat, India
Ministry of Earth Sciences

Government of India
August 2013
Earthquake Engineering Research Centre

Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500 032, India
Participants
From
International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad
Ramancharla Pradeep Kumar
Terala Srikanth
Vasudeo Chaudhary
Chenna Rajaram
From
Institute of Seismological Research, Govt. of Gujarat
Bal Rastogi
Santosh Kumar Sandriyal
Ajay Pratap Singh
Kapil Mohan
Vulnerability Assessment of
Buried Pipelines
Abstract
Pipelines have been acknowledged as the most reliable, economic and efficient means for
the transportation of water and other commercial fluids such as oil and gas. They are often
referred to as lifelines, since they carry materials essential to the support of life and
maintenance of property. The earthquake safety of buried pipelines has attracted a great
deal of attention in recent years. Many buried pipelines in India run through high seismic
areas and therefore are exposed to considerable seismic risk. Pipelines running through high
seismic zones should be designed in such a way that they remain functional even after
subjected to high intensity earthquake shaking.
In this report, performance of one of the high pressure gas pipeline in the state of Gujarat,
under the fault movement and soil liquefaction is carried out. Based on the result from the
study some recommendations are made to minimize the effect of earthquake on the
existing pipeline. In the design of a pipeline for crossing a fault line, the following
considerations generally will improve the capability of the pipeline to withstand differential
movement. The following recommendations are as follows:
1. The pipelines crossing fault line should be oriented in such a way to avoid compression in
the pipeline. Abrupt changes in wall thickness should be avoided within fault zone. In all
areas of potential ground rupture, pipelines should be laid in relatively straight section
avoiding sharp changes in direction and elevation.
2. To the extent possible, pipelines should be constructed without field bends, elbows, and
flanges that tend to anchor the pipeline to the ground. If longer length of pipeline is
available to conform to fault movement, level of strain gets reduced. Hence, the points of
anchorage should be provided away from the fault zone to the extent possible in order to
lower the level of strain in the pipeline.
3. The burial depth of pipeline should be minimized within fault zones in order to reduce soil
restrain on the pipeline during fault movement. Pipelines may be placed on the above
ground sliding supports.
4. In the design of a pipeline for in the Liquefied zone, the following considerations generally
will improve the capability of the pipeline to withstand buoyancy force due to soil
liquefaction. The buoyancy effect can also be minimized by shallow burial of the pipeline
above the ground water level. An increase in pipe wall thickness will increase the pipelines
capacity for buoyancy force due to soil liquefaction.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction.....1
2. Pipeline Scenario in India..3
2.1
Petroleum pipeline....3
2.2
Gas pipeline...3
2.3
Crude oil pipeline.4
3. Pipeline policies and guidelines...7

3.1
Policy...7
3.2
Transnational pipelines....8
3.3
Indian Standards...8
4. Past pipeline performances.....13

4.1
Seismic Hazard....13
4.2
Indian context..13
5. Effects of earthquake on pipelines .14

5.1
Continuous pipeline.......16
5.1.1
Tensile failure..16
5.1.2
Local buckling.16
5.1.3
Beam buckling.17
5.2
Segmented pipeline....17
5.2.1
Axial Pullout ...17
5.2.2
Crushing of bell and spigot joints.19
5.2.3
Flanged joint failure....19
5.2.4
Circumferential flexural failure and joint rotation.20
6. Vulnerability Assessment of buried pipelines......21

6.1
Location 1-5......21
6.2
Parametric study.........70
7. Conclusions....81
8. References......83
List of figures
1. A map of Indias Oil product pipelines of Gujarat state ....2
2. Indias product pipelines (Source: Petronet India Ltd)...5
3. Crude oil and gas pipelines in India .6
4. Effect of landslide on pipeline resting tensile strain (ASCE, 1984) .16
5. Locally buckling steel gas pipeline in the compression zone at North slope of
Terminal Hill in 1994 Northridge earthquake. (EERI, 1995).....17
6. Beam buckling of a water pipeline made of iron. (USGS Photo Library) ..18
7. Axial pull-out at the joint of a water supply pipeline at Tangshan East Water
Works in Tangshan Earthquake 1976 (EERL, 2004) ..18
8. Failed cast iron pipe due to failure of bell and spigot joint at Navlakhi port due to
lateral
spread
in
2001
Bhuj
earthquake
(ASCE,
2001)..19
9. Flanged joint pipe failure. (ASCE, 1997) ....20
10. Leaking at bell and spigot joint of water supply pipeline due to bending at
Shippy Ghat, Port Blair in M9.0 Sumatra earthquake of 2004 (Photo: Suresh R
Dash) ....20
11. a) Pipeline crossing parallel to the ground movement. b) Pipeline crossing
transverse to the ground movement24
16. Total strain vs pipe thickness for pipe diameter is 12 71
List of Tables
1. Summary of IOC pipelines in the last year ......5
2. Details of six pipelines by Reliance Industries Ltd .6
3. Earthquake impact on Gujarat state during 1901-2002.11
4. Maximum strains in the pipe in compression and tension in four cases ...32
6. Maximum strains in the pipe in compression and tension in four cases....50
8. Maximum strains in the pipe in compression and tension in four cases...69
9. Strains due to internal pressure and temperature change with pipe wall thickness
for pipe diameter is 12 .........70
13. Longitudinal strains in the pipe due to tension and compression for pipe
diameter is 12 ............74
diameter is 18 ............75
diameter is 24 ............75
diameter is 30 ............76
17. Total strains in the pipe due to tension Pipe diameter is 12 and fault
displacement 1.5m..........76

25. Total strains in the pipe due to tension Pipe diameter is 12 and PGA =0.45g 79
1. Introduction
Pipelines have been acknowledged as the most reliable, economic and efficient
means for the transportation of water and other commercial fluids such as oil and gas.
These pipeline systems are commonly used to transport water, sewage, oil, natural gas
and other materials. They are often referred to as lifelines since they carry materials
essential to the support of life and maintenance of property. The earthquake safety of
buried pipelines has attracted a great deal of attention in recent years. Pipelines are
important lifeline facilities spread over large area and encounter a range of seismic
hazards and soil conditions. Many buried pipelines in India run through high seismic
areas and therefore are exposed to considerable seismic risk. Pipelines running through
high seismic zones should be designed in such a way that they remain functional even
after subjected to high intensity earthquake shaking. Pipeline systems are commonly
used to transport water, sewage, oil, natural gas, etc over a large area and encounter a
variety of seismic hazards and soil conditions. Pipelines are generally buried below
ground primarily for aesthetic, safety, economic and environmental reasons. The gas
and liquid fuel pipelines are generally welded at the joints to act as a continuous
pipeline. Pipelines having rigid joints (i.e., strength and stiffness of joints are more than
that of pipe barrel) are generally referred to as continuous pipelines (e.g., steel pipe
with welded connection). On the other hand, the water supply pipelines with
mechanical joints are generally treated as segmented pipelines. These segmented
pipelines consist of pipe segments that are connected by relatively flexible connections
(e.g., cast iron with bell and spigot joint).
Modern pipelines manufactured with ductile steel with full penetration butt welds at
joints possess good ductility. It has been observed that the overall performance record
of oil and gas pipeline systems in past earthquakes was relatively good. However
catastrophic failures did occurs in many cases, particularly in areas of unstable soils.
Failures have mostly been caused by large permanent soil displacements (FEMA-233).
A pipeline transmission system is a linear system which traverses a large geographical
area, and soil conditions thus, is susceptible to a wide variety of seismic hazards.
Ruptures or severe distortions of the pipeline are most often associated with relative
motion arising from fault movements, landslides, liquefaction, loss of support, or
differential motion at abrupt interfaces between rock and soil. Notable the most
catastrophic damages are the once resulting from faulting and liquefaction.
India is currently making huge investments in pipelines. Considering high seismicity of
our country, it is important to ensure seismic safety of buried pipelines. Gujarat is one
of the high earthquake prone states in India. And in last few years many state owned
10

and private organizations had build up their pipeline networks across the state. Owing
to these facts the performance of buried and above ground pipeline structures subjected
to faulting and soil liquefaction effect and other seismic hazards have become an
important subject of study. Gujarat State Petronet Ltd organization intends to expands
its grid to 2200kms with an outreach to all the 25 districts of Gujarat thereby enabling
industry, households and transportation to drive the benefits of an environment
friendly fuel.
Figure 1. A map of Indias Oil product pipelines of Gujarat state

This report illustrates the performance of one of the high pressure gas pipeline in the
state of Gujarat, under the fault movement and soil liquefaction. Based on the result
from the study some recommendations are made to minimize the effect of earthquake
on the existing pipeline.
Important characteristics of buried pipelines are that they generally cover large areas
and are subject to a variety of geotectonic hazards. They can be damaged either by
permanent movements of ground (i.e., PGD) or by transient seismic wave propagation.
Permanent ground movements include surface faulting, lateral spreading due to
liquefaction, and land sliding. Although PGD hazards are usually limited to small
11

regions within the pipeline network, their potential for damage is very high. On the
other hand, wave propagation hazards typically affect the whole pipeline network, but
the rate of damage is lower (i.e., lower pipe breaks and leaks per unit length of pipe).
2. Pipeline Scenario in India

