Design Criteria For Canals

Feasibility Study for the Construction of 95km Irrigation
Canal from Jari Outlet to Iftikharabad District Bhimber- AJ&K
Design Criteria for Canal
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DESIGN REPORT
Vol-1:Design Criteria

3
3.1
DESIGN REPORT
Canals & Structures

Scope
This section describes the criteria and procedures used for the detailed design of 95
Km canal, its irrigation network and appurtenant hydraulic structures. The design of all
works will follow the same engineering principles as explained in the design criteria
until and unless some special conditions encountered during the execution. The
design criteria, including formulae, coefficients and constants will be used in all
hydraulic designs as applicable.
3.2
Design Discharge of Main Canal
Design discharge of the main canal is 417 which was worked out as command area
irrigation requirements in a study by NESPAK in year 2006 cusecs under the study
Assessment of Irrigation Water Requirement for Government of AJ&K from Mangla
Reservoir and Upper Jhelum Canal (Table-5.26).
3.3
Longitudinal Water Surface Slope of Main Canal
To bring maximum area under command by gravity irrigation, main canal as well as
distribution canals have to be as flat as far as possible consistent with the need for
minimum velocities to transport the sediment and to minimize its settlement in the
canal.
With these considerations, the longitudinal water surface slope in the main canal has
been fixed as 0.01 % (1 in 10,000).
3.4
3.4.1
Canal Alignment
Main Canal
The topography along the anticipated route of 95 Km main canal principally comprises
on parts of potohar plateu, residual hill, foothill, plain and starches land. Under these
conditions alignment of the main canal would logically follow the contours of terrain.
The selected alignment of main canal will be fine tuned considering the following
major requirements:
Avoid sharp bends;
Crossing the drainage nullahs, channels and roads en-route

perpendicular and drains perpendicular to the centerline of main canal,
Avoid settlements or sites of special significance (e.g. archaeologically important

sites);
Avoid heavy cut and fill areas to optimize excavation and borrow material fill
quantities so as to minimize cost.
3.4.2
possibly
Distributaries, Minors & Watercourses
Like every other irrigation channel, a distributary or minor should be aligned on the
local watershed and its command area confined between drainage lines. Following
basic considerations have governed planning of distribution system: -
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DESIGN REPORT
Alignment of distributaries adopted would:
a. Have shortest length as well as ensure effective distribution of water to the land.
b. Avoid villages, roads, cart tracks, mosques, graveyards and other valuable
properties, as far as possible.
Distributary off-take would be located at the highest point so as to command

maximum area.
Off-take regulators of distributaries/minors would be located at a point away from

curves in the parent channel.
Alignment would attempt to provide minimum depth of cutting or filling. In order to

stick to this criterion, fall structures of varying heights would be provided, where
required.
Alignment would have minimum number of curves and acute curves would be
avoided particularly. It is a known fact that such channels experience non-uniform
velocity as well as silting on inner side of curve.
Alignment would cater for the commanded area in such a way that length of the
watercourses does not exceed 2 miles. Where required, minors would be
introduced.
Alignment would be such that it does not give rise to Chaks with long watercourse
as well as help to create contour Chaks reducing thereby leveling and grading
requirements.
Alignment would avoid any costly cross drainage works.
Escapes would be provided at proper places to act as safety valves.
3.4.2.1 Layout Procedures for Distributary Command

Outlets (Moghas) of appropriate type would be provided from a distributary or minor.
(No direct outlets would be allowed from the Main Canal). Capacity of each outlet,
which is dependent on the size of commanded area would be limited to 3.0 cusecs
considering the water allowance and ease of handling by the farmers. Tail clusters
shall be provided on the tail of minor/distributary, where required.
For layout of water courses, one spot level per acre of the command area would be
obtained with contour interval of 1ft on the survey map. Considering the water
allowable and discharge limitation of 3 cusecs, Chak size would vary between 250400 acres of CCA.
In order to determine FSL in the distributary at an outlet location, highest point in the
related chak would be considered.
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DESIGN REPORT

