Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Watson and Crick had put this information together and built the model of
DNA that we currently use, the double helix, in February 1953.
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A nitrogenous base
A five-carbon sugar
A phosphate group.
Double Helix
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Nucleotides, with its four bases, make up the 'ladder rungs' of a strand
of DNA.
A gene is a length of DNA that has a specific pattern for its base pairs
(eg. AGTTCGTTGA), which make up the characteristics of the gene.
Nucleotides are part of what creates a gene, alongside the sugar
phosphate strands.
Chromosomes
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Chromosomes are strands of DNA, and the length of the strands varies
from organism to organism. Chromosomes are made of genes.
Nucleotides make genes, which make chromosomes.
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)
Uracil (U)
Complementary Base Pairing
RNA
Meiosis
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Differences
Law of Segregation
Alternate versions of genes, called alleles, cause genetic variation
in organisms.
For one characteristic, the zygote always inherits two alleles, one
Handedness
Presence of Freckles
Appearance of Hair
Tongue Rolling
1 Explain why boys are more likely to inherit an X-linked trait than
girls.
In order for a newborn to be male, they must possess the X
Discovered in 1960s.
Found in all organisms, not just bacteria.
Attach, or link pieces of DNA together.
Less specific than restriction enzymes.
Can be used on a number of different sequences.
Vital for normal DNA replication, part of main enzyme group
responsible for repairing damage to DNA and mutations.
Used as 'glue' for DNA manipulation.
multiplying bacteria
Genes are cut out of the bacterial chromosomes.
Fresh, healthy genes are in1serted into faulty genes to treat
diseases.
Process is called gene therapy, and creates transgenic
organisms.
Examples include replicating the human gene that creates
insulin, and inserting it into someone who has diabetes. As
the DNA of the person with diabetes now has recombinant
(basically recombined) DNA, the body is now able to
produce insulin.
2 Prepare a logical argument on an issue, such as GM Foods, etc,
using scientific evidence to support views.
GM Foods
Disadvantages
Having two copies of the gene of this mutation inherited from parents is
the main cause of cystic fibrosis.
Gene therapy, a possible solution for cystic fibrosis, has a high chance of
resulting in death as its development is still in the early stages. Even if
successful, the effects are short-lived and benefits are quickly reversed.
1 Describe some benefits and problems and some social and ethical
issues of using biotechnology including the following:
GM Foods
Benefits
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Problems
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Transgenic Species
Benefits
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Problems
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DNA Fingerprinting
Benefits
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Problems
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Artificial Selection
Benefits
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Problems
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Cloning
Benefits
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Problems
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Genetic Engineering
Benefits
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Problems
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CHEMISTRYYY
Word Equations
Chemical Equations
Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds contain both metal and nonmetal elements. The metal
atoms donate their valence electrons to the non-metal atoms, causing the
metal atoms to form positively charged cations. Accepting the electrons
causes the non-metal atoms to form negatively charged anions. The
difference in charge forms ionic bonds between ions. Ionic bonds are
relatively weak and often break when the compound is dissolved in water.
The number of electrons donated or accepted determines the charge of the
ion, which in turn influences the ratio of atoms in the compound. Ionic
compounds list the metal element first in the name, followed by the nonmetal element name. However, the non-metal name is altered slightly so
that it always ends in ide. For example, oxygen becomes oxide; chlorine
becomes chloride; and sulfur become sulfide. Polyatomic ions (ions made up
of a combination of more than one atom and usually more than one
element) take on their own specific name, which may not necessarily end in
ide. Ionic compounds usually form hard and brittle crystal lattices. The
chemical formula of an ionic compound indicates the ratio of different
elements in the compound.
Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds contain two or more different non-metal elements.
The different atoms share electrons in their valence shells and form strong
covalent bonds. The number of electrons required to make the valence shell
of each atom stable determines the number of electrons shared and the
ratio of elements involved in the compound. Molecular compounds form
discrete molecules, so the numbers in the chemical formula indicate the
exact number of atoms required for each molecule. Molecular compounds
are named according to the number of each element in the compound.
There are a number of rules involved in naming molecular compounds.
The element listed first is found further left on the periodic table than
the other element. For example, carbon is listed first in any compound
containing carbon and oxygen.
The ending of the second element name is changed to ide.
Numerical prefixes indicate the number of atoms of each element If
there is only one atom of the first listed element, the prefix mono is
dropped.
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Eg.
