LABORATORY 3: CNIDARIA and CTENOPHORA

The phylum Cnidaria includes such animals as jellyfish, sea anemones, corals and
hydroids. This group was originally referred to as phylum Coelenterata, a name still
seen in many textbooks. Modern taxonomists, however, prefer the phylum name
Cnidaria, and use "coelenterate" only as a common name. Closely related to the phylum
Cnidaria is the phylum Ctenophora containing organisms called "comb jellies." Both
cnidarians and ctenophores are considered to be at the "tissue grade" of body
construction. In other words, their body cells are organized into tissues and these tissues
are functionally dependent on one another, but (excluding a few minor exceptions) these
tissues are not organized into organs.

PHYLUM CNIDARIA

Cnidarians are radially symmetrical organisms that have one of two basic body
forms: the polyp form or the medusa form. Polyps are cylindrical in shape and are
generally oriented in the environment with their oral (mouth) surface directed upward
and their aboral surface (opposite the mouth) attached to a substrate. Medusae are
umbrella- or bell-shaped, are generally free-swimming, and are oriented in the
environment with the oral surface directed downward and the aboral surface directed
upward.

The life cycle of cnidarians often includes an alteration of sexual and asexual
generations, a phenomenon that is referred to as metagenesis. When metagenesis
occurs, the polyp is the asexual generation and the medusa is the sexual generation. A
generalized life cycle occurs as follows: Medusae produce gametes which unite to form
zygotes. Each zygote divides repeatedly and develops into a free-swimming larval form
called a planula larva (Fig. 3.17A on p. 83 of S&S). The planula larvae eventually
settle and develop into polyps. Each polyp then asexually produces medusae to
complete the life cycle. This generalized life cycle is modified greatly in different
groups so that either the polyp or the medusa stage may be reduced or even completely
absent from the life cycle. When the medusa stage is absent from the life cycle, the
polyp reproduces both asexually and sexually.

Colony formation is very common in the phylum Cnidaria, especially among

polyps. When colonies form, there is a tendency for individuals within the colony to
become specialized structurally and functionally. This structural and functional
specialization within a colony is referred to as polymorphism. You will be observing
several examples of polymorphic cnidarian colonies in the laboratory.

One particularly distinguishing feature of the phylum Cnidaria is that all members
of the phylum produce structures called nematocysts. Nematocysts are produced within
cells called cnidoblasts (or cnidocytes) and are discharged under the influence of
mechanical, chemical or nervous stimuli. Nematocysts function in defense, prey capture,
and temporary anchorage of the body to a substrate. After a nematocyst is released, its
cnidoblast cell dies. New cnidoblast cells and nematocysts are therefore continually
being produced. The structure of nematocysts and cnidocytes is shown in Fig. 3.13,
p.75 of S&S.

Despite the difference in shape between polyps and medusae, the internal
structure of these two body forms is very similar. Each has a central coelenteron or
gastrovascular (GV) cavity which functions both in digestion and in circulation of
nutrients around the body. The GV cavity has a single opening to the outside--the
mouth-- through which food enters the body and undigested material leaves. The body
wall consists of three layers: an outer epidermis of ectodermal origin, an inner
gastrodermis of endodermal origin, and a layer called mesoglea between the two. The
mesoglea is gelatinous in consistency and, in some cnidarians, may have cells located in
it. It is probably secreted by both the epidermis and the gastrodermis.

Most Cnidarians are carnivorous and use nematocysts to capture prey. The
processes of feeding and digestion are relatively uniform throughout the Cnidaria.
Captured food is passed into the mouth by the tentacles or by a tract of cilia. Digestion
is partly extracellular and partly intracellular. Extracellular digestion takes place in the
GV cavity as enzymes are secreted by gastrodermal cells lining the cavity. Finally,
gastrodermal cells phagocytize the partially digested food particles and digestion is
completed intracellularly.

Both the epidermis and the gastrodermis absorb oxygen for respiration directly
from the environment or from the GV cavity. Oxygen then diffuses to any underlying
cells. In the same manner waste products, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia diffuse
outward from cells to the body surface. There are no specialized organs or body surfaces
for gas exchange or the elimination of wastes.

The phylum Cnidaria is divided into three classes based on characteristics such as
life cycle, the morphology of the GV cavity, and the presence or absence of cells in the
mesoglea. The three classes are Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa and Anthozoa.

In today's laboratory we will briefly examine the diversity of cnidarian form and
life styles and make observations on feeding, nematocyst function, and digestion in
repesentative organisms. In addition, we will observe a representative of the closely
related Ctenophora.