3.4.3
Bend Radii
As suggested by USBR, for lined channels, radius to the canal centerline should be
three to seven times the water surface width (the larger ratio for larger capacity)
depending on the size or capacity of canal.
Radius of curvature is also linked with free board by certain authors. Due to rise in
water levels on outer side of the curve the free board can be affected. It can be
calculated as below: -
v 2b
h
gR
Where,
h =
change in water surface elevation across channel (ft)
v =
sub-critical average velocity (ft/s)
b =
width of channel (ft)
g =
acceleration due to gravity (ft2/s)
R = distance from curve center to the channel center line (radius of the curve
in ft.)
Effect of rise in water level on outside of curve is negligible when the ratio of the
radius of curvature to the distance to the center of the canal is greater than three
times the bed width of the channel.
Table 3.1: Values of minimum radii of channel curves for different channel capacities
3.5
Channel Capacity (cusec)
Minimum radius of curvature (ft)
Less than 10
325
10 to 100
500
100 to 1000
1000
Canal Cross Sections
3.5.1 Prism Geometry

3.5.1.1 Main Canal & Distributaries
The main canal and distributaries shall be constructed as in-situ concrete lined
trapezoidal section. The water prism of these canals shall be worked out using
Mannings formula. This formula, which was empirically derived towards the end of the
19th century, relates discharge to area of flow, the slope of the energy line, the shape
of the channel and the roughness of the boundaries of the channel. Mannings formula
is:
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1.486 2 / 3 1 / 2
R S
n
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DESIGN REPORT

Where:
V =
Flow velocity (ft/s)
n =
Mannings roughness coefficient
S =
longitudinal water surface slope (ft./ft)
R =
hydraulic radius = A/P (ft.)
P =
wetted perimeter of the flow (ft.)
Mannings roughness coefficient n is an important parameter and should be realistic.

If n value is lower than realistic both for side slope and bed, the canal, could
experience heading up, encroachment of free board, decrease in discharge capacity
and siltation in bed. Such conditions must be avoided for effective operation and
maintenance.
Table 3.2: Values of Mannings Roughness Coefficient, n, for Various Materials (Ref
V.T. Chow)
Type of Channel and Description
Minimum
Normal
Maximum
Float Finished Concrete
0.013
0.015
0.016
Concrete Finish with Gravel on Bottom
0.015
0.017
0.020
Straight and Uniform Excavated Earth

Channel in Clean but weathered Condition
0.018
0.022
0.025
Straight and Uniform Excavated Channel

with Short Grass and Few Weeds
0.022
0.027
0.033
The consultants have proposed mannings n value of 0.016 for design of concrete
lined main canal and distributaries.
Change of Distributary Canal Section: For purpose of distributary design, most
important consideration in selection of reaches would be that variation in the sections
of two adjoining reaches would not be excessive. Towards tail of the channel, where
discharge is small, these reaches must be short. Near the head, the reaches would be
longer. As a rough rule, the reaches would be so set that the section of the channel
would not change by more than 10 % in width as well as depth from one reach to the
next.
3.5.1.2 Minors & Watercourses
With regard to lined canals, in-situ canal lining is particularly well suited to main canal
and distributaries but as flows get smaller towards the tail ends, it is much more
practical to use a prefabricated / precast system for water distribution. Precast
parabolic canal segments shall be for minors and watercourses. Their hydraulic
design shall be carried out using Mannings equation.
3.5.2 Side Slopes
The major limitations to the steepness of hard lined channel side slopes are slippage
of the lining and soil stability. Slippage may be caused by insufficient friction between
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DESIGN REPORT

the lining and the sub-grade in combination with effects of external hydrostatic
pressure. The following side slopes may be adopted.
Table 3.3: Side Slopes for Lined Channels

Flow Depth, D (ft)
Side slope (1V:xH)
< 3.0
3.0 to 8.0
1.0
1.0 to 1.5
> 8.0
1.5 to 2.0
The consultants have adopted concrete lined side slopes of 1:1.5 for the main canal.
3.5.3 Freeboard
3.5.3.1 Main Canal
Freeboard for the canal lining and banks shall be in accordance with the USBR
guidelines and based on the maximum flow prevailing in a reach.
In main canal the proposed freeboard shall be 2.0 ft. which includes 1.0 ft. lining
freeboard and 1.0 ft. bank freeboard. Similarly minimum clearance under bridge decks
or girders shall be kept as 2.0 ft.
In reaches where the main canal is crossing nullah / hill torrent through a cross
drainage structure, there would be possibility of raised water levels / afflux on the
upstream side of nullah. At such locations the bank of main canal facing nullah
upstream shall be converted into flood embankment. The crest level of flood
embankment will be provided with the minimum freeboard of 3.0 ft. from highest flood
level in the nullah to protect against over-topping.
3.5.3.2 Distributaries, Minors & Watercourses
For distributaries, minors and watercourses, the recommended freeboards are as
follows:
Table 3.4: Recommended Bank Top Freeboard
Canal
Freeboard (ft.)
Distributaries
1.50
Minors
1.25
Watercourse
0.75
3.5.4 Berm Width