CH4 + O4 --> CO2 + 2H2O
Methane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide
(g)
2C4H10 + 13O2 --> 8CO2 + 10H2O
Butane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)
C5H12 + 16O --> 5CO2 + 6H2O
Pentane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)
C2H5OH + 3O2 ---> 2CO2 + 3H2O
Ethanol (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)
HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + CO
Sulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) +
Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)
2HNO3 + MgCO3 --> Mg(NO3) + HO + CO
Nitric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium Nitrate (aq) +
Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)
HSO4 + MgCO3 --> Mg(SO4) + HO + CO
Sulphuric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium Sulphate
(aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (aq)
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The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass of the reactants
must be equal to the total mass of the products of a chemical reaction.
When the products of a chemical reaction are not allowed to escape, the
mass of the products is the same as the reactants at the start. An example
of this is:
Acetic acid (vinegar) + sodium bicarbonate sodium acetate + carbon
dioxide + water.
7. Balance simple chemical equations
Eg.
CH4 + O4 --> CO2 + 2H2O
Methane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide
(g)
2C4H10 + 13O2 --> 8CO2 + 10H2O
Butane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)
C5H12 + 16O --> 5CO2 + 6H2O
Pentane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)
Properties of Bases
Danger Level
Taste
Sour
Bitter
Feel
If strong, corrosive
Slippery
Caustic if strong
Turns red
Turns blue
Substance Released in
Solution
Hydroxide (H+)
Oxide (OH-)
Can Neutralise
No Reaction
No Reaction
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The transformation from iron (II) oxide and carbon monoxide into iron and
carbon dioxide involves the addition of three more oxygen atoms, an
example of oxidation.
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AB + CD AD + CB
Sometimes one of the new salts formed is insoluble. This is known as a
precipitate, and this formation is known as precipitation.
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Combustion
Methane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon dioxide (g) + Water (aq) + Energy
CH4 + 2O2 --> CO2 + 2H2O + energy
Acid + Metal ---> Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas
Eg. Mg + 2HCl ---> MgCl2 + H2
Magnesium (s) + Hydrochloric Acid (aq) ---> Magnesium Chloride (aq) +
Hydrogen (g)
Acid + Carbonate --> Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Eg. HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + CO
Sulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) +
Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)
Precipitation
Silver Nitrate (aq) + Sodium Chloride (s) --> Silver Chloride (aq) + Sodium
Nitrate (aq)
AgNO3 + NaCl --> AgCl + NaNO3
Neutralisation
Eg. 2HCl + 2NaOH ---> 2NaCl + 2H2O
Hydrochloric Acid (aq) + Sodium Hydroxide (aq) ---> Sodium Chloride
(aq) + Water (l)
Decomposition
Calcium Hydroxide (aq) --> Calcium Monoxide (aq) + Water
Ca(OH)2 ---> CaO + H2O
Sodium Hydroxide (aq) ---> Sodium Oxide (aq) + Water
NaOH ---> Na2O + H2O
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2 * test tubes
Test tube rack
Diluted acid
Magnesium strip
Match
Measuring cylinder
Steps:
Measure about 5ml of diluted acid with the Measuring cylinder and
pour into one of the test tubes
Place the test tube with acid on the test tube rack.
Drop the magnesium strip into the test tube with the acid and
immediately place the other test tube over the test tube with the acid and
the magnesium strip.
Wait about a minute for the bubbling to stop. The bubbles indicate
hydrogen gas and due to it being less dense than air, it will rise to the top of
the second test tube.
Remove the test tube on the top and be careful not to flip if over.
While keeping the test tube face down, light a match and place it under the
test tube. Tilt the test tube slightly on an angle and a distinctive squeaky
pop should be heard with the matching going off.
Hydrogen gas is less dense than air and will rise to the top of the test tube to
the second test tube and remain there. When the test tube is tilted the
hydrogen gas will move to the flames directly below the test tube and due to
hydrogen gas being very combustible, the pop sound comes from the small
explosion formed by the burning of hydrogen with oxygen.
Testing for Oxygen Gas
Equipment:
Splint
Match
Oxygen
Test tube
Steps:
Burn a splint and blow out the fire so that the splint is glowing red
at the end but not on fire.
Place the splint inside the test tube with oxygen and it will rekindle
This is due to the splint combusting as combustion occurs at maximum rate
when oxygen is at its purest state. The reason why the splint doesnt
rekindle in normal air is due to the hydrogen being less pure than the pure
oxygen in the test tube.
Testing for Carbon Dioxide
Equipment:
Limewater
Test tube
Straw
Steps:
Properties of Bases
Danger Level
Taste
Sour
Bitter
Feel
If strong, corrosive
Slippery
Caustic if strong
Turns red
Turns blue
Substance Released in
Solution
Hydroxide (H+)
Oxide (OH-)
Can Neutralise
No Reaction
No Reaction
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Aerobic Respiration
formulae
o Investigate a range of types of reactions that occur in non-