Class HYDROZOA

The life cycle of hydrozoans typically exhibits metagenesis, alternating between

an asexual colonial polyp stage and a sexual medusa stage. However, within the class
there are species that tend to reduce either the polyp or the medusa stage of the life cycle.
The hydrozoan medusa usually has a circular shlef of tissue attached to the underside of
the umbrella. This structure is called the velum (see Fig. 3.1B, p.61 of S&S) and it
functions in medusa locomotion. In both polyp and medusa forms within class
Hydrozoa, the mesoglea is acellular and the GV cavity is a simple sac. One last
distinguishing characteristic of the class is that gonads are always formed from epidermal
tissue.

Genus Gonionemus

In the life cycle of Gonionemus the medusa stage is conspicuous while the polyp
is very reduced. Each Gonionemus medusa produces either eggs or sperm, and the union
of gametes results in the formation of a planula larva. The planula grows into a minute
solitary polyp (about lmm in size) which asexually buds off other polyps. Each
individual polyp then buds off a free-swimming medusa to complete the life cycle.

Examine the diagram of a Gonionemus medusa in your text (Fig. 3.6A, p.68 of
S&S). Notice the velum. What do you think is the function of the velum? What is the
function of a statocyst?

In some hydrozoan species closely related to Gonionemus, the medusa stage is

totally absent from the life cycle. In these species the planula develops into a polyp-like
larva called an actinula (Fig. 3.17, p.83 of S&S). The actinula larva develops directly
into a polyp.

Genus Obelia

The life cycle of this hydrozoan has a fairly even emphasis on the polyp and
medusa stages. The polyp stage of Obelia is colonial and provides a good example of
polyp polymorphism. Examine a live colony of Obelia under the dissecting scope. Rfer
to p.71 of S&S to identify polyp types. Two different structural and functional types of
polyps can be observed in the colony. The polyps with tentacles and mouths are called
gastrozooids and their function is feeding. The polyps without tentacles are called
gonozooids and their function is reproduction. Can you identify medusa buds within the
gonozooids? These will eventually give rise to free-swimming medusae. Often, by
artificially manipulating the photoperiod of marine organisms, it is possible to observe
the release of planktonic stages. Observe a portion of an Obelia colony which was kept
in the dark for a couple of days and then exposed to light just before the laboratory
period. Have the gonozoids released medusa? If so, examine an Obelia medusa. Why
do you think this photoperiod regime would be expected to cause the release of medusa?

All of the polyps of an Obelia colony share a common GV cavity so that food
ingested by the feeding polyps can be circulated to nourish the non-feeding polyps.
Observe the transparent skeleton covering the polyps of the colony. This covering is
secreted by the epidermis and is composed of a polysaccharide called chiton.

Genus Hydractinia
 Hydractinia is a colonial hydrozoan which normally grows on snail shells
occupied by a certain species of hermit crab. Observe a living colony under the
dissecting microscope. You should be able to identify several different types of zooids.
(Fig. 3.9 on p. 72 of S&S). The gastrozooids have tentacles and mouths used in
feeding. The spiral zooids or dactylozooids are defensive in function. They are
normally in a coiled position but can straighten out quickly when the colony is threatened
by a predator. The small knobs at the tips of these zooids are reduced tentacles that
contain batteries of nematocysts. Are the spiral zooids concentrated in any particular
area on the hermit crab shell? Why might this be so? The gonozooids (reproductive
polyps) bear several small swellings called medusoid buds. These medusoid buds will
never release free-swimming medusae. Instead, gonads will develop within the bud and
the eggs or sperm will be shed into the seawater. (Each colony bears either male or
female medusoid buds, but not both.)

What aspect of Hydractinia's life history might explain why the free-swimming
medusa stage has been lost in this organism? In colonial hydrozoans like Hydractinia
and Obelia, into what type of zooid do the planula larvae probably develop? Why?
Speculate on the relationship of Hydractinia and the hermit crabs which carry the shells
they live on. What are possible advantages and disadvantages (costs and benefits) to
Hydractinia and hermit crabs in this relationship? Would you describe this association
as parasitism, commensalism, or mutualism? Explain.

Genus Hydra

Although they are classically studied as "typical" cnidarians, Hydra exhibit

several very unique features. First of all, Hydra are freshwater organisms. This
characteristic sets them apart not just from other hydrozoans but from cnidarians in
general. What structural characteristic of cnidarians might account for the fact that the
vast majority of cnidarians are marine?