The berm is the narrow strip of land on either side of the canal, between the canal
prism and toe of the embankment. Berms are generally provided in unlined canals
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DESIGN REPORT

where depth, D of flow, is greater than 3.0 ft. In lined channels berms are clearly not
required to accommodate change in channel prism or additional discharge.
In main canal, 1.0 ft. wide concrete berm shall be provided on the lining top to
stabilize the toe of earthen bank.
Stabilizing berms of different sizes (based on slope stability requirements) shall be
provided in high earth-fill embankments and deep cut slopes along the main canal as
per geotechnical design criteria.
3.5.5 Canal Embankments
Figure 3.1: Typical Cross section
Embankments would be constructed out of the spoil material from excavation of the
main canal and from borrow areas along the alignment. After establishing the cross
section of canal embankment, before plotting the actual phreatic, line of hydraulic
gradient (assumed line of saturation in the embankment body to which porous soils
offer less resistance to percolation) will be drawn on the cross-section starting from
flood water level at riverside up to the exit face at land side. It is customary that HGL
must not only fall within the embankment but should have a minimum cover of 2 ft. To
adjust this, new embankments will be resized whereas for existing embankments a
back berm (or pushta) will provided to keep the hydraulic gradient within the crosssection.
Hydraulic gradient lines for various types of soils are considered as follows:
Table 3.5: Hydraulic gradient lines for various types of soils
Type of soil
Good soil (Clay)
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HGL slope (V:H)

1:4
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DESIGN REPORT

Average soil (sandy loam)
1:5
Bad soil (Clayey loam)
1:6
Fine silt
1:6
Fine sand
1:8
Coarse sand
1 : 10
The proposed hydraulic gradient for canal and the distributaries is proposed as1 in 5
for both lined and unlined sections. Bank back slopes are chosen to maintain the
seepage phreatic surface at least 0.3m (1ft) within the toe of the embankment for
canals in fill.
For the Main canal, and any branch / distributary canals where patrol roads are
required, one patrol road 20 ft. wide on the top of a bank shall be provided. Non-patrol
bank width is adopted as 12ft.
Table 3.6: Recommended Non Patrol Bank Top Widths
Canal
Main
Branch
Distributary
Minor
Watercourse
3.6
Canal Lining
3.6.1
Lining Thickness and Concrete Strength
(ft)
10.0 to 12.0
8.0 to 10
5.0
3.0
2.0
Main canal lining shall be un-reinforced 4 inches thick concrete placed on the
moistened and compacted sub-grade whereas thickness of un-reinforced lining for
Distributaries and Minors shall be 3 inches.
The concrete for lining shall have minimum cylinder compressive strength of the 3,000
psi at 28-days.
3.6.2
Joints
Longitudinal contraction/ dummy joints formed as V- grooves and filled with

elastomeric sealant would be provided on canal slopes at one-third and two-third
distances from the toe.
Transverse construction joints and profile walls on slopes and in bed spaced 15 feet
apart and longitudinal construction joints and profile walls would be provided at the
centre of bed and along toes.
3.6.3
Canal Structures for Flow Regulation & Control
These structures may be described as follows:
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DESIGN REPORT
Cross regulators to head up water in the parent channel to divert some of it

through an off take channel, like a distributary
Distributary head regulator to control the amount of water flowing in to off take
channel
Drops and falls to lower the water level of the canal
Escapes, to allow release of excess water from the canal system
Figure 3.2: Canal Structures for Flow Regulation and Control

3.6.3.1 Cross Regulators (Checks)
The main functions of cross regulator are to: i.
Enable effective regulation of the canal system as a whole.

