1 Principles of Ecology

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

Networks: interdependent,
diversity
Nested System: boundaries
and limit
Cycle: recycling of resources,
feedback
Flows Through: energy and
resources
Development: succession and
co-evolution
Dynamic balance: flexibility,
self-organization, stability,
sustainability

Principles of Ecology (A):

Network: Interdependency and diversity

Main characteristics:
Interdependency
between ecosystem
components and all life
processes
Achieve stability
through a diversity of
linkages.
Example:
food webs,
leaf venation,
interrelationship
between forest species

Principles of Ecology (B):

Nested System: Scale, boundary and limit

Main characteristics:
All living systems are
nested
Each within its own
boundary and limits.
Example:
habitat type,
animal territories,
carrying capacity

Administrative & Ecological Boundary

Organization/Company
Workplace
Personal
Space

Space
Space
Bio-Regional Boundary
International Boundary

Principles of Ecology (C):

Cycles: Recycling of resources and feedback

Main characteristics:
Continuous cycles of
resource exchange;
All wastes are recycled;
A closed loop of cyclic
changes.
Example:
nutrient cycling, food
web,
seasonal changes,
currents and tides,
hydrology cycle

Principles of Ecology (D):

Flow: Energy and resources

Main characteristics:
Solar energy drives
ecological cycles;
All organisms live off the
flow of energy and
resources,
All species produce food
for other organisms.
Example:
water through a cell,
energy through an
ecosystem,
nutrients through a plant.

Principles of Ecology (E):

Development: Succession and co-evolution

Main characteristics:
Development and learning at
the individual level as
evolution at the species
level;
Involves creativity and
mutual adaptation between
an organism and its
environment.
Example:
plant succession,
tissue growth,
reproduction/decomposition.

Principles of Ecology (F):

Dynamic Balance: flexibility, self organization,

stability, sustainability

Main characteristics:
Ecological communities
organize themselves,
maintaining a state of
dynamic balance.
Flexibility, resilience and
oscillations in light of a
disruption.
Example:
hurricanes, forest fires,
disease,
predators,
plate tectonics.

Environmental Issues Today and

Challenges

Global issues:
Biodiversity and Forest
Degradation
Global warming
Ozone depletion
Marine pollution
Resource depletion
(e.g., over-fishing, water)
Clean water scarcity/pollution
Population growth
Environmental-Social problems
Hazardous and Chemical
Wastes

National/local issues:
Biodiversity and Forest
Degradation
Air pollution
Marine Pollution
Resource depletion (overfishing,
water)
Clean water scarcity/pollution
Population growth
Environmental-Social problems
Law enforcement issues
Hazardous and Chemical
Wastes

2.1

Global Environmental Issue:

Biodiversity and Forest Degradation

Forests: major
reservoirs of carbon,
containing 80% of
all carbon stored in
land vegetation
Globally, primary
forests are being
rapidly destroyed

2.1

Global Environmental Issue: Biodiversity and Forest Degradation (2)

10

Global Center of Biodiversity

SOURCE: BARTHLOTT, W., BIEDINGER, N., BRAUN, G., FEIG, F., KIER, G &
MUTKE, J. 1999: Terminological and methodological aspects of the mapping and
analysis of the global biodiversity. Acta Bot. Fennica 162: 103110

2.1

National Environmental Issue: Biodiversity and Forest Degradation (4)

Forest Cover Changing in Indonesia

1.5 million ha/yr forest damage by

illegal logging (World Bank, 1990)
Forest Conversion:
2 million ha forest for
transmigration area (1998);
1.8 million ha for oil palm
plantation, 2.3 million ha for
timber estate(1990-2000);
4.0 million ha (during 1985-1997)
for agricultural; and
300.000 ha/yr for mining
concession.

350,000 ha of total 2.4 juta ha

Java forest damage caused by
forest encroachment (Koran
Tempo, 10 Jan 02). Rate of
forest damage in West Java is 2
ha/day (Pikiran Rakyat, 2 Feb, 03)
)

Multiplier Effect

11

2.1

National Environmental Issue: Forest and Biodiversity (5)

Forest Fire in Indonesia Juni 2013

Forest fire : 20 % hotspots in forest, 80 % in plantation.

Juni 2013 : hotspots in Indonesia are 3.862, Thailand 20.208,
Kamboja 17.757, Laos 15.107, Myanmar 41.458, dan Vietnam
9.769 hotspots.
Wind direction bring fog from Indonesia to Singapore .
Industrial forest (Hutan tanaman industri (HTI)) from two
companies which based in Singapore have many hotspots.

