Ion Timestamp Ordering Protocol03

Theory of Computation
Lecture #3
Sarmad Abbasi
Virtual University
Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)
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Lecture 3: Overview
Quickly recall the definition of a Turing machine.

Look at some more examples of Turing machines.
Define the concept of a configuration.
Define what the language accepted by a TM.
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Turing Machines
Let us once again make sure we understand what a Turing machine is?
Formally a Turing machine M is a 7-tuple, (Q, , , , q0 , qa , qr ), where
Q, , are all finite sets.
1
Q is the set of states.
is the input alphabet not containing the special blank symbol .
is the tape or work alphabet. and .
q0 is the start state.
qa is the accept state.
qr is the reject state.
: Q Q {L, R} is the transition function.
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Example: Turing Machines
The transition function is given by the following table.

state symbol next state replace with move
q0
0
q0
0
R
q0
1
q1
1
R
q0

qr

R
q1
0
q0
0
R
q1
1
q1
1
R
q1

qa

L
One again we have not specified what the machine does when it
reaches qa or qr . Let us see what this machine does since the
machine halts when it reaches the accept or the reject state.
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Turing Machines
Let us intuitively see what each state is doing. Let us look at q0 . When
the machine is in q0 represents the fact that the last scanned symbol
was not a 1. Note that
(q0 , 0) = (q0 , 0, R)
so if the machine reads a 0 it simply stays in the state q0 and moves
right (without changing the input). However, when the machine sees a
1 it changes its state to q1 as
(q0 , 1) = (q1 , 1, R).
When the machine is in the state q1 that represents the fact that the
last scanned symbol was a 1. Thus if the machine is in the state q1
and sees a 1 it stays in q1 and if it sees a 0 it goes back to q0 .
(q1 , 0) = (q0 , 0, R) and (q1 , 1) = (q1 , 1, R)
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Turing Machines
Lastly, we look at the transitions

(q0 , ) = (qr , , R)
which means if the input has ended and the last symbol was not 1 then
reject the input. Whereas,
(q1 , ) = (qa , , R)
if the input has ended and the last symbol was a 1 accept the input.
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Turing machine: State Diagram
We can represent a Turing machine with a state diagram.
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State Diagrams
To make a state diagram follow the following rules:

1
Each state is represented by a node in the state diagram.
Clearly, mark the initial state, the accept and the reject state. In
this course we will always mark the accept state with qa and reject
state with qr .
For each state (other than the accept and reject states) there
should be as many arrows coming out of the state as there are
symbols in the work alphabet.
Each arrow should be labeled by a replace symbol and a move.
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Configurations
As a TM computes changes occur in three things:

1
Its state.
The tape contents.
It head position.
A setting of all these things is called a configuration. Hence a

configuration tells us what state the machine is in, what is currently
written on the tape and where the tape head exactly is.
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Configurations
We will represent a configuration in a very special way. Suppose is
the tape alphabet. Let u, v and q be a state of the Turing
machine. Then the configuration
uqv
denotes
1
The current state is q.
The tape contents are uv .
The tape head is reading the first symbol of v .
It is assumed that the tape contents are all blanks after the last symbol
of v .
Let us look at some examples:
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Configurations
Let us see the following picture.
The machine is in state q7 . The tape contents are 101101111 and the
tape head is currently reading the fifth symbol with is a 0.
So in this case, the first four symbols constitute of u and the last five
symbols constitute of v . So, this configuration will be written as
1011q7 01111
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Configurations
Now, let us go the other way. Suppose I tell you that a machine is in
configuration
0abbaq3 bba01
Can you draw a picture? The tape contents are easily recovered by
ignoring the state in the configuration. So, the tape contents are
0abbabba01 and the machine is in state q3 . Lastly, it is reading the 6th
symbol on the tape.
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Configurations
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Configurations
Let us do one more example:

Suppose a TM is in the configuration 01q2 . What does this mean? In
this case, v = . So the machine is reading a blank symbol. The
picture is given here:
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The Yields Relation
Now, we would like to formalize the way a TM computes or takes a

single step. This is done using the yields relation. Suppose that a
machine is in a configuration C1 . We say that the configuration C1
yields another configuration C2 if the machine can move legally from
C1 to C2 in a single step. Let us be a bit more formal.
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The Yields Relation

Suppose a, b and u, v and qi , qj Q.
We say that
uaqi bv yields uqj acv
if (qi , b) = (qj , c, L).
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The Yields Relation

This only handles the left moves, for the right moves we define the
yields relation as follows: We say that
uaqi bv yields uacqj v
if (qi , b) = (qj , c, R).
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The Yields Relation

There are some special cases left to discuss for the yields relation.
What if the head is at one of the ends of the the configuration.
Let us discuss what if the head is at the left end.
qi bv yields qj cv
if (qi , b) = (qj , c, L).
and
qi bv yields cqj v
if (qi , b) = (qj , c, R).
In this case, we are agreeing that if the machine is at the left most cell
it will not move its head further to the left even if the delta function
requires us to do so.
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The Yields Relation
What if the head is reading a blank?

uaqi yields uqj ac
if (qi , ) = (qj , c, L).
and
uaqi yields uacqj
if (qi , b) = (qj , c, R).
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The Yields Relation