2.1 Petroleum and gas pipelines in India
In view of the strategic importance of the oil & gas industry and oil security, and
recognizing the increasing demand for energy, to fuel economic growth, the
Government of India (GOI) has developed the India Hydrocarbon Vision 2025for the
oil & gas industry. This vision statement creates a road map that guides the Indian
policy on oil & gas up to the period 2025, forms the backbone and lays the framework
for the policy initiated for the hydrocarbon sector; comprising the different segments
including pipelines (both national and transnational) in a structured and organized
manner. Details below present, in brief, the current status of the pipelines systems in
India - for crude oil, products pipelines and gas.
Pipelines occupy a key position in any petroleum and gas sectors logistics. Both public
sector units and private sector players tried to ensure control over this safe and
economical mode of transportation in India. Initially each of these players had plans of
laying their own pipelines, but the GOI wanted to ensure systematic growth, thus
leading to the creation of Petronet India Ltd (PIL), a financial holding company, in 1998,
with the objective of constructing a refined petroleum product pipeline infrastructure in
the country. PIL is a joint venture organization of Indias state owned refineries,
financial institutions and private sector players on a common career basis. It is
presently building pipelines that are expected to add 500,000 b/d to Indias current
325,000 b/d of pipe-line capacity for the transportation of refined petroleum products.
Presently, a total of eight pipeline projects are being handled by PIL some of which are
already in operation while some others are either under execution or in the planning
stage. India transports just over 45%of its petroleum products via pipe-lines. A map of
Indias Oil product pipelines is shown in Figure 1.
2.2
Gas pipelines
The Gas Authority of India Ltd (GAIL) now called GAIL India Ltd a leading public
sector enterprise, is the largest gas transmission and marketing company in India.
Today GAIL owns over 4000km of pipeline and has about 95%market share in the
Natural Gas business in India. Also, more than half of the total urea production in India
is gas-based, out of which GAIL contributes more than 90%,thus making a significant
contribution to Indias agricultural sector also. The company also completed the worlds
longest (1200 km) and Indias first cross country LPG pipe-line from Jamnagar to Loni,
near Delhi. There exists a total of 3331km of LPG pipelines in the country, with a
12

throughput capacity of 8304MMtpa, work on some of which is still in progress. GAIL is
now in the process of doubling the throughput capacity of its main HaziraBijaipurJagdishpur(HBJ) pipeline. Work on the capacity expansion began in 2002 and will
eventually raise the capacity of the pipeline from about 1.1 Bcf/d to2.1 Bcf/d. GAIL also
plans a new distribution network in West Bengal and a pipeline which could connect
Kolkata with Chennai. India is investing heavily in the infrastructure required to
support in-creased use of Natural Gas. This has become even more so with the major
development in December 2002when Reliance announced its discovery of large
volumes of Natural Gas in the Krishna-Godavari basin, offshore from Andhra Pradesh,
around Indias Southeast coast. New reserves from this find are estimated at about 5
Tcf. Cairn Energy also reported finds in late 2002 offshore Andhra Pradesh as well as
Gujarat, which contains reserves estimated at nearly 2 Tcf. State owned ONGC, which
was originally engaged in the gas production from the Bombay-High offshore fields,
has further added to gas discoveries on Indias East coast as well. Shell has signed a
Memorandum of Understanding with the State Government of Uttar Pradesh in
Northern India for the development of a Natural Gas distribution infrastructure. In
addition, there are regional gas grids of varying sizes in Gujarat (Cambay
Basin),Andhra Pradesh (Krishna-Godavari Basin), Assam(Assam-Arakan Basin),
Maharashtra
(Ex-Uran Ter-minal), Rajashthan (JaisalmerBasin), Tamilnadu
(CauveryBasin), and Tripura (ArakanBasin).
Meanwhile, GSPL(Gujarat State Petronet Ltd)is implementing a 1600 km long gas grid
in the state of Gujarat. GSPL was incorporated as a special purpose vehicle by the
Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation in December 1998, especially to implement the gas
grid for the trans-mission of LNG from import terminals to demand centres across the
state.
2.3
Crude oil & petroleum product pipelines
Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.(IOCL) operates the largest net-work of crude and product
pipelines and transports petroleum products to the various major demand centres of
this geographically vast country and feed four major inland re-fineries. The pipeline
division of IOCL has in-house capabilities of executing pipeline projects from concept to
commissioning without any external support, whatsoever. Proven project techniques
and tools are used in project management to ensure a high level of quality, productivity,
time scheduling and cost control.
A summary of IOC pipelines, as existed at the end of last year is given below:
13
Table 1. Summary of IOC pipelines in the last year
Figure 2. Indias product pipelines (Source: Petronet India Ltd)

Oil India Ltd. transports all crude oil produced in North-East India to refineries
via a 1,157 km pipeline. The Oil& Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC),Indias single
largest crude producer, has a 7900 km onshore pipeline net-work while its offshore
activities include a 3500 km pipeline network. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd(BPCL)
and Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd (HPCL) also have product(over 250 km) and
crude and product pipelines (over 750 km) respectively in operation as well, in addition
to having partnerships with PIL in this economic mode of transport. The CIPL (Central
India Pipeline Project), originally intended to be executed by PIL, has now been
approved for award by the PIL Board to the joint venture of IOCL and Reliance
Industries Ltd (RIL) previously called Reliance Petroleum Ltd (RPL) -on a buildown
transferoperate basis. In their proposal for CIPL, IOC and RPL have estimated a cost of
14

about US$0.32 billion by stripping the spur lines, planned for Bhopal, Indore and
Chittorgarh. Under the policy for the development of petroleum product pipelines
Common User Principle, six pipe-lines to be put up by RIL have been approved. These
include:
Table 2. Details of six pipelines by Reliance Industries Ltd
Pipelines between refineries and major urban centres are replacing rail as the main
mode of transportation. Some of the other pipeline projects for crudes and products
under consideration/ implementation are:
Vadinar- Bina (crude)
Mundra-Bhatinda (crude)
Bina Kanpur
Paradip-Rourkela
Bhatinda-Pathankot
15
Figure 3. Crude oil and gas pipelines in India
3. Pipeline Policies and Guidelines

3.1 Policy
On September 29, 2003 the GoI announced the draft pipeline gas policy which
envisaged the laying of 7,000 km of pipeline network for gas transportation at a cost of
around MMUS$ 3902.86 in the next 5-6 years. As a part of this policy, GOI proposes a
National Gas Grid on the pattern of the National Power Grid to manage the distribution
effectively. While individuals will be permitted to lay pipelines for distribution
purposes, say up to 100 km, but if the length is beyond the prescribed limit the
construction would be carried out in accordance with the Common Carrier Principle to
avoid duplication and wasteful expenditure. The main objective of the draft policy,
presently undergoing finalization with the GOI, is to put in place a distribution system
for carrying gas, the availability of which is likely to improve considerably, it having
been struck at several places, as mentioned above, with arrangements for the movement
of liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) having been tied up indefinitely. Under the proposed
policy, all trunk pipelines covering more than one state or operating at a pressure more
than the notified level will be build or managed by a company to be decided by the GOI
but, until it is notified, by GAIL India Ltd. Seizing the opportunity, GAIL has un-veiled
a MM US$ 4336.51 plan to build a 7,890 km gas grid as shown in Figure 2, along with a
completion schedule. The rationale: gas grids in several countries like Italy, France,
Turkey and also in China and Korea have been built by the NOCs, because of issues of
safety and security. The policy envisages appointment of a Regulator under the
Petroleum Regulatory Board Bill 2002 for regulating transmission, distribution, supply
and storage systems for Natural Gas/LNG and to promote development of the sector.
The Regulator will ensure access to gas pipelines on non-discriminatory common
carrier principle for all users. And the tariff for the transmission pipelines and
distribution pipelines would be approved by the Regulator. Pipelines in India have
traditionally operated at 100%capacity (since these are captive pipelines of oil
companies). However, where pipelines are operated under a common carrier principle
as mooted in the draft pipe-line policy, they may in reality be faced with uncertainty in
utilization, arising from demand supply dynamics. Since these are long life projects,
high capacity utilization over long periods becomes a pre-requisite for financial
viability. Probably the key issue that requires resolution is the demand by the financial
institutions that the proposed pipe-line projects enter into long term Takeor Pay
contracts. According to some, this demand would largely violate the common carrier
principle, which at-tempts to ensure equitable access to all users. The key concern is
price.
16

The principles governing the tariff structure should ensure adequate competition
among various mode combinations, fair return to investors (i.e., returns commensurate
with the risks assumed), equitable access to all users and equitable costs to consumers.
While it is easy to enunciate the broad principles, implementing this could be an
extremely complex task, given the peculiarities of the situation and the relative lack of
time available for formulation of policy and implementation.
3.2 Transnational pipeline

In addition to the pipeline projects being developed within the country as mentioned
above, the GOI is trying to strike alliances to import piped gas from gas-rich countries
in the vicinity, such as Iran and Turkmenistan in central Asia, Qatar and Oman in West
Asia and neighbouring Bangladesh. Proposals for gas pipelines from Iran and
Bangladesh are under active consideration. The first proposition is to connect Irans
South Pars field with the HBJ pipeline. The second preposition is to connect
Bangladeshs Bibiyana gas field in North Eastern Bangladesh with Indias Northern Gas
markets. Unocal Corporation and its subsidiaries in Bangladesh have submitted a gas
export pipeline proposal, known as The Bangladesh Natural Gas Pipeline Project, and
the proposal is pending approval from the Bangladesh Parliament. The recent large gas
discovery in Myanmar (OVL and GAIL collectively hold a 30% stake) has opened up a
new avenue for importing gas into India. The emergence of this option would have a
significant impact on the business dynamics of the proposed transnational pipelines
from Iran and Bangladesh. Another crucial factor in this segment should be the
progress made by the GOI in its efforts to improve the Geopolitical scenario in the
region. GOIs pricing policy (under formulation) would play a crucial role in the
demand supply scenario of gas, as the user industries have alter-native options to gas.
Once GOI clarifies its stand on gas pricing, LNG policy and the common carrier
principle, significant, positive implications for the commercial aspects of the natural gas
industry in India should be forthcoming.
3.3 Indian Standards

The following codes and reports have been used in the preparation of this report.
1. IS 15663(Part 1):2006 This code covers requirements and recommendations for the
design, materials, construction and testing of pipelines made of steel and used in the
transportation of natural gas and re-gasified liquid natural gas (RLING).
2. IS 15663(Part 2):2006 The code covers the minimum requirements for design,
installation and testing of pipelines of steel, crossing roads, railways, water courses and
other buried services.
3. IS 15663(Part 3):2006 This code covers requirements for pre-commissioning and
commissioning of pipelines.
17