A second characteristic that distinguishes Hydra from other hydrozoans (and also
from scyphozoans) is that there is no trace of a medusa or even a medusoid bud in the
Hydra life cycle. Typically, Hydra polyps are reproduce by asexual budding throughout
the spring and summer, and they turn to sexual reproduction only in the fall. At that
time, gonads develop directly on the polyp. When Hydra eggs are fertilized, they
receive a protective covering that makes them resistant to freezing and desiccation. The
eggs will develop into new polyps when environmental conditions improve the following
spring.

How might this reproductive phenomenon be correlated with the fact that Hydra are
freshwater organisms?

A third unusual feature of Hydra relative to other organisms in its class is that
Hydra polyps are solitary rather than being colonial. The polyps do not secrete any type
of skeleton, and the individual animals are capable of considerable locomotion. Observe
a living specimen of Hydra and identify the structures labelled in Fig. 3.4, p.64 of S&S.

The reason Hydra are the standard cnidarian for study in the laboratory is because
they are generally available and cooperative in demonstrating a number of phenomena
common to cnidarian polyps. We will use Hydra today to examine polyp functions.

Obtain a few specimens of Hydra that have been starved for 48 hours and transfer
them to a syracuse watch glass containing pond water. Allow the animals to attach and
relax and then note how the body column elongates and the tentacles extend. Although
Hydra are usually sessile, they can glide on their base, float by means of gas bubbles
secreted in the region of the basal disc, and somersault to escape predators. These
movements, however, are hard to elicit in a laboratory situation. Using a probe, examine
how different parts of a Hydra's body respond to a stimulus. Are all parts equally quick
to respond? What does this tell you about the nervous system of Hydra?

With a pipet, transfer some Artemia larvae to the dish with the Hydra. Carefully
observe the reaction of Hydra to the prey. Describe the feeding response. Note the
movements of the tentacles and the reactions of the hypostome. What are the effects on
the prey? How are the prey held? Remove a prey item from the tentacles with fine
forceps, make a wet mount, and examine under high power of the compound microscope
(use oil-immersion if necessary). Examine and describe the nematocyst types found
(p.75, S&S). To examine undischarged nematocysts, remove a tentacle from a hydra
with a forceps, place it on a slide, cover with a coverslip, and examine under the
compound scope. How are the cnidoblasts distributed on the tentacle? To observe the
discharge of nematocysts, draw 5% acetic acid under the coverslip while observing
cnidoblasts.

Let us now try to determine the mechanisms responsible for feeding behavior in
Hydra. Place a Hydra individual in a syracuse watchglass of water and attempt to
discharge nematocysts by mechanically stimulating a tentacle with a probe or strand of
hair. Do nematocysts discharge? Do you observe a feeding response in the individual?
Now place isolated fresh Hydra in a watchglass and examine their reaction to introducing
clam juice and reduced glutathione into the watchglass without applying mechanical
stimulation. Reduced glutathione is a chemical released by injured prey. Do the
nematocysts discharge? Do you see a feeding response? Construct a response-stimulus
model of Hydra feeding behavior based on your observations.

Genus Physalia

Physalia, commonly called the Portuguese man-of-war, looks like a large medusa but
is actually a floating hydrozoan colony (Fig. 3.10, p.72 of S&S). The float, which
contains gas and keeps the colony buoyant, is so highly modified that it is questionable as
to whether it is a polyp or a medusa. The float is the first member of the colony to
develop and it asexually buds off the other individuals of the colony. These other
individuals are modified polyps and they hang down from the lower surface of the float.
Three different types of polyps can be observed: gastrozooids, gonozooids and
dactylozooids. Gastrozooids and gonozooids function as described for other hydrozoan
colonies. Dactylazooids each possess an enormous, nematocyst-bearing fishing tentacle,
and function in defense and in capture of food (although food items must be passed to the
gastrozooids for ingestion). As in other hydrozoan colonies, the GV cavities of all
members of the colony are connected. Examine the preserved Physalia available in the
laboratory.

Class SCYPHOZOA

This class includes the exclusively marine “true” jellyfish and their related polyps.
The medusa stage is usually large and conspicuous in the life cycle, while the polyps are
small or even lacking. The GV cavity in both the polyp and medusa forms is divided
into 4 gastric pouches. Medusa lack a velum and have oral arms (4 frilly extensions of
tissue that hang down around the mouth). Both polyps and medusae have a cellular
mesoglea, and gonads on the medusae are gastrodermal.