Forest Fire Riau 2013

12

2.1

National Environmental Issue: Forest and Biodiversity (5)

Forest Fire in Indonesia

Pulp and paper industry

Industry ply wood
Illegal logging
Paper consumption on1996 :
Indonesia : 15,5 kg per capita/year.
Malaysia : 87,4 kg,
Singapore : 161,2 kg,
USA : 334,6 kg.

13

2.1

National Environmental Issue: Forest and Biodiversity (5)

Industry Pulp and Paper

Growth of pulp and paper industry is high
Production capacity of paper industry per-year:
In 1987 : 980.000 ton
1997 : 7.232.800 ton.
2005 : 13.696.170 ton
Production capacity of pulp industry per-year:
in 1987 : 515.000 ton
1997 : 3.905.600 ton.
2005 : 12.745.600 ton.

14

2.1

National Environmental Issue: Forest Degradation (4)

Mangrove Degradation in Indonesia

68% (5.9 million ha) mangrove

forest degraded (mostly it is
converted into prawn ponds)
until 2002 from total 18 million
ha of Indonesian mangrove;
Ecological services from
mangrove:
Protection of shoreline;
Trapping of water-borne
pollutants;
Nursery and feeding ground for
fish, prawn, crabs and
molluscs;
Nesting sites for birds; and
Resources for tourism and
recreation

15

Global Environmental Issue:

2.2 Global Warming

Cause:
Increasing emissions of CO2
(from vehicles, industry),
and other gases
(methane, CFCs, etc.)

Impacts:
Climate changes,
seasonal irregularities
Sea level rise
Impact on: Agriculture,
Health, forest, water
resources, coastal areas, and
biodiversity.

Kyoto Protocol (2001)

16

Global Environmental Issue: Global Warming (3)

2.2 People at Risk from Rising Sea-Levels

17

Areas most vulnerable

to wetland loss
PEOPLE AT RISK
(millions per region)
> 50 million
1050 million
region boundary

SOURCE: Hadley Centre 2003. Prediction of the effects of sea-level rise

by 2080. http://www.env.leeds.ac.uk/envi2150/lecture14/lecture14.html

Global Environmental Issue: Global Warming (3)

18

Rising Sea-Levels
2000 Indonesians small island will lost
due to sea level rise (IPCC scenario:
sea level will rise 100 cm within 100
years, base yr: 2000) (Kompas, 2002)
2012 flooding in Jakarta: flood
height 30cm 5 m.

Global Environmental Issue:

2.4 Air Pollution (3)

Impact on human health:
asthma, allergic
respiratory diseases,
adverse pregnancy
outcomes;
5 % of the global disease
resulted by indoor and
outdoor air pollution.
2.4 million people of
developing countries die
annually due to exposure
to high concentrations of
outdoor and indoor SPM
(suspended particulate
matter).

19

Global Environmental Issue:

2.4 Air Pollution (1)

More contribution of air pollution in Jakarta from

vehicle.
Vehicle passing through Jakarta every day:
motorcycle more than 6 million, four wheels vehicle
more than 3 million.
UI riset 2006, urine masyarakat DKI Jakarta
mengandung hidrokarbon empat kali lipat lebih tinggi
dari yang diperbolehkan WHO.
Indikator buruknya udara : jika menggunakan
transportasi umum atau berjalan kaki di pusat kota,
mencium bau bensin pada pakaian dan kulit.

20

Global Environmental Issue:

2.4 Air Pollution in Cilegon, 2006

21

Global Environmental Issues:

2.5 Marine Pollution (2)

Source: International Petroleum Industry

Environmental Conservation Association,
International Association of Oil and Gas Producers
and United Nations Environment Programme. 2002
Industry as a partner for sustainable development:
Oil and Gas.

22

2.5

Marine Pollution Caused by Seismic Survey:

Impact on Marine Mammals (1)

Noise and explosion

In air, 8 kg TNT detonations be
visible and audible at a few KM. In
the water, it were clearly
detectable more than 9,000 km
away (Tasker and Weir 1998).
Noise pollution coming from
shipping, seismic surveys, oil
drilling, marine construction and
active sonar devices negatively
impacting on cetacean populations
Example of marine mammals:
whales, dolphins, seals and
dugongs.