4. IS 15654:2006 The standard provides guidelines for the definition, specification,
performance analysis, and application of systems used for supervisory control and data
acquisition for oil and gas pipe lines.
5. IS 15655:2006 This standard enlists various types of telecommunication facilities
required for smooth and efficient operation and maintenance of oil and gas pipelines.
6. IS 15667:2006 This standard applies to data-acquisition and trend-monitoring systems
for gas turbine installations and associated systems.
7. IS 15664:2006 This standard specifies procedures and rules for the conduct and
reporting of acceptance tests in order to determine and/or verify the power, thermal
efficiency and other performance characteristics of gas turbine power plants.
8. IS 15666(Part 1):2006 This standard covers terms and definitions relevant to the
procurement of gas turbine systems.
9. IS 15666(Part 2):2006 This standard specifies the standard reference conditions and
standard ratings for gas turbines.
10. IS 15666(Part 3):2006 This standard covers the design requirements for the
procurement of all applications of gas turbines and gas turbine systems, including gas
turbines for combined cycle systems and their auxiliaries, by a purchaser from a
packager. It also provides assistance and technical information to be used in the
procurement.
11. IS 15666(Part 4):2006 This standard provides guidelines for procurement of gas
turbines with consideration of the fuel quality and of the environmental performance.
Guidance is given to both the packager and purchaser on what information should be
provided with regard to the fuel used by a gas turbine, and with regard to the type of
information necessary to quantify the expected environmental impact.
12. IS 15666(Part 5):2006 This standard specifies requirements and gives
recommendations for the design, materials, fabrication, inspection, testing and
preparation for shipment of packaged gas turbines for use in drilling, production,
refining and the transport by pipelines of petroleum and natural gas. It is applicable to
the procurement of gas turbines and gas turbine systems, including gas turbines for
combined cycle systems, and their auxiliaries by a purchaser from a packager.
13. IS 15666(Part 7):2006 This standard specifies the information that needs to be
submitted during the proposal and contract stages of a project for the entire scope of
supply for which the packager will assume technical and contractual responsibility.
14. IS 15666(Part 8):2006 This standard states the principles for systems and procedures
to assure the integrity of a packagers product and services. It gives guidance on the
inspection, testing, installation and commissioning required for the package and
18

packaged equipment. It outlines the responsibilities between the purchaser and
packager for inspection, coordination, reporting and recording.
15. IS 15666(Part 9):2006 This standard provides a basis for exchange of information
about reliability, availability, maintainability and safety between gas turbine
manufacturers, users, consultants, regulatory bodies, insurance companies and others.
It also describes component life expectancy, repairs and criteria for determining
overhaul intervals.
16. IS 15665:2006 This standard gives terms and definitions used in the field of gas
turbines and applies to open-cycle gas turbines, closed-cycle, semiclosed-cycle and
combined-cycle gas turbines.
17. IS 15657:2006 This standard specifies requirements for centrifugal pumps, including
pumps running in reverse as hydraulic power recovery turbines, for use in petroleum,
petrochemical and gas industry process services.
18. IS 15661:2006 This standard specifies requirements and gives recommendations for
the design, materials, fabrication, inspection, testing and preparation for shipment of
centrifugal compressors for use in the petroleum, chemical and gas service industries.
19. IS 15659(Part 1):2006 This standard specifies requirements of plant applied external
three layer extruded polyethylene and polypropylene based coatings for corrosion
protection of welded and seamless steel pipes for pipeline transportation of gas and
liquid hydrocarbons in the petroleum and natural gas industries.
20. IS 15659(Part 2):2006 This standard specifies the requirements for qualification,
application, testing and handing of materials for plant application of single layer Fusion
Bonded Epoxy (FBE) coatings applied externally for the corrosion protection of bare
steel for use in pipeline transportation systems for the petroleum and natural gas
industries.
21. IS 8062:2006 This code deals with general principles and requirements for cathodic
protection system for prevention against corrosion of external underground buried
surface of metallic high pressure hydrocarbon product pipeline/structure. This
standard is intended to serve as a guide for establishing minimum requirements for
control of external corrosion on pipeline/structure system.
22. IS 15678:2006 This code provides a uniform authentic reference to the pipeline
operators which shall help them in taking decisions about selection of appropriate
Magnetic Flex Leakage (MFL) tool for inline inspection to assess the health of the
pipeline segment in quantifiable terms besides keeping them fully aware as to what best
can be expected out of intelligent pigging inspection.
23. IS 15679:2006 This code covers the minimum requirements of materials, equipments
and accessories for hot tapping and stopple plugging/line plugging operations of
19

onshore natural gas pipelines. It covers the minimum safety requirements to be
maintained during welding, cutting and plug setting, etc, while carrying out the hot
tapping and stopple plugging/line plugging operations on pipelines.
24. IS 15672:2006 This standard provides guidance on selection, installation, calibration,
performance and operation of Corioils meters for the determination of mass flow,
density, volume flow and other related parameters of fluids, synonymous for liquids
and gases.
25. IS 15673:2006 This standard specifies the requirements for the construction, methods
of pressure tapping, working ranges with normal values of minimum/maximum flow
rates and permissible errors for rotary piston meters.
26. IS 15674:2006 This standard covers multipath ultrasonic transit-time flow-meters,
used for custody transfer measurement of natural gas for gas temperature between -10
to 55C.
27. IS 15675:2006 This standard specifies the geometry and method of use (installation
and operating conditions) of orifice plates when they are inserted in a conduit running
full to determine the flow rate of the fluid flowing in the conduit.
28. IS 15676:2006 This standard specifies the requirements of dimensions, ranges,
construction, performance, calibration and output characteristics of turbine meters for
gas flow measurement for custody transfer. It also specifies installation conditions,
leakage testing and pressure testing and provides recommendations for use, field
checks & perturbations of the fluid flowing.
29. IS 15677:2006 This code gives guidance on the specification, design, installation,
operation and maintenance of metering systems for high accuracy flow measurement,
estimation of uncertainty, secondary instrumentation, gas properties related to metering
of natural gas and related safety aspects. These guidelines cover five types of meters
namely orifice, turbine, ultrasonic, rotary and coriolis.
30. IS 15729:2007 This code covers the commissioning, operation and maintenance and
safety aspects of natural gas pressure regulating and metering terminal.
The table below shows the locations of the different earthquakes that have occurred in
the past.
Table 3. Earthquake impact on Gujarat state during 1901-2002
Date
Magnitude
(Richter)
Intensity
(MSK) &
Location
Impact
Source
16 June
Mw 7.5
X 23.60N,
About 3,200 people were killed and
Bilham, 99
20

1819
69.60E
13 August
1821
19 August
1845
VII 23.80N, South-east of lakhpat kutchh District

68.90E
affected.
26 April
1848
VII 24.40N,
Damage in the Mount Abu area.
72.70E
29 April
1864
VII 22.30N,
Surat-Ahmedabad area affected.
72.80E
14 January
1903
24.00N,
70.00E
North-east
affected.
21 April
1919
5.5
VIII
22.00N,
72.00E
Bhavnagar District affected.
14 July
1938
VI 22.40N,
71.80E
23 July
1938
5.5
31
October
1940
Ms 5.8
21 July
1956
6.1
V 22.70N,
72.70E
dozens of towns and villages were

destroyed in kutchh and adjoining
parts of southern Pakistan. The
earthquake resulted in great surface
deformation including a 90-kilometer
stretch that was uplifted about 4m,
called the Allah Bund. The shock was
felt throughout South Asia as far as
Kolkata.
Kaira-Daman-Ahmedabad
affected.
of
kachchh
District
Morbid
USGS
&
NEIC
USGS
&
ASC
USGS
&
ASC
USGS
&
ASC
USGS
&
ASC
USGS
&
ASC
Paliyad region in Bhavnagar District

affected.
VII 22.40N, Felt

at
Rajkot,
71.80E
Vikramgad.
23.70N,
69.10E
area
and
USGS
&
ASC
USGS
&
ASC
Kutchh District affected.
ASC
115 people killed and hundreds

injured. 1,350 buildings destroyed at
Anjar alone. Felt over an area with a
radius of 330 Km and as far as
GSI
21

Mumbai and Hyderabad (Pakistan).
23 March
1970
Ms 5.4
26 people killed and 200 people

injured in Bharuch and the
neighbouring
villages.
Heavy
damage in Bharuch city. Ground
fissures reported over a distance of
20Km and large amounts of water
and sand emitted from them. The
quake was also felt in Ankleshwar,
Bhavnagar, Surat and Vadodara
cities.
ANSS
&
ASC
4. Past Pipeline Performances

4.1 Seismic Hazard
A pipeline transmission system being a linear system which traverses a large
geographical area, and soil conditions thus, is susceptible to a wide variety of seismic
hazards. The major seismic hazards which significantly affect a pipeline system are: i)
ground failure, ii) ground motion and iii) others miscellaneous effects. While ground
failure includes faulting, liquefaction and earthquake induced landslides, tsunamis, and
other affect of supporting and surrounding structures are usually placed under
miscellaneous hazards. Ruptures or severe distortions of the pipeline are most often
associated with relative motion arising from fault movements, landslides, liquefaction,
loss of support, or differential motion at abrupt interfaces between rock and soil.
Notably the most catastrophic damages are the ones resulting from faulting or ground
rupture. Owing to these facts the performance of buried and aboveground pipeline
structures subjected to faulting and other seismic hazards have become important
subject of study.
4.2 Indian Context

Currently, India has 7,000 km of pipelines. The oil and gas pipeline infrastructure is
being accorded top priority by the nation's planners and a network of these pipelines
criss-crossing the nation has been planned. The pipeline market itself is estimated to be
around US$ 9 Billion over a period of five-six years. The National Gas Grid being
implemented by GAIL (India) Ltd, which is expected to take three-four years to reach
completion, will lay a 17,000 km pipeline network. The proposed oil pipeline network,
on the other hand, is expected to build a pipeline network spanning over more then
22