ii.
iii.
Help in closing the breaches in the lower sections of the canal.

iv.
v.
Help raise water level and feed the off-taking distributaries operating in rotation
to their maximum authorized discharge, when the water level in Main Canal is
lower than 67% of the design discharge.
Prevent possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches by absorbing fluctuations in

various upper reaches of the canal system.
Provide road crossing to facilitate communications.
The number and width of spans should allow the design discharge to pass without
causing backup or drawdown of flow. Crest level of head regulator should equal, or be
higher than, the upstream bed level. Upstream and downstream transitions can
reduce head losses and non-separation of flow downstream.
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DESIGN REPORT
For the distribution system, flow velocity though check structures using stop logs
should be limited to about 3.6 ft/s. With gates the velocity may be increased to about 5
ft/s. The use of stop logs is not recommended for flows greater than 50 cusecs.
3.6.3.2 Distributary Head Regulators (Turnouts)
Main functions of a head regulator are: i.
To control supplies entering into a distributary from Main Canal.
ii.
To control entry of sediment into the distributary.
iii.
To work as a meter for the measurement of discharge.

iv.
To act as a check and help in shutting off the supplies when the distributary is
required to be closed.
v.
Head regulator diverts water from the supply channel to a smaller channel.
The structure usually comprises an inlet, a conduit to convey water through the
bank of the supply channel and an outlet transition. Gates are usually used in
the inlet to control the flow. Crest level of the distributary head regulator is
generally kept 1ft to 2 ft higher than crest level of cross regulator.
Figure 3.3: Cross Regulator and Head Regulator
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DESIGN REPORT
Figure 3a: Cross Regulator and Head Regulator
Off-taking Alignment: The angle at which a distributary canal off-takes from the parent
canal has to be decided carefully. The best angle is when the distributary takes off smoothly,
as shown in Figure 4(a). Another alternative is to provide both channels (off-taking and parent)
at an angle to the original direction of the parent canal (Figure 4b). When it becomes
necessary for the parent canal to follow a straight alignment, the edge of the canal rather
than the centre line should be considered

in deciding the angle of off-take (Figure 4c).
Head Regulator
Cross Regulator
Figure 3.4: Alignment Types of off taking canal from parent canal
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DESIGN REPORT
To prevent excessive entry of silt deposition at the mouth of the off-take, the entry
angle should be kept to between 60 and 90 degree. The water entering in to the offtaking distributary canal from the parent canal may also draw suspended sediment
load. The distributary should preferably be designed to draw sediment proportional to
its flow, for maintaining non-siltation of either the parent canal or itself.
3.6.3.3 Canal Falls (Drops)
Main functions of a canal fall are: i.
To lower the water level of canal by dissipating hydraulic energy.
ii.
To negotiate the change in bed elevation of the canal necessitated by difference of

ground slope and canal slope.
iii.
To work as a meter for the measurement of discharge.
Figure 3.5: Typical location for providing canal drop or fall

Location of Fall / Drop: The location of fall is primarily influenced by the topography
of the area and the desirability of combining a fall with other masonry structures such
as bridges, regulators etc. Economy in the cost of excavation is to be considered.
Ideally, there should be balance between excavation and filling. In case of channels
which irrigate the command area directly, a fall should be provided before the bed of
the channel comes into filling. The full supply level of a channel can be kept below
ground level for a distance of about 1500 ft. downstream of fall as command in this
reach can be irrigated by the channels off-taking upstream of the fall.
Types of Canal Fall: The following two types of canal falls shall be considered for
this project:
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DESIGN REPORT
1) Glacis Fall
A glacis fall usually consists of an inlet transition, a control section, a glacis drop, a
stilling basin and an outlet transition. The inlet portion of the structure transitions the
flow from the channel upstream to the control section. The control section is required
to prevent draw-down of the upstream flow and to prevent racing and scouring of the
upstream channel. The inlet and/or control section should have cutoffs and/or
sufficient length to provide the required percolation path as computed by Lanes
weighted creep method. The glacis section connects to the stilling basin, and the
outlet transition ensures against separation of flow and formation of waves. To provide
tailwater for the hydraulic jump, the water surface at the outlet must be controlled. The
downstream transition may be used to provide backwater by raising the floor of the
transition.
Unless the falls are gated, or have provision for stop logs only percolation, scour and
uplift are likely to be critical. For small lined channels, the channel lining protects
against both scour and percolation failure. For larger lined channels, it would be
prudent to assume that the lining fails and provide cut offs and/or upstream seepage
aprons.
Figure 3.6: Longitudinal Section of Glacis Fall

