The Mechanics of Music

How Instruments Work

The goal of all musical instruments is to produce sound. This is accomplished in many different
ways, yielding a wide variety of sounds, playing techniques, and extraordinary looking
instruments. This guide explains how certain groups of instruments produce their sound

How Brass Instruments Work

Brass instruments are any tube that can be played with the lips. They're not always brass, as
instruments like the Aborigine digeridoo, and the conch shell, are made of wood, and shell,
respectively. However, most modern brass instruments have a long, cone-shaped tube and
flaring bell. Usually the tube is coiled in order to make it easier to hold. Often they have valves
or other mechanisms to extend the range of notes that can be played with the instrument.

Making Sound
Modern brass instruments produce sound through a metal mouthpiece. The mouthpiece is
similar on most brass instruments, usually varying only in size. Sound is produced by placing the
lips on the mouthpiece and blowing while vibrating the lips. The larger the mouthpiece, the lower
the sound of the instrument.

Playing Different Notes

By tightening or loosening the lips, it is possible to produce different notes. However, few notes
can be created this way. To overcome the problem, brass instruments have lots of tubes, which
can be selected with valves in order to change the lenght of the instrument, and thus the pitch
of the note. Instruments like the trombone directly modify the length of the instrument with an
adjustable slide.
Use this trumpet to see how the instrument can be lengthened to lower the pitch. Click on the
mouthpiece or any key to see the airflow and hear a note. Notice that the more tubing the air
has to pass through, the lower the note.

Ever wonder what makes a trumpet sound like a trumpet? Or a piano like a piano? What's the
difference between brass and woodwinds? And how do you make different notes with them?
What, essentially, is sound? Mechanics describes some of the physics behind music making.
Topics include how sound is produced in general and by specific instruments, and how physics is

related to music. All this and more presented in Flash here in Mechanics.

How Woodwind Instruments Work

Woodwinds are one of the major families of instruments in use today. Woodwinds are basically
defined as hollow tubes, which, when blown on one end, produce a sound. Most wind
instruments have keys or fingerholes to vary the pitch of the sound, and different methods may
be used to create the basic sound.

Mouthpieces
Single Reed (Clarinet/Saxophone)
The single reed produces a sound by vibrating against the mouthpeice when blown. The reed is
held down by a metal ligature. Reeds are very sensitive, and must be cared for to produce the
right tone.

Double Reed (Oboe/Bassoon)

The double reed uses two reeds, tied together, to make a sound. The sound it produces is
somewhat nasal, and can be very difficult to build, maintain, and play. Most double reed players
make their own reeds. The tight opening of the double reed means that the musician can play
long phrases in one breath.

Transverse Flute (Flute)

A transverse flute works by blowing air across a hole, much like blowing across a bottle makes a
sound. It is one of the oldest ways to produce sound from a wind instrument. Transverse flutes
are usually held horizontally.

Whistle (Recorder)
The whistle is very similar to a transverse flute. Instead of a blowhole, air is blown into the end,
past an opening further down the instrument, creating roughly the same effect.

Playing Different Notes

Different notes are created by shortening or lengthening the air column inside the instrument.
This is usually acheived by covering certain holes on the instument, either with keys or fingers.
The air column extends to the first open hole. Try this interactive diagram of a flute - click on the
blowhole or keys to see how the air column and the pitch of the note is affected.

How Stringed Instruments Work

Some of the simpler instruments are the string instruments. String instruments make sound with
vibrating strings, and the pitch is modified by the thickness, tension, and length of the string.
String instruments can be played in many ways, and come in many variations. String
instruments range from the simple lyre, to the modern guitar, violin, and piano. All rely on the
sound of strings.

Making Sound
All string instruments make sounds with tensioned strings. Longer strings produce a lower tone
than shorter ones. Tighter strings produce a higher sound than looser ones. Thicker strings
produce a lower sound than thinner strings. That is why, even though all the strings on a guitar
are the same length, they all sound a different note. String instruments can be plucked, bowed,
or in the case of the piano, struck. Bowing allows very long, sustained notes with interesting
dynamics. Electric guitars use magnetic pickups to convert vibration to an electric signal. String
instruments must be tuned perfectly by tightening or loosening their strings.

Playing Different Notes

Different notes are produced in different ways by string instruments. Instruments like the zither,
harp, and piano have sets of parallel strings, one for each note, that can be sounded individually,
or together to make chords. Instruments like the guitar or violin use the fingers to lengthen or
shorten the lengths of strings, to produce different pitches. You can try with this imaginary onestringed, four-fret guitar. Just click on a fret to see how it affects the pitch.