23

2.5

Marine Pollution Caused by Seismic Survey:

Impact on Marine Mammals (2)

24

Known distribution of Dugong dugong in

Indonesia waters (Tomascik et al. 1997)

Whales and dolphins reported from Kalimantan waters (Celebes Sea and Makassar
Strait) (Tomascik et al. 1997): Steno bredanesis
Orcinus orca
Orcaella brevirostris
Physeter macrocephalus
Balaenoptera borealis
Kogia breviceps (probably found)

Global Environmental Issue:

2.6 Resources Depletion: Water (3)

Only 3% of the water on
planet earth is fresh
water, and <1% of the
worlds fresh water is
usable
Scarcity/degradation
occur due to:
Mismanagement of water
usage
Conversion of catchment
areas to other uses

25

Global Environmental Issue:

2.6 Resources Depletion: Water (3)

Ketidakseimbangan kebutuhan air antara wilayah.
Pulau Jawa dan Madura, luasnya 7 % dari Indonesia,
dihuni oleh 68 % total populasi, cadangan airnya
hanya 4.5 %.
Penduduk Indonesia yang bisa mengakses air bersih
baru 20 %, dominan di kota.
Tahun 2003 PDAM baru mampu menyuplai sekitar
52,13 % kebutuhan air bersih untuk Jakarta.

26

Global Environmental Issue:

2.6 Resources Depletion: Water (3)

Layanan Air Bersih di Indonesia Paling Buruk di
Dunia. SUARA PEMBARUAN Rabu, 22 Mei 2013
Kebutuhan air di Jakarta sebanyak 95% diambil dari
luar DKI Jakarta.
LIPI, kebutuhan air untuk industri naik 700% tahun
2025. Perumahan naik rata-rata 65% dan produksi
pangan naik 100%.
Di Malaysia, tingkat akses sumber air di pedesaan
mencapai 94 persen, Indonesia 69%.
Ketersediaan air baku di Kuala lumpur 99%, Jakarta
hanya memasok 2,2% kkebutuhan masyarakatnya.

27

National Environmental Issue:

2.6 Resources Depletion: Coral Reef

Significance of Coral Reefs:

the most diverse and

complex marine
communities;
coral reefs are
responsible for the
deposition of half of
the calcium brought by
rivers;
more than 111 million
tonnes of carbon per
year (climate change
issue).
Source: Burke, Selig, and
Spalding. 2002. Reef at Risk at
Southeast Asia. World
Resources Institute.

28

2.7

Global Environmental Issue:

Population Growth (1)

2 babies born per

second
World Total Population
in 2000 = 6 billion, 5
times greater than 1900
Indonesia population
2010 more than 240
million.
Over-population will
decrease access to:
Clean water
Food
Land

29

2.7

Global Environmental Issue:

Population Growth (2)

30

Global Environmental Issue:

2.8 Global Community Issues: WSF

31

Global Issues (WSF World

Social Forum):
The negative impacts of the
current model of trade
globalization including
issues of debt relief and
ongoing WTO negotiations;
The on-going militarization
of the planet with a
particular focus on the
threatened war against Irak
and Suriah.
Access and the right to
clean drinking water.

Hear no evil, see no evil, speak no evil.

WSF, Porto Alegre 23-28 January 2003

WSF: As the principal architects and beneficiaries of this

system, leaders gathered in Davos (WEF) are seen to be
responsible for and complicit in these abuses.

Local Environmental Issue:

2.8 Local Community Issues

Local Issues:
Jakarta: need of open space vs
poor people;
PT Inti Indorayon case (e.g.,
water pollution, job opportunities,
land use);
Dalam 2 tahun zin lokasi pabrik
seluas 200 hektar di Porsea, dan
hak pengusahaan hutan (HPH)
seluas 150.000 ha, namun belum
mendapatkan izin Amdal (Analisa
Mengenai Dampak Lingkungan).

32

Local Environmental Issue:

2.8 Open Space

Ruang terbuka hijau adalah area memanjang atau

mengelompok, yang penggunaannya lebih bersifat
terbuka, tempat tumbuh tanaman, baik yang tumbuh
secara alamiah maupun yang sengaja ditanam.
UU no 26 tahun 2007 : Lahan terbuka hijau minimal
30% dari luas wilayah. 20% RTH publik dan 10%
RTH privat.
Tidak ada RTH :
80% sinar matahari diserap oleh pepohonan, 10%
kembali ke angkasa, dan 10% menempel di
bangunan, aspal dan lainnya
Ada RTH 30% dari luas lahan :
90% panas akan menempel di aspal, genting rumah,
dan bangunan, 10% akan kembali ke angkasa.

33

34

Local Environmental Issue:

2.8 Open Space

Hutan pinus di pantai Padang Pariaman

RTH di Bandung

No

Kota

% RTH

1.

Jakarta

9,8%

2000-2011 RTH publik baru bertambah 0,8% .

2.

Bandung

8,76%

1700 Ha

3.

Semarang 7,5%

3,97 % RTH publik

4.

Surabaya

9,6%

RTH yang di bawah 10% menjadi 20,25%

tahun 2011

5.