a.Transitions
Transitions prevent formation of waves which can be troublesome as they travel
through the glacis drop section and energy dissipater, and prevent flow separation
and eddies downstream. As a general consideration the maximum deflection angle in
the water surface should be about 1:1 (inlet section) and 1:3 to 1:4 (outlet section).
The transitions should be symmetrical about the centreline of the canal.
b.Control Section
To prevent sediment deposition upstream of the fall a high crest is avoided, and
(shallow) vertical transitions to and from the glacis provided. Racing of flow upstream
of the fall is prevented by constriction of the flow. The appropriate discharge formula
should be used.
c.Glacis Section
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DESIGN REPORT

The usual section for the glacis section is rectangular. As friction in the glacis is
negligible, the continuity equation and Bernoullis (energy balance) equation may be
used to compute the flow variables (v2 and y2) at the bottom of the glacis by
balancing with the top of the glacis. The energy balance and continuity equations,
given below, are solved by trial and error for v2 and y2.
y1 + Z + v12/2g = y2 + v22/2g (energy balance)
Q = v1 A1
=v2 A2
(continuity)
where:
y1
= depth of flow upstream at location 1 [ft]
= difference in height between locations 1 and 2.
v1
= flow velocity upstream of glacis at location 1 [ft/s]
= discharge [ft3/s]
= gravitational constant, 32.2 [ft/s2]
d.Stilling Basin
The stilling basin ensures that energy of flow is dissipated in a hydraulic jump.
Horizontal USBR type stilling basins shall be usually provided.
2) Vertical-Drop Fall
The vertical-drop fall uses a raised crest to head up water on the upstream of the
canal section and allows it fall with an impact in a pool of water on depressed floor
which acts like a cushion to dissipate the excess energy of the fall.
Figure 3.7: Longitudinal section of vertical-drop fall

a Transitions
Transitions are required to link the drop section with the channel upstream and
downstream. These should be symmetrical about the centre line of the drop. As head
loss is not an issue these transitions may be abrupt.
e.Control Section
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DESIGN REPORT

To prevent sediment deposition upstream of the drop a high crest is avoided. Draw
down and racing of flow upstream of the drop may be prevented by a horizontal
constriction of the flow. The free flow broad crested weir formula is applicable and
used to determine the width of the control section, bc:
Q =
3.09 b h1.5
Where:
Q
design discharge (ft3/s)
upstream depth of flow (ft)
crest width (ft)
f. Stilling Basin
The stilling basin downstream of the vertical - drop fall shall be a cistern type. The
cistern is defined as that portion of the fall structure in which surplus flow energy of
the water leaving the crest is dissipated and subsequent turmoil stilled, before the
water passes into lower level channel. Cistern is very efficient when drop is sufficient
so that falling stream becomes almost vertical.
The length Lc and depth x of the cistern can be determined only by empirical
expressions given by different investigators.
The symbols used in these

relations and their values are
in meters
To prevent the falling nappe from adhering to the masonry face of the fall, aeration of
the nappe is necessary and is provided by pipes embedded in wing walls just
downstream of crest.
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DESIGN REPORT

Selection of Canal Fall: The following criterion shall be applied for the selection of
appropriate type of canal fall:
Drop Height (ft)
3.6.3.4
Type
Distributaries
1.50
Minors
1.25
Watercourse
0.75
Canal Escapes
Canal Escapes are side channels provided for the following purposes:
To release the excess water from the canal
To operate as a temporary control during construction of the canal. As each section