As a representative scyphozoan we will examine Aurelia, a common jellyfish

found along the Atlantic coast of North America. The life cycle of Aurelia is given on p.
63 in S&S. The free-swimming medusae produce gametes which give rise to small
polyps called scyphistomae. After a period of growth, the scyphistoma divides
transversely to become a strobila that resembles a stack of discs. Each of the "discs"
becomes an ephyra larva, detaches from the strobila and swims freely in the plankton.
The ephyra larva will eventually grow into an adult medusa. Examine prepared slides of
Aurelia planula, scyphistoma, strobila and ephyra and locate the structures indicated in
Fig. 3.3.

As was true for the Hydrozoa, scyphozoan polyps (scyphistomae) may asexually
produce other polyps in addition to producing medusae. New scyphistomae may be
produced asexually by budding or by producing structures called podocysts. A podocyst
is formed when the basal disc of the scyphistoma fragments off the parent polyp and
becomes surrounded by a resistant covering of chitin. The cyst will remain dormant for
a while, but will eventually give rise to a new polyp. Podocyst formation is seen in a
number of different jellyfish species. Podocysts are produced seasonally and are able to
survive winter conditions that would kill the polyps. Podocyst production may represent
an adaptation to extreme environmental fluctuations. The production of podocysts is
thus analogous to the production of resistant eggs by Hydra.

Although scyphozoan medusae resemble hydrozoan medusae in general features,

they differ in that they lack a velum, they have a complex G.V. cavity, and they have
compound sense organs called rhopalia around the edge of the umbrella. In addition,
the angles of the mouth are elongated into four oral arms which are grooved, often
frilled, and always heavily ciliated. Examine a live specimen of Aurelia. Identify the
oral arms, gastric pouches, rhopalia, tentacles, and gonads. Refer to pp. 63 and 79 of
S&S.
 Carefully observe and describe the swimming movement. A single sadist in the
class may want to demonstrate the function of the rhopalia. How would you suggest this
be done?

Examine the feeding response of Aurelia by placing one in a large fingerbowl

filled with seawater and then introducing Artemia larvae that have been in a suspension
of carmine particles. Describe the feeding behavior. Is capture passive or active?
Examine Artemia that have been captured by Aurelia and determine the types of
nematocysts used. Allow the Aurelia to continue feeding during the remainder of the
laboratory period and at intervals note the distribution of
ingested food.

Class ANTHOZOA

This remaining class of Cnidaria contains the sea anemones and corals. Medusae
are completely absent from the life cycle of anthozoans. The polyp produces gametes
directly. Fertilized eggs develop into planula larvae and each planula gives rise to a new
polyp. In addition to sexual reproduction, polyps may also reproduce asexually by
budding or by fragmentation. Anthozoan polyps may be solitary or colonial, depending
on the group. The internal structure of the anthozoan polyp is more complex than that of
hydrozoan and scyphozoan polyps. The GV cavity is characteristically divided by a
number of radially arranged septa or mesenteries (Fig. 3.5, p.66 of S&S). The
mesoglea is always thick and contains cells and fibrous supporting material. The gonads
are gastrodermal and are borne on the septa. Most Anthozoa have a bilateral or
biradial symmetry superimposed on their basic radial symmetry

The Anthozoa are divided into two subclasses: 1) Zoantharia (Hexacorallia) - sea
anemones and hard corals; and 2) Alcyonaria (Octocorallia) - soft corals and horny
corals.

Subclass ZOANTHARIA

The tentacles and septa are often in multiples of six but never eight. The
tentacles are always simple and the skeleton, if present, is an exoskeleton made of
calcium carbonate.

Sea Anemones

Sea anemones are solitary polyps that usually live attached to a hard substrate.
Sexual reproduction in anemones occurs as described for Anthozoa in general. Asexual
methods of reproduction involve not only budding, but also fragmentation and fission.
In fragmentation small bits of the basal disc are cast off as the anemone slowly creeps
along. Each bit grows into a small anemone. Fission refers to the splitting of an
individual longitudinally into a few large pieces which become a new polyp.
 In the laboratory we will examine the anemone Metridium as a representative
anthozoan. Obtain a Metridium specimen that has been allowed to settle on the bottom
of a large fingerbowl. The neuromuscular system of anemones is more highly developed
and localized than that of Hydra or Aurelia and can be examined in the laboratory easily.
The anemone nervous system consists of a two-dimensional neuronal net without
ganglionic centers. Conduction is outward in a circle from the center of stimulus, and
the extent of the response depends both on the intensity and duration of the stimulus. In
addition to the nerve net there are well-developed tracts containing elongate neurons
which serve for rapid conduction (p.79, S&S). When your Metridium is fully expanded,
stimulate a tentacle by touching the tip with a probe. What is the reaction? Is it
localized? In what direction does the tentacle bend? Continue stimulating the tentacle
and/or increase the stimulus strength. (Don’t overdo it!) What happens? What does
this tell you about the nervous system of Metridium? Stimulate the body wall of the
anemone with the same intensity that you initially stimulated the tentacle. Is there a
reaction, what happens it you increase the strength of a single body wall stimulus?
Explain these observations.