Have we discussed all possibilities?
One annoying one is left.
Consider a machine in a configuration
qi
Is this a configuration. Yes, the machine is in state qi and the tape is
completely blank and the machine is reading the left most symbol.
qi yields qj c
if (qi , ) = (qj , c, L).
and
qi yields cqj
if (qi , ) = (qj , c, R).
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The Yields Relation
Summary:
uaqi bv yields uqj acv
if (qi , b) = (qj , c, L).
and
uaqi bv yields uacqj v
if (qi , b) = (qj , c, R).
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The Yields Relation

Let us look at our previous TM and its diagram and see what the yields
relation gives us if we start the machine with input 1001.
Let us first look at the state diagram of this TM again.
The start configuration is q0 1001

and if we apply the yields operation repeatedly we get
1q1 001, 10q0 01, 100q0 1, 1001q1 , 1001qa .
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The Yields Relation
For a TM M, if C1 yields C2 we sometime write this as:

C1 `M C2
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Starting, accepting and rejection configurations
The start configuration of M on input w is q0 w where q0 is the

start state. Notice that the head is reading the left most symbol.
A configuration C is accepting if the machine is in the accept state.
A configuration C is rejecting if the machine is in the reject state.
Accepting and rejecting configurations are called halting

configurations.
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Starting, accepting and rejection configurations
Suppose M is a TM and w . A TM accepts w if there exist

configurations C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck such that
1
C1 is the start configuration of M on input w; that is,

C1 = q0 w
.
each Ci `M Ci+1 .
Ck is an accepting configuration.
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Language accepted by a TM
The collection of all strings in that are accepted by M is the

language of M and is denoted by L(M).
L(M) = {w : M accepts w}.
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So, if we go to our previous example:
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Then for this TM M

L(M) = {x : x ends with a 0}.
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Does a TM only accept or reject inputs? No. Lets consider M 0 :
Hence if a string ends with a 0 the machine keeps computing forever.

q0 00 `M 0 0q0 0 `M 0 00q0 `M 0 `M 0 00q0 `M 0 00q0
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What is the language accepted by M 0 ?

By definition it is the set of all strings accepted by M 0 . Hence,
L(M 0 ) = {x {0, 1} : x ends with a 0}.
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We have
L(M) = {x{0, 1} : x ends with a 0}.
L(M 0 ) = {x{0, 1} : x ends with a 0}.
Both accept the same language. However, the first machine M will
reject all inputs which do not end with a 0. Whereas, M 0 will go into a
infinite loop on all such inputs.
We prefer M to M 0 .
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We say that a Turing machine is a decider if it halts on all inputs in .

Hence M is a decider and M 0 is not a decider.
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Designing TMs
The most usual question in computer science can be posed as follows:

Given a language L0 design a decider, M, such that
L(M) = L0 .
L0 is the given problem and M is the algorithm that solves or decides
the problem. Let us look at an example of this.
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Designing TMs
Let = {0}.
n
L2 = {02 : n 0}.
We want to design a TM M2 such that
L(M2 ) = L2 .
Hence we want a TM M2 that accepts all the inputs in L2 .
In order to solve this problem we must first understand the language
L2 .
L2 = {0, 00, 0000, 00000000, 0000000000000000, . . . , }
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Designing TMs
To design a TM we must have a plan in mind. How will we solve this
problem? Note that a TM can only have finite number of states and
therefore it cannot remember much. It does not even know how to
count (unless you teach it).
If I have some number of 0s and I cross each alternate one I will cut
the number of 0s into half.
Informal description of the M2 .
1
Sweep from the left to the right crossing off each other 0.
If there was a single 0 on the tape, accept.
If there were more then one 0s and the number was odd, reject.
Return the head to the left end and repeat.
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Designing TMs
Why would this work.

If the number of 0s is 16, it will be cut into 8 and then 4 and then 2 and
then 1 and then we will accept.
On the other hand if the number of 0s is say 20, it will be cut to 10 then
5 and then we will reject.
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Designing TMs
Let us look at the formal description of this Turing Machine. The

machine M2 = (Q, , , , q1 , qa , qr ) where,
Q = {q1 , q2 , q3 , q4 , q5 , qa , qr ).
= 0.
= {0, x, }.
q1 is the start state, qa is the accept state and qr is the reject state.
is described by the following state diagram.
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Designing TMs
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Designing TMs
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Theory of Computation

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Quickly recall the definition of a Turing machine.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Q is the set of states.

is the input alphabet not containing the special blank symbol .

is the tape or work alphabet. and .

q0 is the start state.

qa is the accept state.

qr is the reject state.

: Q Q {L, R} is the transition function.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Example: Turing Machines

The transition function is given by the following table.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Lastly, we look at the transitions

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Turing machine: State Diagram

We can represent a Turing machine with a state diagram.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

To make a state diagram follow the following rules:

Each state is represented by a node in the state diagram.

Each arrow should be labeled by a replace symbol and a move.

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

As a TM computes changes occur in three things:

The tape contents.

A setting of all these things is called a configuration. Hence a

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The current state is q.

The tape contents are uv .

The tape head is reading the first symbol of v .

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Let us do one more example:

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

Now, we would like to formalize the way a TM computes or takes a

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

What if the head is reading a blank?

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

The Yields Relation

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

The start configuration is q0 1001

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

The Yields Relation

For a TM M, if C1 yields C2 we sometime write this as:

Sarmad Abbasi (Virtual University)

Starting, accepting and rejection configurations

The start configuration of M on input w is q0 w where q0 is the

A configuration C is accepting if the machine is in the accept state.

A configuration C is rejecting if the machine is in the reject state.

Accepting and rejecting configurations are called halting