5,000 km. These projects will give an enormous boost to the pipeline demand in the
country.
Notably, India has had more than five moderate earthquakes (Richter Magnitudes ~6.07.5) since 1988. As noted in IS 1893 Himalayan-Nagalushai region, Indo-Gangetic Plain,
Western India, Kutch and Kathiawar regions are geologically unstable parts of the
country, and some devastating earthquakes of the world have occurred there. A major
part of the peninsular India has also been visited by strong earthquakes.
From the past seismic performance of pipelines in various other countries it can be
noted that the consequences of pipeline failure due to earthquakes could be an
exaggerated one, particularly so for India, both in terms of economic and social aspects.
Thus implementing the seismic design considerations at the current phase of Indian
pipeline scenario is absolutely essential.
5. Effects of earthquake on pipelines

The failure of pipelines during past earthquakes is described below.
a) 1971 San Fernando Earthquake: It resulted in direct losses to the pipeline systems by
damaging a 1.24 m diameter water pipeline at nine bend and welded joints. Ductile
steel pipelines were able to withstand ground shaking but could not withstand ground
deformation associated with faulting and lateral spread. Eleven transmission pipelines
were damaged by liquefaction induced lateral spread and landslides. Eighty breaks
occurred to the underground welded steel transmission pipeline located in the upper
San Fernando Valley, the most serious in an old oxyacetylene-welded pipeline.
Although located in an uplift zone the failure was caused by compressive forces
wrinkling the pipes.
b) 1983 Coalinga Earthquake: It caused numerous breaks in the natural gas line but
fires did not occur since the main valve was closed manually shortly after the
earthquake. Several pipeline failures occurred in oil drilling and processing facilities. In
general it was noted that most pipe breaks occurred at pipe connections.
c) 1987 Whittier Narrows Earthquake: Damages during this earthquake were usually
limited to sections that were corroded or anchored at two locations which experienced
large lateral relative displacement. Southern California Gas reported 1411 gas leaks
were directly caused by the earthquake. Portions of the California State University, Los
Angeles were without gas for 12 weeks. Five fires were reported; three of these were
attributed to gas leaks.
d) 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake: This Magnitude 7.1 earthquake caused failure of
many pipelines. Damage consisted primarily of broken water lines. Broken waterlines
23

occurred at the Ford plant from liquefaction and excessive soil pressures. At the Port of
Oakland located on the east side of the San Francisco Bay on fill all water lines broke
and fire lines ruptured eliminating fire fighting protection.
e) 1992 Big Bear Earthquakes: Two earthquakes occurred in San Bernadino County,
California, a magnitude 7.5 another of magnitude 6.6. These two events were followed
by numerous aftershocks. Horizontal fault rupture displacement associated with this
event was from 5 to 9.5 feet. Most pipeline damage was associated with the rupture
zone.
f) 1994 Northridge Earthquake: This event caused about 1,400 pipeline breaks in the
San Fernando Valley area. Outside the zone of high liquefaction potential, the dispersed
pattern of breaks is attributed to old brittle pipes damaged by ground movement. In the
On Balboa Boulevard a 0.5588m pipe suffered two breaks, one in tensile failure and the
other in compressive failure. These pipe failures were located in a ground rupture zone
perpendicular to the pipeline. Leaking gas ignited at several locations. Some broken
water and gas lines were found to have experienced 0.1524 to 0.3048 m of separation in
extension. The area experienced widespread ground cracking and differential
settlements. A 2.159 m sewage pipe ruptured in the Jensen Filtration.
g) 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake: Takarazuka City was also heavily damaged.
The damage on the water supply pipelines was serious and 203 pipeline damages were
reported. Although Sakasedai district has the area of almost 1km square, 30 pipeline
damages (pipe material was DCIP) occurred in the 1995 Hyogoken-nanbu earthquake.
Almost 50% of damages were occurred in unliquefied ground.
h) 1999 (Mw 7.4) Kocaeli, Turkey Earthquake: Substantial water supply damage
occurred in many cities. For example, the entire water distribution system in Adapazari
was damaged. One of them, a water pipe made of steel with a diameter of 2.4 m,
damaged at Kullar due to right-lateral strike-slip. A butt-welded Thames raw water
steel pipeline 2.2 m in diameter crosses the Sapanca Segment of the North Anatolian
fault and was damaged at the fault crossing. Damage was observed at three locations
where a small surface leak was observed in the pipe at point near the fault crossing; a
significant leak occurred at yet another point and a minor leak happened at the bend of
pipe.
i) 1999, the Chichi Earthquake: In Taiwan many buried water and gas pipelines were
damaged at many sites. It was reported that buried gas pipelines underwent bending
deformation due to ground displacement at a reverse fault near the Wushi Bridge about
10 km south of Taichung. The bending deformation in a 100A-size pipeline was V shaped, with the pipeline being bent at three points. The deformation of a 200A-size
pipeline was Z-shaped, with the pipeline being bent at two points. There have been
virtually no cases of substantial deformation comparable to this case in gas pipelines
comprised of welded steel pipes.
24

The main seismic hazards that are responsible for pipeline failure can be described as:
i) Seismic wave propagation
ii) Abrupt permanent ground displacement (faulting)
iii) Permanent ground deformation (PGD) related to soil failures
a) Longitudinal PGD
b) Transverse PGD
c) Landslide
iv) Buoyancy due to liquefaction
The main failure modes of both continuous and segmented pipelines are summarized in
the following.
5.1 Continuous pipeline

5.1.1 Tensile failure
Tensile strain in the pipeline can arise due to any of the seismic hazards (e.g., faulting,
landslide, liquefaction, and relative ground motion) at pipe supports. Figure below
illustrates the effect of landslide on the pipeline resting high tensile strain.
Figure 4. Effect of landslide on pipeline resting tensile strain (ASCE, 1984).
5.1.2 Local buckling

Local buckling or wrinkling in pipeline occurs due to local instability of the pipe wall.
Once the initiation of local shell wrinkling occurs, all subsequent wave propagation and
25

geometric distortion caused by ground deformation tend to concentrate at these
wrinkles. Thus, the local curvature in pipe wall becomes large and leads to
circumferential cracking of the pipe wall and leakage. This is a common failure mode
for steel pipes. Figure below illustrates local buckling of a 77 inch welded steel pipe
during the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
Figure 5. Locally buckling steel gas pipeline in the compression zone at North slope of
Terminal Hill in 1994 Northridge earthquake. (EERI, 1995)
5.1.3 Beam buckling

Beam buckling of a pipeline is similar to Euler buckling of a slender column; the pipe
undergoes an upward displacement. The relative movement is distributed over a large
distance and hence the compressive strains in the pipeline are not too large and the
potential for tearing of the pipe wall is less. For this reason, beam buckling of a pipeline
for a ground compression zone is considered more desirable than local buckling. Beam
buckling generally occurs in pipelines buried at shallow depths of about 3 feet or less.
This can also happen during post-earthquake excavations, which are carried out
deliberately to relieve compressive strain in the pipes. Figure-4 shows beam buckling of
a water pipeline made of iron during the M7.8 San Francisco earthquake in 1906.
5.2 Segmented pipeline

5.2.1 Axial pull-out
26

In the areas of tensile ground strain the common failure mechanism of a segmented
pipeline is axial pull-out at joints, since the shear strength of joint caulking material is
much less than that of the pipe. Figure shows a 30cm diameter cast iron pipeline pulled
apart 25cm during 1976 Tangshan earthquake.
Figure 6. Beam buckling of a water pipeline made of iron. (USGS Photo Library)
Figure 7. Axial pull-out at the joint of a water supply pipeline at Tangshan East Water
Works in Tangshan Earthquake 1976 (EERL, 2004)
27
5.2.2 Crushing of bell-and-spigot joints

In areas of compressive strain, crushing of bell-and-spigot joints is a very common
failure mechanism. Figure shows the failure of a cast iron pipe due to failure of bell and
spigot joint at Navlakhi port area during Bhuj earthquake of January-26, 2001.
Figure 8. Failed cast iron pipe due to failure of bell and spigot joint at Navlakhi port due
to lateral spread in 2001 Bhuj earthquake (ASCE, 2001)
5.2.3 Flanged joint failure

In the areas of tensile ground strain, flanged joint pipeline may fail at joint due to
breaking of the flange connection. Figure shows a flanged joint pipe failure due to
higher tensile strain.
28
Figure 9. Flanged joint pipe failure. (ASCE, 1997)
5.2.4 Circumferential flexural failure and joint rotation

When a segmented pipeline is subjected to bending induced by lateral permanent
ground movement or seismic shaking, the ground curvature is accommodated by some
combination of rotation of joints and flexure in the pipe segments. The relative
contribution of these two mechanisms depends on the joint rotation and pipe segment
flexural stiffness. Figure shows the pipeline leaking at its joint due to excessive bending
in 2004 Sumatra earthquake.
Figure 10. Leaking at bell and spigot joint of water supply pipeline due to bending at
Shippy Ghat, Port Blair in M9.0 Sumatra earthquake of 2004 (Photo: Suresh R Dash)
29
6. Vulnerability assessment of buried pipelines