To examine the feeding response of Metridium rub small clam fragments in

powdered carmine and present the food to the tentacles. What is the response? Does
the response differ with the size of the introduced food? Are nematocysts used in the
capture of the prey? Be frugal in feeding your anemone so that it will cooperate with
your remaining observations. Place a small piece of stained food on the edge of the oral
disc. How is the food moved toward the mouth? Do tentacles move the food into the
mouth? Can you observe the activity of acontia at the base of the actinopharynx? What
is their function? Try feeding your anemone a piece of wet filter paper. What happens?
Next try feeding your anemone filter paper which has been wetted by absorbing fluid
from clam tissue. Is there a difference in response?

Since the food you are using to feed your anemone has been "stained" with
carmine particles, you should be able to trace the path of the food into the coelenteron.
Try to document that the food is directed down the actinopharynx by the flagellated
siphonoglyph, and inside the coelenteron by cilia on the septa. The thin septa ensure that
the living tissue is nowhere very thick and diffusion paths of food and gases remain short.
The actual site of digestion of food by Metridium may be determined at the end of the
laboratory period. Allow the Metridium you have fed carmine stained food to stand in
fresh seawater in the cold room until close to the end of the laboratory period. Then
relax the fed specimens in 7.2% MgC12 and open the coelenteron by making a
longitudinal incision from the base to the oral disc. Try to locate the structures
diagrammed on pp. 66 and 79 of S&S. Where is the food located? Can you observe
whole carmine particles in cells? Does digestion take place extracellularly or
intracellularly?

Examine a cross section of your Metridium and locate the following: pharynx,
siphonoglyph, complete and incomplete septa, GV cavity, retractor muscles,
gastrodermis, mesoglea, and epidermis.
Hard Corals

The fundamental anatomy of the septa and the GV cavity of hard corals closely
resembles that of sea anemones. The major differences involve the colonial growth
pattern of most corals and the secretion of a massive calcium carbonate exoskeleton.
Examine a colony of living Astrangia and identify the basic external features of the
polyps.

In the most generalized coral skeleton type, the portion of the exoskeleton directly
around the polyp resembles a cup with a floor and walls. Astrangia forms this type of
exoskeleton. Soon after the planula larva settles and becomes a juvenile polyp, it begins
forming an exoskeleton by secreting the floor of the coral cup. Almost at once the
undersurface of the polyp develops radial folds which secrete radially arranged ridges
called sclerosepta. These skeletal sclerosepta alternate with the tissue septa within the
GV cavity of the body. At the same time a rim is formed and built up as a wall around
the polyp. Study a piece of Astrangia (or other cup coral) from which the polyps have
been removed.

The exoskeletons produced by other coral types are modifications of the

floorwall-sclerosepta pattern seen in the cup corals. One interesting modification is seen
in the mushroom coral, the only solitary coral polyp that you will study in the lab. Note
that the large individual polyp that secreted this skeleton produces a floor and sclerosepta
but no walls. Thus, the skeleton is relatively flat instead of being cup-shaped. A second
modification is seen in the colonial rose coral and in brain corals. Here the polyps are
arranged in rows, and adjacent polyps in a row are fused to one another. These polyps
secrete a common wall around the whole row of polyps without producing walls between
neighboring polyps. The result is the formation of a series of winding grooves on the
surface of the calcareous skeletal mass. Are sclerosepta obvious in this type of coral
configuration?

You should also take note of the great variety of overall shapes that entire coral
colonies may acquire. Some corals produce lateral branches, while others are encrusting
or leaf-like. Still others form large compact mounds. The overall shape of the colony is
determined by the pattern in which new polyps are asexually budded.

Subclass ALCYONARIA

This subclass includes sea fans (gorgonians) and sea pens (Renilla). They are
always colonial. Each individual polyp of the colony has eight pinnate (feather-like)
tentacles, eight complete septa and a single siphonoglyph. Note that the mesoglea of
alcyonarians is relatively thick. Running through the mesoglea are numerous
gastrodermal tubes that connect the GV cavities of individual polyps in the colony.