How Percussion Instruments Work

Percussion instruments are the simplest, and most primitive musical instruments. The easiest
definition of a percussion instrument is something that produces a sound through being struck.
Percussion instruments are usually rythm or accent instruments, although instruments like bells,
xylophone, or glockenspiel can play melodies. Since they are so simple, percussion instuments
are extremely varied - from symbols and maracas to normal drums and vibraphones. A
symphony orchestra usually has many different percussion instruments for each piece played.

Making Sound
Percussion instruments make sound by being hit. Drums have a hollow body that amplifies the
noise of a stretched membrane being hit. Some instruments are shaken, like the maracas.
Others resonate when hit, like bells. Yet others, like cymbals, just plain make a noise when
they're hit. Percussion instruments can even be odd things like ratchets or castanets.

Playing Different Notes

While different notes are not usually played on percussion instruments, drums are usually tuned
to a specific note. They are tuned by tightening or loosening the head of the drum. The tighter
the drum, the higher the note. Some drums are also arranged so different pitches can be played.
The larger the drum, the lower the pitch. You can try this out with the four tom-toms below. Just
click a drum to hear it. Note that bigger drums are lower than smaller ones.

Physics of Sound

Traveling Waves
Sound is produced when something vibrates. The vibrating body causes the medium (water, air,
etc.) around it to vibrate. Vibrations in air are called traveling longitudinal waves, which we can
hear. Sound waves consist of areas of high and low pressure called compressions and
rarefactions, respectively. Shown in the diagram below is a traveling wave. The shaded bar
above it represents the varying pressure of the wave. Lighter areas are low pressure
(rarefactions) and darker areas are high pressure (compressions). One wavelength of the wave
is highlighted in red. This pattern repeats indefinitely. The wavelength of voice is about one
meter long. The wavelength and the speed of the wave determine the pitch, or frequency of the
sound. Wavelength, frequency, and speed are related by the equation speed = frequency *
wavelength. Since sound travels at 343 meters per second at standard temperature and
pressure (STP), speed is a constant. Thus, frequency is determined by speed / wavelength. The
longer the wavelength, the lower the pitch. The 'height' of the wave is its amplitude. The
amplitude determines how loud a sound will be. Greater amplitude means the sound will be
louder.

Interference
When two waves meet, there can be two kinds of interference patterns; constructive and
destructive. Constructive inteference is when two waveforms are added together. The peaks add
with the peaks, and the troughs add with the troughs, creating a louder sound. Destructive
interference occurs when two waves are out of phase (the peaks on one line up with troughs on
the other). In this, the peaks cancel out the troughs, creating a diminished waveform. For
example, if two waveforms that are exactly the same are added, the amplitude doubles, but
when two opposite waveforms are added, they cancel out, leaving silence.

Standing Waves
Vibration inside a tube forms a standing wave. A standing wave is the result of the wave
reflecting off the end of the tube (whether closed or open) and interfering with itself. When
sound is produced in an instrument by blowing it, only the waves that will fit in the tube
resonate, while other frequencies are lost. The longest wave that can fit in the tube is
thefundamental, while other waves that fit areovertones. Overtones are multiples of the
fundamental. The areas of highest vibration are called antinodes (labeled 'A' on the diagram),
while the areas of least vibration are called nodes (labeled 'N' in the diagram). In an open pipe,
the ends areantinodes. However, in a pipe closed at one end, the closed end is a node, while
the blown end is an antinode. Thus, closed pipes yield only half the harmonics.

Transverse Waves
If a string that is fixed on both ends is bowed or plucked, such as in a violin, vibrations are
formed that are in a standing wave pattern, having nodes at the fixed ends, and an antinode in
the center. Several harmonics are also produced, in a similar way to the standing wave.

Overtones
Overtones are the other frequencies besides the fundamental that exist in musical instruments.
Instruments of different shapes and actions produce different overtones. The overtones combine
to form the characteristic sound of the instrument. For example, both the waves below are the
same frequency, and therefore the same note. But their overtones are different, and therefore

their sounds are different. Note that the violin's jagged waveform produces a sharper sound,
while the smooth waveform of the piano produces a purer sound, closer to a sine wave. Click on
each wave to hear what it sounds like. Keep in mind that all are playing the same note.

Try It Yourself - Interact With Sound

To help understand how sound works, downloadMouSing. It's a software theremin: an electronic
instrument that allows direct control of pitch and amplitude. By moving your mouse horizontally
across the screen, you alter the wavelength of the sound being produced, and thus the pitch
(displayed in Hz on the bottom of the program). The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
By moving the mouse vertically, you alter the volume, or amplitude, of the wave.