6.1 Location 1-5
Today, underground conduits serve in diverse applications such as sewer lines, drain
lines, water mains, gas lines, telephone and electrical conduits, culverts, oil lines, coal
slurry lines, subway tunnels, and heat distribution lines. Among these seismic design of
buried pipeline has great importance in the field of lifeline engineering. The pipelines
are usually buried below ground for economic, aesthetic, safety and environmental
reasons. In certain circumstances it may be required to take those pipes above ground
but this case is relatively uncommon. Generally the oil and gas pipelines are designed
and constructed as continuous pipelines, while water supply pipelines are constructed
as segmented pipelines.
Failures have mostly been caused by large permanent soil displacements.
This section discusses seismic analysis method for buried pipes subjected to a strong
earthquake. This can be used as a basis for evaluating the level of strengthening or
increased redundancy needed by existing facilities to improve their response during
seismic events. So this covers design criteria for wave propagation, fault crossing and
permanent ground deformation (PGD) due to liquefaction, lateral spreading, etc.
This analysis and design criteria require the following engineering information.
Pipeline information
a) Pipe geometry (diameter, thickness);
b) Type of joint;
c) Stress-strain relationship of pipe material;
d) Pipeline function and its post seismic performance requirement;
e) External pipe coating specification;
f) Operating pressure in the pipe;
g) Operational and installation temperature;
h) Pipeline alignment detail (plan, profile location of fittings, etc); and
i) Reduced strain limit for existing pipelines.
Site information
30

a) Burial depth of the pipeline;
b) Basic soil properties (unit weight, cohesion, internal friction angle and in situ
density).
c) Properties of backfill soil in the trench;
d) Depth of water table; and
Seismic hazard information
a) Expected amount of seismic ground motion at the site;
b) Expected amount and pattern of permanent ground deformation and its spatial
extent;
c) Length of pipeline exposed to permanent ground deformation;
d) Active fault locations; expected magnitude of fault displacement, and orientation
of pipeline with respect to direction of fault movement.
The seismic safety evaluation of a continuous oil pipeline as follows:
Location 01:
The continuous buried pipeline is designed to carry natural gas at a pressure of 9.3MPa.
The pipe is of API X-60 grade with 30-in (0.762m) diameter (D) and 0.0064 m wall
thickness (t). The installation temperature and operating temperature of the pipeline are
300 C and 650 C respectively. The pipeline is buried at 1.5m of soil cover. Poissons ratio
and coefficient of thermal expansion of the pipe material can be considered as 0.3 and
12 x 10-6 respectively. This pipeline is checked for four cases they are
Case I: Permanent ground displacement (PGD)
Case II: Buoyancy due to liquefaction
Case III: Fault crossing
Case IV: Seismic wave propagation
For API X-60 Grade pipe:
Yield stress of pipe material = y = 413 MPa
Ramberg-Osgood parameters n = 10 and r =12.
31

Pipe strain due to internal pressure is calculated as follows
The longitudinal stress induced in the pipe due to internal pressure will be
Sp =
PD
9300000 0.762 0.3
=
2t
2 0.0064
=166.09 x 106 N/m2 = 166.09MPa

Using Ramberg-Osgoods stress-strain relationship the longitudinal strain in the pipe
will be
p =
S
Sp
1 + n p
E 1 + r y
166.1 10 6
10 166.1 10 6
1
+
=
2 1011 1 + 12 413 10 6
12
= 0.0008305 = 0.08305% (tensile)

Pipe strain due to temperature change:
The longitudinal stress induced in the pipe due to change in temperature will be
ST = E (T2 T1)
= 2 x 1011 x 12 x 10-6 (65-30)
= 84 MPa
will be
S
n S t
t = t 1 +
E 1 + r y
84 10 6
109
1+
=
11
1
+ 12
2 10
84 10 6
413 10 6
12
= 0.00042 = 0.042% (tensile)

The total strain in the continuous pipeline due to internal pressure and temperature is
32

= 0.08305 + 0.042
= 0.125%.
Ignoring the strain in pipe due to installation imperfection or initial bending, the above
calculated strain can be considered as the operational strain in pipe (i.e., oper = 0.125%).

The permanent ground deformation refers to the unrecoverable soil displacement due
to faulting, landslide, settlement or liquefaction induced lateral spreading.
Figure 11. a) Pipeline crossing parallel to the ground movement. b) Pipeline crossing
transverse to the ground movement
Here the length and width of PGD zone is 120m and 50m respectively. Soil is sandy soil
with an angle of friction () = 320 and effective unit weight of 18 kN/m3. The ground
displacement (l and t) due to liquefaction can be taken as 2m.
The operational strain in pipeline = 0.125% (tensile)
Yield stress of pipe material y = 413
Ramberg-Osgood parameter (n) = 10
Ramberg-Osgood parameter (r) = 12
Parallel crossing (Longitudinal PGD)
33

The expected amount of permanent ground movement parallel to pipe axis = l = 2m
The design ground movement = l design = l x Ip = 2 x 1.5 = 3m
Case-1:
The amount of ground movement (l design) is considered to be large and the pipe strain
is controlled by length (L) of permanent ground deformation zone. The peak pipe strain
is calculated as
tu L
t L
1 + n
a = u
2 DtE 1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
tu = maximum axial soil force per unit length of pipe for soil condition.
The maximum axial soil resistance (tu) per unit length of pipe can be calculated as
1+ K 0
1
t u = Dc + DH
tan
2
Where D = diameter of pipe = 0.762m
C = Coefficient of cohesion = 30kpa
= Adhesion Factor
= 0.608-0.123 x 0.3 0.27/(0.33+1) + 0.695 /(0.33 +1)
= 0.99645
H = soil cover above the centre of the pipeline = 1.5m
Interface angle of friction between soil and pipe 1 = f
Here f = friction factor = 0.7 for smooth steel pipe
1 = f = 0.7 x 32o = 22.4o
K0 = coefficient of soil pressure at rest
= 1- sin 32o = 0.47
tu = x 0.762 x 30000 x 0.99645 + ( x 0.762 x 1.5 x 18000 x ((1+0.47)/2)tan22.4o
= 91144N/m =91.144kN/m
12
91144 120
10
91144 120

a =
1
+
2 0.762 0.0064 2 10 11 1 + 12 2 0.762 0.0064 413 10 6

= 0.002023 = 0.2023%
Case-2:
The length (L) of permanent ground deformation zone is large, and the pipe strain is
controlled by the amount of ground movement (l design). The peak pipe strain for this
case is calculated as
34
t L
a = u e
2 DtE
t L
1 + n u e
1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
Le = Effective length of pipeline over which the friction force (tu) acts, which can be
calculated by the following equation.
ldesign
t L2
2 n t u L e
= u e 1 +
DtE 2 + r 1 + r Dt y
From this effective length of pipeline is calculated as Le = 100m

a = 0.0015095
The design strain in pipe is taken as the least value between the two cases = seismic =
0.0015095
The operational strain in the pipeline = oper = 0.00125
The total tensile strain in the pipeline = 0.0015095 + 0.00125 = 0.0027595
Total compression strain = 0.0015095 0.00125 = 0.0002595
The limiting strain in tension for permanent ground deformation is = 0.03
The total strain in pipe due to longitudinal strain is less than the allowable strain.
Transverse Crossing:
The expected amount of transverse permanent ground deformation (t) = 2m
The design transverse ground displacement = t design = t x Ip = 2 x 1.5 = 3m.
The maximum bending strain in the pipe is calculated as the least value of the following
two
A.
B.
b=
D tdesign
W2
= x 0.762 x 3 / 502
= 0.00287267
b=
Pu W2
3 EtD2
Where
Pu = maximum resistance of soil in transverse direction.
The maximum transverse soil resistance per unit length of pipe is
35

Pu = N ch cD + N qh HD
Where
Nch = Horizontal bearing capacity factor for clay
c
d
N ch = a + bx +
+
9
2
(x +1) (x +1)3
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.762 = 1.968503937
a = 6.752
b = 0.065
c = - 11.063
d = 7.119
Nch =6.752+ (0.065 x 1.96) + (-11.063/(1.96+1)2) + (7.119/(1.96+1)3)
= 5.896
Nqh = Horizontal bearing capacity factor for sandy soil
Nqh = a + bx +cx2 + dx3 + ex4
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.762 = 1.968503937
a = 5.465
b = 1.548
c = - 0.1118
d = 5.625 x 10-3
e = -1.2227 x 10-4
Hence,
Nqh = 5.465 + (1.548 x 1.96) + (-0.1118 x 1.962) + (5.625 x 10-3 x 1.963) + (-1.2227 x 10-4 x
1.964)
= 8.120
Hence
Pu =5.896 x 30000 x 0.762+ (8.120 x 18000 x 1.5 x 0.762)
= 301869N/m
= 301.869kN/m
b =
301869 50 2
3 2 10 11 0.0064 0.762 2
= 0.1077
Hence, the maximum strain induced in the pipeline due to transverse PGD is taken as
seismic = 0.00287267 (tensile/compressive)
Total longitudinal strain in the pipe in tension 0.00287267+0.0013 = 0.004172
Total longitudinal strain in the pipe in compression = 0.00287267-0.0013 = 0.0016
36

The allowable strain in tension for permanent ground deformation is = 3% = 0.03
The allowable strain in compression for steel pipe is
cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0064/0.381
= 0.00293
The total strain in pipe due to transverse PGD is less than the allowable strain for both
tension and compression.
The net upward force per unit length of pipeline can be calculated as
The extent of liquefaction Lb = 50m
Fb =
D 2
( sat content ) Dt pipe
4
Fb = x 0.7622/4 (18000-0)- x 0.762 x 0.0064 x 78560

= 7005.05N/m
It is assumed that the weight of gas flowing through pipe has negligible weight. The
unit weight of steel pipe (pipe) is taken as 78560N/m3.
The bending stress in the pipeline due to uplift force (Fb) can be calculated as
bf =
Fb L2b
10 Z
Where
Lb = length of pipe in buoyancy zone
Z = section modulus of pipe cross section
0.762 4 0.7492 4
=
32
0.762
= 0.0028459m4
bf = 7005.05 x 502/ (10 x 0.0028459)

= 615360117N/m2
Maximum strain in pipe corresponding to the above bending stress calculated as
r
bf
n bf
1+
E 1 + r y
10
615360117
10 615360117
=
1
+
2 1011 1 + 12 413 10 6
= 0.130705674
The total longitudinal strain in the pipe in tension = 0.130705674+ 0.0012505 = 0.1319562
The total longitudinal strain in the pipe in compression = 0.130705674- 0.0012505 =
0.1294551
37

The allowable strain in pipe in tension is = 3% =0.03
The allowable strain in pipe in compression is
cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0064/0.381
= 0.0029396
The maximum strain in the pipeline due to buoyancy effect is greater than the allowable
strain for steel pipes in tension and compression.
Case III: Fault Crossing
Here the pipeline crosses a normal slip fault with fault displacement of 1.5m and a dip
angle of 350. The pipeline crosses the fault line at an angle of 400. The source to site
distance can be considered as 20km.
The expected normal-slip fault displacement = fn = 1.5m
Dip angle of the fault movement = 350
The angle between pipeline and fault line = 400
Component of fault displacement in the axial direction of the pipeline
fax= fn cos sin
= 1.5 cos 350 x sin 400 = 0.789811m
Component of fault displacement in transverse direction of pipeline:

fax= fn cos cos
= 1.5 cos 350 x cos 400 = 0.94126m
Importance factor for fault movement for pipe = Ip = 2.3
Applying importance factor,
The design fault displacement in axial direction becomes
= fax design = fax x Ip = 0.789811 x 2.3 = 1.816565707m
The design fault displacement in transverse direction becomes
= ftr design = ftr x Ip = 0.94126 x 2.3 = 2.164898707m
The average pipe strain due to fault movement in axial direction can be calculated as
38
fax design 1 ftr design 2

= 2
+
2 2L a
2L a
Where
La = effective unanchored length of the pipeline in the fault zone
E i y Dt
La =
tu
2 1011 0 . 002 0 . 762 0 . 0064
= 91144
= 67.238m
Or
La =the actual length of anchorage = 120m
Hence, the anchored length to be considered is the lower the above two values. So La =
67.238m
Axial strain in the pipe
2
1.8165
1 2.164
= 2
+

2 67.238 2 2 67.238
= 0.02728
Total strain in pipe in tension = 0.0306 + 0.0013 = 0.0285
The allowable strain in pipe in tension is 3% = 0.03
The total tensile strain in pipe due to fault crossing is less than the allowable strain.