between the escapes is commissioned, flows would pass down the canal and out
of these escapes into a nearby nullah until the next section is commissioned.
To pass the canal full supply discharge to the nullah in the event of sudden closure
of the cross regulator downstream.
To facilitate canal evacuation for periodic inspection during O&M.
To flush sediment which accumulates in the canal reach upstream due to heading
up.
To work as a safety valve in case of canal breach downstream.
To pass accidental inflows either from overtopping of any super- passage flume or
from breach of the right flood protection embankment of Main Canal.
Escapes are designed for full supply designed discharge at head of the canal reach.
Locations are selected according to the physical topography of the terrain, where
there is enough difference in elevation to drain the canal discharge into a nullah.
Figure 3.8: Longitudinal section of different Escapes
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DESIGN REPORT
Canal Outlets
3.5.6 Location
An outlet would, in general, be located upstream of a drop /control structure. It would
be at the upstream boundary of the Chak/main watercourse so that maximum area is
commanded.
3.5.7 Command Area
As already mentioned, command area of an outlet would be kept between 250 acres
and 400 acres of CCA with limiting maximum discharge of Mogha as 3.0 cusecs.
3.5.8 Types of Outlets
Following five types of outlet, depending upon situation and location, would be used in
the distribution system of the Project:i.
Adjustable Orifice Semi Module (AOSM).
ii.
Open Flume with Roof Block (OFRB).
iii.
Open Flume (OF) Upstream of Fall/Drop Structure
iv.
Open Flume at Tail Cluster
v.
Pipe or Barrel Outlet
In the first four types i.e. AOSM, OFRB or OF, the discharge, though dependent on the
water level in the parent channel, is independent of the water level in the watercourse,
so long as the Minimum Modular Head (mmh) required for its working is available.
In the fifth type of outlet i.e. pipe or barrel outlet, the discharge is a function of
difference between water surface in the channel and the watercourse, if the
downstream end is submerged. In case of free fall, the difference in the canal water
surface and centre of pipe at exit would control the discharge.
All outlets within 200 ft upstream of fall structures would be designed as Open Flumes
(OF).
3.5.8.1 AOSM Outlet
Generally, all outlets shall be of AOSM type except the outlets at tail upstream of fall
and those which have small working heads. Open flume (OF) type would be adopted
where AOSM type cannot be used. AOSM type of outlet is a long throated flume with
a roof block, capable of vertical adjustment, introduced into the upper end of the
parallel throat. So long as the standing wave is steady and remains clear of the exit of
the orifice, the discharge co-efficient does not alter. The roof block is so shaped that
the jet is made to fill the exit of the orifice and jet contraction is suppressed. Cast iron
or pre-cast RCC roof block would be used. Roof block would have its upstream end at
distance of three (3) inches down the throat from the crest and its bottom at a height
of y (varies) above the crest.
Discharge of this type of outlet is computed by the formula:
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DESIGN REPORT
q 7.3 * Bt * y * ( Hs ) 1 2
Where
q =
Discharge of outlet (ft3/s)
Bt =
Width of the orifice (gullet) in ft (minimum width is 0.20 ft)
Height of bottom of roof block above crest in ft.
y is usually between 1.5 Bt and 2 Bt as far as possible and in no case y should

exceed 0.5 H where H is the height of full supply level in channel above the crest
of the outlet.
Hs =
depression of roof block below water surface level in the parent channel
in feet = (H-y).
Setting of the outlet would be equal to 0.80 of the full supply depth. At this setting, its
sediment drawl capacity would be is 109.7 percent.
Minimum modular head (MMH) required for this type of outlet = 0.82* Hs Bt/2
Figure 3.9: Typical Arrangement for AOSM Outlet
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DESIGN REPORT

3.5.8.2 Open Flume Outlet with Roof Block (OFRB)

This type of outlet is provided where AOSM cannot be used on account of small
working head available. This outlet is simply a smooth weir with throat constructed
sufficiently long to ensure that the controlling section remains within the parallel throat
at all discharges up to maximum.
The discharge is given by the formula:
q C * Bt * H
Where,
q
Discharge of the outlet in ft3/s.
Bt
Width of outlet in ft (minimum 0.20 ft).
Height of the water level in the channel above crest level.
C
=
Co-efficient, which remains constant as long as the MMH required
for modularity is available. Values of C are as under:
For Bt 0.20 ft to 0.30 ft
2.90
For Bt 0.30 ft to 0.40 ft
2.95
For Bt 0.40 ft
3.00
Setting of the outlet would be kept equal to 0.9 times the full supply depth. In order to
check the over-withdrawal by the outlet, a roof block would always be fixed in the
gullet. The roof block would have its upstream end at a distance of H down the throat
from the crest and its bottom at a height of 0.7 H above the crest. Upstream bottom
corner of the block would be rounded to a radius of 1-1/2 inches. The Minimum
Modular Head (MMH) required for this type of outlet is 0.2 H.
As width of outlet is limited to minimum of 0.20 feet, it is not possible to design the
outlets with 0.90 full supply depth setting for discharges lower than those shown below
for different full supply depths: D (ft)
3
Q (ft /s)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
0.50
0.91
1.80
2.25
2.70
3.15
3.60
3.5.8.3 Open Flume (OF) Outlet Upstream of Fall/Drop Structures