The alcyonarian skeleton is an internal one or endoskeleton which is secreted by

the mesoglea. It is generally in the form of microscopic spicules of calcium carbonate.
However, the horny corals -- sea whip and sea fan -- have an endoskeleton of horny
protein material in addition to spicules. This horny skeleton is important in giving
support to the colony. The skeleton of another alcyonarian, the organ pipe coral, is
particularly interesting. This skeleton is composed of fused spicules stained red with iron
salts. The spicules are secreted by the mesoglea, but they end up encasing the polyps of
the colony. The skeleton is built into a series of tubes (each of which contains one
polyp) strengthened by connecting transverse platforms.

In several groups of Alcyonaria there is polymorphism of individuals within a

colony. This is illustrated nicely by the sea pansy and the sea pen (Fig. 3.11, p.74 of
S&S). The sea pansy consists of a large primary polyp with a stem-like base that is
anchored in the sand. The upper part of the primary polyp gives rise to two types of
secondary polyps. Autozooids are ordinary polyps which bear tentacles, feed and
reproduce. Siphonozooids lack tentacles, are small and wart-like in appearance, and
occur in clusters. They do not feed, but rather serve to create a water current through the
colony. What is the function of this water current?

PHYLUM CTENOPHORA

The Ctenophora are among the most beautiful of marine organisms. They are
transparent, pelagic animals with bilateral symmetry superimposed on a basic radial
symmetry. They are never colonial and have no sessile stage. Their most characteristic
features are ctenes, which are plates of fused cilia arrangea like the teeth of a comb (see
p. 172 Barnes). There are eight vertical rows of ctenes arranged at intervals around the
body. The ctenes in each row beat in metachronal waves and propel the organism's
mouth forward through the water. Examine the locomotion of a live specimen of
Mnemiopsis (if available) under a dissecting scope in a large fingerbowl.
 Like Cnidarians, all ctenophores are carnivorous and may use tentacles to capture
food. Only one species of ctenophore produces nematocysts. All other ctenophores
have colloblast cells, which function in food capture by sticking to prey items.

Discharged colloblast cell

Introduce some Artemia marked with carmine to the Mnemiopsis and observe
prey capture. Remove a captured Artemia and examine for colloblast fragments.

Apart from the recent discovery of true nematocyst in one ctenophore species,
many things indicate a close relationship between ctenophores and cnidarians. These
include: 1) the properties of the cells of the mesoglea, 2) the nature and organization of
the GV cavity and nerve nets, 3) the general tetraradial symmetry, and 4) the lack of
organs other than sensory ones. In addition, at least one species of ctenophore has a
planula-like larval stage.

TERMINOLOGY TO KNOW FOR PHYLA CNIDARIA AND CTENOPHORA

Since the cnidarian/ctenophora section includes a large number of terms, we

thought it would be helpful to highlight the most important ones for you. You should be
able to give a good definition or description of all the terms listed below. You should
also know the function and location of any anatomical structures in the list.

PHLYUM CNIDARIA

radial symmetry
biradial symmetry
bilateral symmetry
oral surface
aboral surface
epidermis
gastrodermis
mesoglea
coelenteron (gastrovascular cavity)
cnidoblast (cnidocyte)
nematocyst
polyp
medusa
metagenesis
polymorphism
hydroid colony
gastrozooid
gonozooid
dactylozooid
basal disc (pedal disc)
manubrium
velum
oral arms
radial canals
rhopalium
statocyst
planula
actinula
scyphistoma
strobila
strobilation
ephyra
podocyst
complete septum or mesentery
incomplete septum or mesentery
acontia
septal filament
retractor muscle
sphincter muscle
siphonoglyph
pharynx (stomodeum)
endoskeleton
exoskeleton
sclerosepta

PHYLUM CTENOPHORA

ctenes
colloblast cells
 HYDROZOAN LIFE CYCLES

Medusa eggs

Zygote Ciliated larva

(Planula)
sperm

Life Cycle of Obelia

Metamorphosis and
settling

Budding Hydroid Colony

(polyp form)

A. Tendency for reduction B. Tendency for

reduction
of medusa stage. of polyp stage.

Budding

Polyp Eggs and sperm Medusa Eggs and

sperm

Actinula larva
Planula larva

Life Cycle of Hydra Life Cycle of Some Close

Relatives
of Gonionemus