The expected peak ground acceleration of the site at base rock layer = PGAr = 0.45g
For this soil Peak ground acceleration (PGA) at ground = 0.45g x Ig
= 0.45g x 0.9
= 0.405g
Converting the soil as soft and the magnitude of design basis earthquake (M) is equals
to 6.5, and distance of site from earthquake source is about 20km
PGV = 0.405 x 140 = 56.7cm/s
39

PGV = 0.405 x 140 = 56.7cm/s
Design peak ground velocity = Vg = PGV x Ip
= 56.7 x 1.5 = 85.05cm/sec =0.85m/s
Maximum axial strain in the pipe due to wave velocity can be calculated as
a =
Vg
C
0.85
= 0.00021
2 2000
Maximum axial strain that can be transmitted by soil friction can be calculated as
a =
Vg
C
0.85
= 0.00021
2 2000
a=
tu
4 AE
91144 1000
4 0 . 0151922 2 10 11
= 0.00750
The calculated axial strain due to wave passage need not be larger than the strain
transmitted by soil friction.
The total strain in pipe in tension = 0.00750 + 0.0013 = 0.00146
The maximum strain in pipe due to wave propagation pipe is less than the allowable
strain.
40

Table 4. Maximum strains in the pipe in compression and tension in four cases
Case
Maximum strain
in pipe in
tension
Maximum
strain in
pipe in
compression
Allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
Allowable
strain in pipe
in
compression
Safe/Unsafe
I
II
III
IV
0.0027595
0.131956
0.0285
0.00146
0.0002595
0.1294551
---
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.0029396
0.0029396
0.0029396
0.0029396
Safe
Unsafe
Safe
Safe
Location 2:
S p=
PD
9300000 0.762 0.3
=
2t
2 0.0103
=103.2 x 106 N/m2 = 103.2MPa
41

will be
S
Sp
1 + n p
p =
E 1 + r y
103.2 10 6
10
1+
=
11
1 + 12
2 10
103.2 10 6
413 10 6
12
= 0.000516 = 0.0516% (tensile)

ST = E (T2 T1)
= 2 x 1011 x 12 x 10-6 (65-30)
= 84 MPa
will be
S
t = t
E
S
1 + n t
1 + r y
84 10 6
109 84 10 6
1
+
=
2 1011 1+ 12 413 10 6
12
= 0.00042 = 0.042% (tensile)

= 0.0516 + 0.042
= 0.0936%.
calculated strain can be considered as the operational strain in pipe (i.e., oper =
0.0936%).
42

transverse to the ground movement
Case-1:
is calculated as
43
t L
a = u
2 DtE
tu L
1 + n
1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
1+ K 0
1
t u = Dc + DH
tan
2

= Adhesion Factor
= 0.608-0.123 x 0.3 0.27/(0.33+1) + 0.695 /(0.33 +1)
= 0.99645
1 = f = 0.7 x 32o = 22.4o
= 1- sin 32o = 0.47
tu = x 0.762 x 30000 x 0.99645 + ( x 0.762 x 1.5 x 18000 x ((1+0.47)/2)tan22.4o
= 91144N/m =91.144kN/m
12
91144 120
10
91144 120

a =
1
+
2 0.762 0.0103 2 10 11 1 + 12 2 0.762 0.0103 413 10 6

= 0.001109 = 0.1109%
Case-2:
t L
a = u e
2 DtE
t L
1 + n u e
1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
44
l
design
t L2
= u e
DtE
t L
1 + 2 n u e
2 + r 1 + r Dt y

a = 0.0015095
0.001446
The total tensile strain in the pipeline = 0.001446 + 0.000936 = 0.00205
Total compression strain = 0.001446 0.000936 = 0.0001734
two
a)
b =
t
D design
W2
= x 0.762 x 3 / 502
= 0.00287267
b)
PuW 2
b =
3EtD2
Where
Where
45
N ch = a + bx +
(x +1)
(x +1)3
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.762 = 1.968503937
a = 6.752
b = 0.065
c = - 11.063
d = 7.119
Nch =6.752+ (0.065 x 1.96) + (-11.063/(1.96+1)2) + (7.119/(1.96+1)3)
= 5.896
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.762 = 1.968503937
a = 5.465
b = 1.548
c = - 0.1118
d = 5.625 x 10-3
e = -1.2227 x 10-4
Hence,
Nqh = 5.465 + (1.548 x 1.96) + (-0.1118 x 1.962) + (5.625 x 10-3 x 1.963) + (-1.2227 x 10-4 x
1.964)
= 8.120
Hence
Pu =5.896 x 30000 x 0.762+ (8.120 x 18000 x 1.5 x 0.762)
= 301869N/m
= 301.869kN/m
301869 50 2
b=
3 2 1011 0 . 0103 0 . 762 2
= 0.06694
Total longitudinal strain in the pipe in tension 0.00287267+0.000936= 0.0038
Total longitudinal strain in the pipe in compression = 0.00287267-0.000936= 0.0019
46

cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0103/0.381
= 0.004731
D 2
Fb =
4
Fb = x 0.7622/4 (18000-0)- x 0.762 x 0.0103 x 78560
= 6271.60N/m
Fb L2b
bf =
10 Z
Where
0 . 762 4 0 . 7414 4

=
32
0 . 762
= 0.0045101m4
bf = 7005.05 x 502/ (10 x 0.0045101)
=347640990N/m2
bf
1 + n bf
=
E 1 + r y
347640990
10 347640990
1 +
11
1
+
12 413 10 6
2 10
10
= 0.001976968
The total longitudinal strain in the pipe in tension = 0.001976968+ 0.000936= 0.002913
The total longitudinal strain in the pipe in compression = 0.001976968- 0.000936=
0.001041
47

cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0103/0.381
= 0.004731
fax= fn cos sin
= 1.5 cos 350 x sin 400 = 0.789811m

fax= fn cos cos
= 1.5 cos 350 x cos 400 = 0.94126m
48

= 2
+
2 2L a
2L a
Where
L a=
E i y Dt
tu
2 10 11 0.002 0.762 0.0103

=
91144
= 108.212m
Or
108.21m
2
1.8165
1 2.164
= 2
+

2 108.21 2 2 108.21
= 0.01689
The operational strain in the pipeline = oper =0.00094
Total strain in pipe in tension = 0.01689+ 0.00094= 0.0178
= 0.45g x 0.9
= 0.405g
PGV = 0.405 x 140 = 56.7cm/s
= 56.7 x 1.5 = 85.05cm/sec =0.85m/s
49

a =
Vg
C
0.85
= 0.00021
2 2000
a =
tu
911441000
=
4 AE 4 0.0243238 2 1011
= 0.00468
The total strain in pipe in tension = 0.00468 + 0.00094= 0.00146
strain.
Case
Maximum strain
in pipe in
tension
Maximum
strain in
pipe in
compression
Allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
Allowable
strain in pipe
in
compression
Safe/Unsafe
I
II
III
IV
0.0020
0.00291
0.0178
0.00115
-0.00104
---
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.00473
0.00473
0.00473
0.00473
Safe
Safe
Unsafe
Safe
Location 3:
50

S p=
9300000 0 . 762 0 .3
PD
2 0 . 0175
2t =
=60.74 x 106 N/m2 = 60.74MPa

will be
S
Sp
1 + n p
p =
E 1 + r y
60.7 10 6
10
1+
=
11
1 + 12
2 10
60.7 10 6
413 10 6
12
= 0.0003035 = 0.03035% (tensile)

ST = E (T2 T1)
= 2 x 1011 x 12 x 10-6 (65-30)
= 84 MPa
will be
51
S
t = t
E
S
1 + n t
1 + r y
84 10 6
109 84 10 6
1
+
=
2 1011 1+ 12 413 10 6
12
= 0.00042 = 0.042% (tensile)

= 0.03035 + 0.042
= 0.07235%.
0.07235%).
transverse to the ground movement.
52


Case-1:
is calculated as
t L
a = u
2 DtE
tu L
1 + n
1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
1+ K 0
1
t u = Dc + DH
tan
2
= Adhesion Factor
= 0.608-0.123 x 0.3 0.27/(0.33+1) + 0.695 /(0.33 +1)
= 0.99645
1 = f = 0.7 x 32o = 22.4o
53