Bogor

10%

Luas kebun raya 87 ha, kota Bogor 11.850 ha

Local Environmental Issue:

2.8 Sampah

Jakarta memproduksi sampah sebesar 29.624 m3

per harinya tahun 2010.
Individu di kota kecil hingga menengah menghasilkan
2,5 - 2,75 lt (2-3 kg) sampah/hari.
Sampah organik menyumbang 65 % dari total
sampah yang diproduksi.

35

Local Environmental Issue:

2.8 Sampah

Kementrian kesehatan (Riskesdas) : 6 metode yang

digunakan rumah tangga untuk membuang sampah :
1) Diangkut oleh petugas kebersihan (23,4%), 2)
dikubur dalam tanah (4,2%), 3) dikomposkan (1,1%),
4) dibakar (52,1%), 5) dibuang di selokan/sungai/laut
(10,2%) dan 6) dibuang sembarangan (9%).
Pembakaran sampah menghasilkan gas dioxin dari
pembakaran plastik. dan bahan beracun lainnya yang
ada didalam sampah.

36

Local Environmental Issue:

2.8 Sampah

Prinsip 4R yaitu :
1.Reduce, sebisa mungkin lakukan minimalisasi barang
atau material yang kita pergunakan.
2. Reuse, sebisa mungkin pilihlah barang-barang yang
bisa dipakai kembali.
3. Recycle, yaitu sebisa mungkin, barang-barang yg
sudah tidak berguna lagi, bisa didaur ulang.
4. Replace, teliti barang yang kita pakai sehari-hari.
Gantilah barang-barang yang hanya dipakai sekali
dengan barang yang tahan lama. Hanya memakai
barang-barang yang lebih ramah lingkungan,

37

Global Environmental Issue:

2.9 Hazardous and Chemical Waste

Kebocoran nuklir Fukushima
( Agt 2013) akibat badai dan
hujan setelah rusak akibat
tsunami bulan Maret 2013.
Laut dan tanah tercemar
Accident at Union Carbide in
Bhopal, India 1984: 3,800
dead, 500,000 sick. More
than 40 tons of methyl
isocyanate gas leaked from a
pesticide plant.
Kebocoran amonia cair di
Shanghai Agust 2013, 15
orang tewas, 25 luka.

38

2.9 Hazardous and Chemical Waste

Third World countries with less than 15%

of the world pesticide consumption suffer
50% of poisonings and 75% of the deaths
resulting from improper pesticide
handling.
(http://collections.ic.gc.ca/environmental/environment/
env-degrade.html)

Okt 2012 South Korea : 8 tons of

hydrofluoric acid escaped from chemical
manufacturer following an explosion.
More 3,000 residents in the area
requested medical treatment for eye,
throat and lung irritation, also damaged
more than 200 hectares of farmland.

39

Global Environmental Issue:

2.9 Chemical Wastes : POPs

40

What is POPs?
a group of man-made
chemicals that:
cannot easily be broken
down by natural processes,
accumulate in the body, and
are toxic to a wide range of
fish and wildlife as well as
people.

Effect on human health:

endocrine disruption,
reproductive and immune
dysfunction,
neurobehavioural and
developmental disorders
and cancer.

POPs: Pesticide (insecticide, herbicide, termiticide, etc), DDT,

PCB, dioxins and furans (The UNEP Governing Council Decision 19/13)

41

Global Historical Use/Source

1. aldrin and dieldrin
Insecticides used on crops such as
corn and cotton; also used for termite control.
2. chlordane
Insecticide used on crops, including vegetables, small grains,
potatoes, sugarcane, sugar beets, fruits, nuts,
citrus, and cotton. Used on home lawn and garden pests.
3. DDT
Insecticide used on agricultural crops, primarily cotton, and
insects that carry diseases such as malaria and typhus.
4.

42

4. mirex
Insecticide used to combat fire ants, termites, and mealybugs.
Also used as a fire retardant in plastics, rubber, and electrical
products.
5. hexachlorobenzene
Fungicide used for seed treatment.
Also an industrial chemical used to make fireworks, ammunition,
synthetic rubber, and other substances. Also unintentionally
produced during combustion and the manufacture of
certain chemicals.
Also an impurity in certain pesticides.

43

6. PCBs
Used for a variety of industrial processes and purposes,
including in electrical transformers and capacitors, as heat
exchange fluids, as paint additives, in
carbonless copy paper, and in plastics.
7. toxaphene
Insecticide used to control pests on crops and livestock, and to
kill unwanted fish in lakes.
8. dioxins and furans
Unintentionally produced during most forms of combustion,
including burning of municipal and medical wastes, backyard
burning of trash, and industrial processes.