All outlets within 200 ft upstream of a fall structure for lined sections and 500 ft for
unlined section would be designed as open flume (OF) without roof block. In such
cases, the crest level of open flume outlet would be the same as that of bed in the
parent channel.
3.5.8.4 Open Flume (OF) Outlet at Tail Cluster
At tail, open flume without roof block would be used. H, the height of full supply level
in the channel above crest level of the OF outlet would kept as 1.00 ft or 0.75 ft in an
unavoidable case. Zero of the gauge would be fixed at crest level. Gauge reading at
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DESIGN REPORT
tail would,
therefore,
directly
indicate
whether or
not the tail
is getting
its
authorized
discharge.
Crests of
all outlets
at
tail
would be
kept at the
same
level.
Figure 3.10: Typical Arrangement for Open Flume Outlet without Roof Block
Figure 3.11: Typical Arrangement of Tail Cluster Outlets
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DESIGN REPORT

3.5.8.5 Pipe or Barrel Outlet

This type of outlet works as semi module, if it has a free fall. In drowned condition, it
works non-modular.
Use of this type of outlet is avoided, as far as possible. Its use would be justified in
case of lift outlets when the working head available or the discharge of the outlet is so
small that a semi-modular outlet cannot be designed.
Discharge of pipe or barrel outlet is given by the formula:
q=
CA (H )
Where,
q
discharge of outlet in (ft3/s)
area of the pipe or barrel in ft2.
H
=
distance in feet from the water level in the channel to the centre of
the pipe or barrel, in case the outlet has free fall; and if it is drowned i.e. it
discharges into a watercourse in which the water level is above top of the
barrel, then "H" is the difference in levels in the channel and the watercourse.
C
=
co-efficient which is taken as 5.0 for free fall outlet and 6.4 for
drowned outlet.
Figure 3.12: Typical Plan & cross-section of an Outlet
3.6
Cross-Drainage Structures
Cross drainage structures are constructed to negotiate an aligned channel over, below
or at the same level of stream crossing that channel. These structures can be
classified under the following three broad categories:
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3-20
DESIGN REPORT

1)
Structures for a carrier channel over a natural stream
Culverts)
(Aqueducts and
2) Structures for a carrier channel below a natural stream (Super-passages and

Siphons)
2) Structures for a carrier channel crossing a natural stream at same level (Level
Crossings)
3.6.1 Aqueducts
An aqueduct is a cross-drainage structure constructed where the drainage flood level
is below the bed of canal. Small drains may be taken under the canal through culverts
but for streams crossings it is economical to flume the canal over the stream.
The structure would consist of: flume / trough to carry the canal water, supported on
piers or piles foundation; sometimes a bridge to maintain continuity of the canal road
supported; foot bridge on trough walls; upstream and downstream flared out
transitions in canal; upstream guide banks in the stream to guide the flow through the
crossing without inducting excessive scour; upstream and downstream stone aprons;
stone pitching for slope protection.
Figure 3.13: Typical Plan & cross-section of an Aqueduct

3.6.2 Superpassages
Where the canal section is primarily in cut as it crosses a nullah, the storm runoff
water would be conveyed over the canal, clear of the canal water surface. Such
structure called super-passage is appropriate where the nullah invert level is between
canal bed level and full supply level (FSL) or above FSL. The canal section geometry
would be kept unchanged to minimize head losses.
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DESIGN REPORT
The structure would consist of: trough to carry the nullah water, supported on piers or
piles foundation; downstream bridge to maintain continuity of the canal road
supported; foot bridge on trough walls; stilling basin for energy dissipation; upstream
and downstream flared out transitions; upstream guide banks to guide the flow
through the crossing without inducting excessive scour; upstream and downstream
stone aprons; stone pitching for slope protection; upstream and downstream cutoffs;
downstream PCC blocks over inverted filter, and reinforced concrete canal lining
underneath the trough.
Figure 3.14: Typical Cross-section of a Super-passage