= 1- sin 32o = 0.47
tu = x 0.762 x 30000 x 0.99645 + ( x 0.762 x 1.5 x 18000 x ((1+0.47)/2)tan22.4o
= 91144N/m =91.144kN/m
12
91144 120
10
91144 120

a =

1 +
2 0.762 0.0175 2 10 11 1 + 12 2 0.762 0.0175 413 10 6
= 0.000653= 0.0653%
Case-2:
t L
n t u L e
a = u e 1 +
2 DtE 1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
l
design
t L2 2 n t u Le
= u e 1 +
DtE 2 + r 1 + r Dt y

a = 0.0013784
0.0006527
The total tensile strain in the pipeline = 0.0006527+ 0.000724= 0.00138
Total compression strain = 0.0006527 0.000724= -0.0000710
two
54
c)
b=
d)
b=
D tdesign
W2
= x 0.762 x 3 / 502
= 0.00287267
Pu W2
3 EtD 2
Where
Where
c
d
N ch = a + bx +
+
9
2
(x +1) (x +1)3
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.762 = 1.968503937
a = 6.752
b = 0.065
c = - 11.063
d = 7.119
Nch =6.752+ (0.065 x 1.96) + (-11.063/(1.96+1)2) + (7.119/(1.96+1)3)
= 5.896
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.762 = 1.968503937
a = 5.465
b = 1.548
c = - 0.1118
d = 5.625 x 10-3
e = -1.2227 x 10-4
Hence,
Nqh = 5.465 + (1.548 x 1.96) + (-0.1118 x 1.962) + (5.625 x 10-3 x 1.963) + (-1.2227 x 10-4 x
1.964)
= 8.120
Hence
Pu =5.896 x 30000 x 0.762+ (8.120 x 18000 x 1.5 x 0.762)
55

= 301869N/m
= 301.869kN/m
b =
301869 50 2
3 2 10 11 0.0175 0.762 2
= 0.03940
Total longitudinal strain in the pipe in compression = 0.00287267-0.000724 = 0.0021
cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0175/0.381
= 0.0080381
2
F b=
D
Dt
sat content
4
pipe
Fb = x 0.7622/4 (18000-0)- x 0.762 x 0.0175 x 78560

= 4917.54N/m
F b L 2b
bf =
10 Z
Where
0.762 4 0.727 4
=
32
0.762
= 0.0074474m4
56

bf = 7005.05 x 502/ (10 x 0.0028459)
= 165074740N/m2
bf
1 + n bf
=
E 1 + r y
165074740
10 165074740
1 +
11
6
2 10
1 + 12 413 10
10
= 0.00082544
0.0001017
cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0175/0.381
= 0.0080381
fax= fn cos sin
= 1.5 cos 350 x sin 400 = 0.789811m
57

fax= fn cos cos
= 1.5 cos 350 x cos 400 = 0.94126m

= 2
+
2L
2
2L
a
a

Where
L a=
E i y Dt
tu
2 10 11 0.002 0.762 0.0175

91144
= 183.855m
Or
120m
1.8165 1 2.164 2
= 2
+

2 120 2 2 120
= 0.01522
Total strain in pipe in tension = 0.01522 + 0.00072= 0.0159
58

= 0.45g x 0.9
= 0.405g
PGV = 0.405 x 140 = 56.7cm/s
= 56.7 x 1.5 = 85.05cm/sec =0.85m/s
a=
Vg
C
0 . 85
= 0 . 00021
2 2000
a =
tu
91144 1000
=
4 AE 4 0.040931 2 1011
= 0.00278
strain.
Case
Maximum strain
in pipe in
tension
Maximum
strain in
pipe in
compression
Allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
Allowable
strain in pipe
in
compression
Safe/Unsafe
0.0014
--
0.03
0.00804
Safe
59

II
III
IV
0.00155
0.0159
0.00094
0.00010
---
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.00804
0.00804
0.00804
Safe
Unsafe
Safe
Location 4:
S p=
PD
9300000 0.4572 0.3
2t =
2 0.0103
=61921747.6N/m2 = 61.92MPa
will be
S
Sp
1 + n p
p =
E 1 + r y
61921747.6
10 61921747.6
1 +
11
1
+
12 413 10 6
2 10
12
60

= 0.00031= 0.03096% (tensile)
ST = E (T2 T1)
= 2 x 1011 x 12 x 10-6 (65-30)
= 84 MPa
will be
S
n S t
t = t 1 +
E 1 + r y
84 10 6
109 84 10 6
1
+
=
2 1011 1+ 12 413 10 6
12
= 0.00042 = 0.042% (tensile)

= 0.03096 + 0.042
= 0.07296%.
0.07296%).
61

Case-1:
is calculated as
tu L
t L
1 + n
a = u
2 DtE 1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
62
1+ K 0
1
t u = Dc + DH
tan
2
= Adhesion Factor
= 0.608-0.123 x 0.3 0.27/(0.33+1) + 0.695 /(0.33 +1)
= 0.99645
1 = f = 0.7 x 32o = 22.4o
= 1- sin 32o = 0.47
tu = x 0.4572 x 30000 x 0.99645 + ( x 0.4572 x 1.5 x 18000 x ((1+0.47)/2)tan22.4o
= 54686.4N/m =54.6864kN/m
91144 120
a =
2 0.4572 0.0103 2 10 11
12
10
91144 120

1 +
6
1 + 12 2 0.4572 0.0103 413 10
= 0.001109 = 0.1109%
Case-2:
t L
n t u L e
a = u e 1 +
2 DtE 1 + r 2 Dt y
Where
l
design
t L2
= u e
DtE
t L
1 + 2 n u e
2 + r 1 + r Dt y

a = 0.001446
63

0.001446
The total tensile strain in the pipeline = 0.001446 + 0.000730= 0.00184
Total compression strain = 0.001446 0.000730= 0.0003798
two
e)
b=
f)
b =
D tdesign
W2
= x 0.4572 x 3 / 502
= 0.0017236
PuW 2
3EtD2
Where
Where
c
d
N ch = a + bx +
+
9
2
(x +1) (x +1)3
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.4572 = 1.968503937
a = 6.752
b = 0.065
c = - 11.063
64

d = 7.119
Nch =6.752+ (0.065 x 1.96) + (-11.063/(1.96+1)2) + (7.119/(1.96+1)3)
= 5.896
Where
x = H/D = 1.5/0.4572 = 1.968503937
a = 5.465
b = 1.548
c = - 0.1118
d = 5.625 x 10-3
e = -1.2227 x 10-4
Hence,
Nqh = 5.465 + (1.548 x 1.96) + (-0.1118 x 1.962) + (5.625 x 10-3 x 1.963) + (-1.2227 x 10-4 x
1.964)
= 8.120
Hence
Pu =5.896 x 30000 x 0.4572+ (8.120 x 18000 x 1.5 x 0.4572)
= 206083N/m
= 206.083kN/m
b =
206083 50 2
3 2 10 11 0.0103 0.762 2
= 0.12695
seismic = 0.0017236(tensile/compressive)
Total longitudinal strain in the pipe in compression = 0.0017236-0.000730= 0.0010
cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0103/0.2286
= 0.007885
65

D 2
Fb =
4
Fb = x 0.45722/4 (18000-0)- x 0.4572 x 0.0103 x 78560
= 1792.88N/m
Fb L2b
bf =
10 Z
Where
0.4572 4 0.4366 4
=
32
0.4572
= 0.0015801m4
bf = 1792.88 x 502/ (10 x 0.0015801)

= 283667011N/m2
bf
1 + n bf
=
E 1 + r y
615360117
10 615360117
1 +
11
1
+
12 413 10 6
2 10
10
= 0.001443828
The total longitudinal strain in the pipe in tension = 0.001443828+ 0.0007296 = 0.0021734
0.0007142
cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0103/0.2286
= 0.007885
66

fax= fn cos sin
= 1.5 cos 350 x sin 400 = 0.789811m

fax= fn cos cos
= 1.5 cos 350 x cos 400 = 0.94126m

= 2
+
2 2L a
2L a
Where
E i y Dt
La =
tu
67

2 1011 0 . 002 0 . 4572 0 . 0103
= 54686 . 39314
= 108.212m
Or
108.21m
2
1.8165
1 2.164
= 2
+

2 108.21 2 2 108.21
= 0.01689
Total strain in pipe in tension = 0.01689 + 0.00073= 0.0285
= 0.45g x 0.9
= 0.405g
PGV = 0.405 x 140 = 56.7cm/s
= 56.7 x 1.5 = 85.05cm/sec =0.85m/s
a=
Vg
C
0 . 85
= 0 . 00021
2 2000
68
a =
tu
54686.39314 1000
=
4 AE 4 0.014461 2 1011
= 0.00473
strain.
Case
Maximum strain
in pipe in
tension
Maximum
strain in
pipe in
compression
Allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
Allowable
strain in pipe
in
compression
Safe/Unsafe
I
II
III
IV
0.0018
0.00217
0.0176
0.0094
-0.00071
---
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.00788
0.00788
0.00788
0.00788
Safe
Safe
Unsafe
Safe
Location 5:
69

S p=
PD
9300000 0.6096 0.3
2t =
2 0.0127
=66960000N/m2 = 66.96MPa
will be
S
Sp
1 + n p
p =
E 1 + r y
66960000
=
2 10 11
12
10 66960000
1 +
6
1 + 12 413 10
= 0.00033= 0.03348% (tensile)

ST = E (T2 T1)
= 2 x 1011 x 12 x 10-6 (65-30)
= 84 MPa
will be
S
n S t
t = t 1 +
E 1 + r y
84 10 6
109 84 10 6
1
+
=
2 1011 1+ 12 413 10 6
12
70

= 0.00042 = 0.042% (tensile)
= 0.03348 + 0.042
= 0.07548%.
0.07548%).