Flume width to pass the nullah design discharge would be governed by heading up of
flood water on the upstream side. The crest of flume/trough shall be fixed with subcritical flow and generating maximum velocity of 8 ft/sec. Guide banks would provide a
free board of 3.0 feet above the raised water level.
3.6.3 Culverts
Where the canal section is completely in fill, the nullah water be freely flowing under
the canal through concrete barrels. The structure would comprise: multiple barrels
carrying nullah water under canal section; upstream head wall; downstream
transitions; downstream cistern floor; upstream and downstream stone aprons; stone
pitching for slope protection; and cutoffs.
Many irrigation structures incorporate a culvert or a bridge in order to facilitate
vehicular access within the scheme. Where a road crosses a channel at some
distance from any other structure, it will be necessary to provide an independent
culvert or bridge. Road crossings usually comprise either pipe or box culverts to
convey channel water under the road.
The culvert acts as a constriction and creates a backwater effect to the approach flow,
causing a pondage of water above the culvert entrance. The flow within the barrel
itself may have a free surface with subcritical or supercritical conditions depending on
the length, roughness, gradient, and upstream and downstream water levels of the
culvert. If the upstream head (H) is sufficiently large the flow within the culvert may or
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DESIGN REPORT
may not fill the barrel, and its hydraulic performance depends upon the combination of
entrance and friction losses, length of barrel, and the downstream backwater effects.
3.6.3.1 Design Considerations for Pipe Culverts

Pipe culverts are often designed to flow full, with the pipe soffit submerged by at least
8 inches both upstream and downstream. The pipe typically has a fall of 0.05 m.
Figure 3.15: Flow through a Culvert
Table 3.7: Types of flow in the Barrel of Pipe Culvert (Chow, 1983)
For culverts under patrol roads within an irrigation scheme, the minimum depth of
cover to the pipe should be about 0.90 m. If this is impracticable, then consideration
should be given to:
surrounding the pipe in concrete;
using smaller pipes (for example by using 2 x 0.60 m diameter pipes instead of a
single 0.90 m diameter pipe)
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DESIGN REPORT
Transitions are required at both the inlet and outlet of the culvert barrel. An
accelerating water velocity usually occurs at the inlet, and a decelerating velocity at
the outlet. Transitions reduce head losses and prevent channel erosion by making the
velocity changes less abrupt.
Pipe collars may be required to reduce seepage flows along the outside of the pipe.
This should be checked using Lanes seepage path length method, particularly for any
culvert where the channel water surface is significantly higher than the potential point
of relief of the percolating water. Pipe collars may also be necessary to discourage
rodents from burrowing along the pipe.
Channel erosion protection is required in earthen channels, and usually takes the form
of dry stone pitching placed upstream and downstream of the transitions. In addition,
for large flows, cutoffs may be provided to the transition structures extending below
scour depth.
3.6.3.2 Design Considerations for Box Culverts
Box culverts can be single or multiple, with square or rectangular section. They can be
constructed from reinforced concrete, or comprise concrete floor and roof slabs with
masonry walls. The minimum height of the culvert should be about 3 ft. since anything
smaller than this is probably more easily constructed using concrete pipes. Box
culverts are normally designed for free flow, with the water surface below soffit level.
Head loss across the culvert can be calculated by summing entry and exit losses, plus
friction loss in the culvert which may be determined using Mannings equation.
Box culverts can be designed to flow full, in which case both the upstream and
downstream soffits should be drowned by at least 8 inches to prevent gulping.
It is recommended that the culvert invert is, in any case, not depressed more than d/4
below the bed level, where d = depth of flow in the culvert.
RHC | AGES | 2015
3-24

Design Criteria For Canals

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Design Criteria For Canals

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Feasibility Study for the Construction of 95km Irrigation

Canal from Jari Outlet to Iftikharabad District Bhimber- AJ&K