71

bf
1 + n bf
=
E 1 + r y
240050032
10 240050032
1 +
11
6
2 10
1 + 12 413 10
10
= 0.001204313

0.0004495
cr-c = 0.175t/R = 0.175 x 0.0127/0.3048
= 0.0072917
fax= fn cos sin
= 1.5 cos 350 x sin 400 = 0.789811m

fax= fn cos cos
= 1.5 cos 350 x cos 400 = 0.94126m
76


= 2
+
2 2L a
2L a
Where
E i y Dt
La =
tu
2 1011 0 . 002 0 . 6096 0 . 0127
= 72915 . 19086
= 133.426m
Or
120m
1.8165 1 2.164 2
= 2
+

2 120 2 2 120
= 0.01522
Total strain in pipe in tension =0.01522 + 0.00075= 0.0285

77

= 0.45g x 0.9
= 0.405g
PGV = 0.405 x 140 = 56.7cm/s
= 56.7 x 1.5 = 85.05cm/sec =0.85m/s
Vg
a=
0 . 85
= 0 . 00021
2 2000
tu
911441000
=
4 AE 4 0.0238153 2 1011
a =
= 0.00383
The total strain in pipe in tension = 0.00383+ 0.00075= 0.000967
strain.
Case
Maximum strain
in pipe in
tension
Maximum
strain in
pipe in
compression
Allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
Allowable
strain in pipe
in
compression
Safe/Unsafe
I
II
0.0017
0.00196
-0.00045
0.03
0.03
0.00729
0.00729
Safe
Safe
78

III
IV
0.0160
0.00097
---
0.03
0.03
0.00729
0.00729
Unsafe
Safe
6.2 Parametric Studies

Four pipelines of different diameters as 12, 18, 24 and 30 which are operating under
the same pressure of 7.5 Mpa. The installation temperature and operating temperature
of the pipeline are 300 and 600C respectively. The pipe is of API X-52 grade with
different thicknesses. Poissons ratio and coefficient of thermal expansion of the pipe
material can be considered as 0.3 and 12 x 10-6 respectively. The unit weight of saturated
soil at the site is 18 kN/m3. The pipeline crosses a normal slip fault with fault
displacement of 1.5m, 2.5m and a dip angle of 350. The pipeline crosses the fault line at
an angle of 400. The source to site distance can be considered as 20km. The expected
peak ground acceleration (PGA) in the site is 0.45g at the base rock layer.
Table 9. Strains due to internal pressure and temperature change with pipe wall
thickness for pipe diameter is 12
Pipe wall
thickness(mm)
6.4
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
Strain due to internal

pressure
0.00027
0.00024
0.00020
0.00017
0.00015
0.00014
0.00012
0.00010
0.00008
79
Strain due to
temperature change
0.00036
0.00036
0.00036
0.00036
0.00036
0.00036
0.00036
0.00036
0.00036
Total strain
0.00063
0.0006
0.00056
0.00053
0.00051
0.0005
0.00048
0.00046
0.00044
Figure 19. Total strain vs pipe thickness for pipe diameter is 30

Buoyancy due to liquefaction:
Buoyancy due to liquefaction for Pipe diameter = 12
Table 13. Longitudinal strains in the pipe due to tension and compression for pipe
diameter is 12
Pipe wall
thickness
(mm)
Buoyancy
force
N/m
6.4
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
831.94
779.28
658.92
538.56
478.38
358.02
237.66
-3.06
-236.26
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
tension
0.0023854
0.0019325
0.0014629
0.0011613
0.0010419
0.0008455
0.000689858
0.000455688
0.000288917
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
compression
0.0011296
0.0007295
0.0003487
0.0001083
0.00001293
-0.00014449
-0.00026993
-0.00046026
-0.00059754
83
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
compression
0.0073491
0.0081529
0.009902
0.011827
0.0127461
0.0145833
0.0164206
0.0200951
0.0236549
Safe/
Unsafe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe

diameter is 18
Pipe wall
thickness
(mm)
Buoyancy
force
N/m
6.4
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
2232.95
2153.96
1973.42
1792.88
1702.61
1522.07
1341.53
980.44
630.64
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
tension
0.003855604
0.002569677
0.001839748
0.001518254
0.001396052
0.001197507
0.001042187
0.000813389
0.000655767
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
compression
0.002331932
0.00112524
0.00052854
0.00029889
0.00021267
0.00007251
-0.00003750
-0.000200525
-0.000313917
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
compression
0.0048994
0.0054353
0.0066601
0.0078850
0.0084974
0.0097222
0.0109471
0.0133968
0.0157699
Safe/
Unsafe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
diameter is 24
Pipe wall
thickness
(mm)
Buoyancy
force
N/m
6.4
4290.65
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
4185.34
3944.62
3703.89
3583.53
3342.81
3102.09
2620.64
2154.24
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
tension
0.005558169
0.003214157
0.002093846
0.001733591
0.001604814
0.001398293
0.001237931
0.001003502
0.000843848
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
compression
0.00376660
0.00152824
0.00058557
0.00034777
0.00026698
0.00013829
0.000038351
-0.000108383
-0.000209064
84
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
compression
0.03
0.0036745
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.0040764
0.0049951
0.0059137
0.0063730
0.0072917
0.0082103
0.0100476
0.0118274
Safe/
Unsafe
Unsafe
in comp
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe

diameter is 30
Pipe wall
thickness
(mm)
Buoyancy
force
N/m
6.4
7005.05
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
6873.40
6572.50
6271.6
6121.15
5820.24
5519.34
4917.54
4334.54
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
tension
0.007180986
0.003827303
0.002302467
0.001896416
0.001759576
0.001543162
0.001376216
0.00113317
0.000968511
Total
longitudinal
strain in the
pipe in
compression
0.00512147
0.00189989
0.00059712
0.00034413
0.00026728
0.00014816
0.000056740
-0.00007669
-0.00016763
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
tension
The
allowable
strain in
pipe in
compression
0.03
0.0029396
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.0032612
0.0039961
0.0047310
0.0050984
0.0058333
0.0065682
0.0080381
0.0094619
Safe/
Unsafe
Unsafe
in comp
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Fault Crossing
Table 17. Total strains in the pipe due to tension Pipe diameter is 12 and fault
displacement 1.5m
Pipe wall thickness
(mm)
6.4
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
Total strain in the

pipe in tension
0.0267
0.0241
0.0197
0.0188
0.0188
0.0188
0.0188
0.0188
0.0188
The allowable strain

in pipe in tension
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
Safe/Unsafe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
displacement 1.5m
Pipe wall thickness
(mm)
6.4
Total strain in the

pipe in tension
0.0269
85

in pipe in tension
0.03
Safe/Unsafe
Safe

7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
0.0242
0.0198
0.0189
0.0189
0.0188
0.0188
0.0188
0.0188
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
displacement 1.5m
Pipe wall thickness
(mm)
6.4
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
Total strain in the

pipe in tension
0.0270
0.0243
0.0199
0.019
0.019
0.0189
0.0189
0.0189
0.0189

in pipe in tension
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
Safe/Unsafe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
displacement 1.5m
Pipe wall thickness
(mm)
6.4
7.1
8.7
10.3
11.1
12.7
14.3
17.5
20.6
Total strain in the

pipe in tension
0.0271
0.0245
0.02
0.0191
0.019
0.019
0.019
0.019
0.019
86

in pipe in tension
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03
Safe/Unsafe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe

3. Abrupt changes in wall thickness should be avoided within fault zone.
4. In all areas of potential ground rapture, pipelines should be laid in relatively straight
section avoiding sharp changes in direction and elevation.
5. To the extent possible, pipelines should be constructed without field bends, elbows,
and flanges that tend to anchor the pipeline to the ground.
6. If longer length of pipeline is available to conform to fault movement, level of strain
gets reduced. Hence, the points of anchorage should be provided away from the fault
zone to the extent possible in order to lower the level of strain in the pipeline.
7. A hard and smooth coating on the pipeline such as an epoxy coating may be used in
the vicinity of the fault crossing to reduce the angle of friction between pipeline and
soil. Example: Three layer of epoxy coating
8. The burial depth of pipeline should be minimized within fault zones in order to
reduce soil restrain on the pipeline during fault movement.
9. Pipelines may be placed on the above ground sliding supports.
10. In the design of a pipeline for in the Liquefied zone, the following considerations
generally will improve the capability of the pipeline to withstand buoyancy force due
to soil liquefaction.
11. Concrete weights or gravel filled balnkets can be utilized to provide additional
resistance to buoyancy.
12. The buoyancy effect can also be minimized by shallow burial of the pipeline above
the ground water level.
13. Where uplift is the main concern, one may provide anchors at a spacing of up to
150m to prevent uplift.
14. An increase in pipe wall thickness will increase the pipelines capacity for buoyancy
force due to soil liquefaction.
15. Use of shutoff valves may be increased to protect the pipeline of gas leakage in case
of any severe damages.
91
8. References
[1] Suresh Ranjan Dash and Sudhir K Jain., (2008), An overview of seismic
considerations of buried pipelines, Journal of Structural Engineering Vol. 34, No. 5, pp.
349359.
[2] Indranil Guha, Earthquake Effects on Pipelines, Joe McGowan Gujarat Gas
Company Limited.
[3] Suresh R Dash and Sudhir K Jain., (2007), IITK-GSDMA GUIDELINES for SEISMIC
DESIGN of BURIED PIPELINES IITK GSDMA codes.
[4] http://www.gujpetronet.com/
[5] http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/oilandgasmaps/
[6] www.safan.com
92

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Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Report No: IIIT/TR/2014/-1

Centre for Earthquake Engineering

Assessment of Vulnerability of Installation near Gujarat

International Institute of Information Technology

Institute of Seismological Research

Ministry of Earth Sciences

Earthquake Engineering Research Centre

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Crude oil pipeline.4

3. Pipeline policies and guidelines...7

4. Past pipeline performances.....13

5. Effects of earthquake on pipelines .14

Axial Pullout ...17

Crushing of bell and spigot joints.19

Flanged joint failure....19

Circumferential flexural failure and joint rotation.20

6. Vulnerability Assessment of buried pipelines......21

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Figure 1. A map of Indias Oil product pipelines of Gujarat state

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

2. Pipeline Scenario in India

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Crude oil & petroleum product pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Table 1. Summary of IOC pipelines in the last year

Figure 2. Indias product pipelines (Source: Petronet India Ltd)

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Figure 3. Crude oil and gas pipelines in India

3. Pipeline Policies and Guidelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

3.2 Transnational pipeline

3.3 Indian Standards

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

About 3,200 people were killed and

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

VII 23.80N, South-east of lakhpat kutchh District

Bhavnagar District affected.

dozens of towns and villages were

Paliyad region in Bhavnagar District

VII 22.40N, Felt

Kutchh District affected.

115 people killed and hundreds

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

26 people killed and 200 people

4. Past Pipeline Performances

4.2 Indian Context

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

5. Effects of earthquake on pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

Vulnerability Assessment of Buried Pipelines

5.1 Continuous pipeline

Figure 4. Effect of landslide on pipeline resting tensile strain (ASCE, 1984).