Poverty

For other uses, see Poverty (disambiguation).

in India and 173 million people in China. In terms of
Poverty is general scarcity or dearth, or the state percentage of regional populations, sub-Saharan Africa
at 47% had the highest incidence rate of absolute poverty
in 2008. Between 1990 and 2010, about 663 million people moved above the absolute poverty level. Nevertheless,
given the current economic model, built on GDP, it would
take 100 years to bring the worlds poorest up to the standard poverty line of $1.25 a day.[6] It has been argued
by some academics that the neoliberal policies promoted
by global nancial institutions such as the IMF and the
World Bank are actually exacerbating both inequality and
poverty.[7]
Extreme poverty is a global challenge; it is observed in all
parts of the world, including developed economies.[8][9]
UNICEF estimates half the worlds children (or 1.1 billion) live in poverty.[10]
An example of urban poverty in this slum in Jakarta, Indonesia

1 Etymology

of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money.[1] It is a multifaceted concept, which includes social, economic, and political elements. Poverty
seems to be chronic or temporary, and most of the
time it is closely related to inequality. As a dynamic
concept, poverty is changing and adapting according to
consumption patterns, social dynamics and technological change.[2] Absolute poverty or destitution refers to
the deprivation of basic human needs, which commonly
includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter and
health care. Relative poverty is dened contextually as
economic inequality in the location or society in which
people live.[3][4]

The word poverty comes from old French povert (Modern French: pauvret), from Latin pauperts from pauper
(poor).[11]
The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert.
There are several denitions of poverty depending on the
context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of
the person giving the denition.

2 Measuring poverty

After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made production goods increasingly less expensive
and more accessible. Of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide
enough yield to feed the population.[5] Responding to basic needs can be restricted by constraints on governments
ability to deliver services, such as corruption, tax avoidance, debt and loan conditionalities and by the brain drain
of health care and educational professionals. Strategies of
increasing income to make basic needs more aordable
typically include welfare, economic freedoms and providing nancial services.

See also: List of countries by percentage of population

living in poverty and Poverty threshold

2.1 Denitions
United Nations: Fundamentally, poverty is the inability
of getting choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate eectively in society. It means not having enough
to feed and clothe a family, not having a school or clinic
to go to, not having the land on which to grow ones food
or a job to earn ones living, not having access to credit.
It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal

Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and
the World Bank. The World Bank estimated 1.29 billion people were living in absolute poverty in 2008. Of
these, about 400 million people in absolute poverty lived
1

2 MEASURING POVERTY

Gini Index
(Income equality = 0)
25 - 30
30 - 35
35 - 40
40 - 45
45 - 50
50 - 55
55 - 60
60 - 66
No data

Percentage of population living on less than $1.25 per day, per

UN data from 2000-2006.

The Gini coecient, a measure of income inequality, 2014.

Copenhagen Declaration: Absolute poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human
needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It
depends not only on income but also on access to social services.[14] The term 'absolute poverty' is sometimes
synonymously referred to as 'extreme poverty.'[15]
Poverty is usually measured as either absolute or relative
(the latter being actually an index of income inequality).
Percentage of population suering from hunger, World Food
Programme, 2008

2.2 Absolute poverty

See also: Extreme poverty

Life expectancy, 2008.

The Human Development Index, 2006

or fragile environments, without access to clean water or

sanitation.[12]

Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. First introduced in 1990, the dollar a day poverty line measured
absolute poverty by the standards of the worlds poorest countries. The World Bank dened the new international poverty line as $1.25 a day for 2005 (equivalent to $1.00 a day in 1996 US prices).[16] but have
been updated to be $1.25 and $2.50 per day.[17] Absolute poverty, extreme poverty, or abject poverty is a
condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic
human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services.[18] The term 'absolute poverty', when
used in this fashion, is usually synonymous with 'extreme
poverty': Robert McNamara, the former President of
the World Bank, described absolute or extreme poverty
as, "...a condition so limited by malnutrition, illiteracy,
disease, squalid surroundings, high infant mortality, and
low life expectancy as to be beneath any reasonable definition of human decency.[19][notes 1][20] Australia is one
of the worlds wealthier nations. In his article published
in Australian Policy Online, Robert Tanton notes that,
While this amount is appropriate for third world countries, in Australia, the amount required to meet these basic needs will naturally be much higher because prices of
these basic necessities are higher.

World Bank: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in wellbeing, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low
incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and
services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also
encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical se- However as the amount of wealth required for survival is
curity, lack of voice, and insucient capacity and oppor- not the same in all places and time periods, particularly in
tunity to better ones life. [13]
highly developed countries where few people would fall

2.2

Absolute poverty

below the World Banks poverty lines, countries often de- varies across the world and in any regional populations,
velop their own National poverty lines.
and $1.25 per day poverty line and head counts are inad[27][29][30]
An absolute poverty line was calculated in Australia for equate measures.
the Henderson poverty inquiry in 1973. It was $62.70 a
week, which was the disposable income required to support the basic needs of a family of two adults and two dependent children at the time. This poverty line has been
updated regularly by the Melbourne Institute according to
increases in average incomes; for a single employed person it was $391.85 per week (including housing costs)
in March 2009.[21] In Australia the OECD poverty would
equate to a disposable income of less than $358 per week
for a single adult (higher for larger households to take account of their greater costs).[22]

The proportion of the developing world's population living in extreme economic poverty fell from 28 percent in
1990 to 21 percent in 2001.[24] Most of this improvement
has occurred in East and South Asia.[31] In East Asia the
World Bank reported that The poverty headcount rate at
the $2-a-day level is estimated to have fallen to about 27
percent [in 2007], down from 29.5 percent in 2006 and
69 percent in 1990.[32] In Sub-Saharan Africa extreme
poverty went up from 41 percent in 1981 to 46 percent
in 2001,[33] which combined with growing population increased the number of people living in extreme poverty
[34]
For a few years starting 1990, The World Bank anchored from 231 million to 318 million.
absolute poverty line as $1 per day. This was revised in In the early 1990s some of the transition economies of
1993, and through 2005, absolute poverty was $1.08 a Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia experiday for all countries on a purchasing power parity ba- enced a sharp drop in income.[35] The collapse of the
sis, after adjusting for ination to the 1993 U.S. dol- Soviet Union resulted in large declines in GDP per capita,
lar. In 2005, after extensive studies of cost of living of about 30 to 35% between 1990 and the trough year of
across the world, The World Bank raised the measure for 1998 (when it was at its minimum). As a result poverty
global poverty line to reect the observed higher cost of rates also increased although in subsequent years as per
living.[23] Now, the World Bank denes extreme poverty capita incomes recovered the poverty rate dropped from
as living on less than US$1.25 (PPP) per day, and mod- 31.4% of the population to 19.6%.[36][37]
erate poverty as less than $2 or $5 a day (but note that a World Bank data shows that the percentage of the popuperson or family with access to subsistence resources, e.g.
lation living in households with consumption or income
subsistence farmers, may have a low cash income without per person below the poverty line has decreased in each
a correspondingly low standard of living they are not
region of the world since 1990:[38][39]
living on their cash income but using it as a top up). It
estimates that in 2001, 1.1 billion people had consumption levels below $1 a day and 2.7 billion lived on less than
$2 a day.[24] A dollar a day, in nations that do not use the
U.S. dollar as currency, does not translate to living a day
on the equivalent amount of local currency as determined
by the exchange rate.[25] Rather, it is determined by the
purchasing power parity rate, which would look at how
much local currency is needed to buy the same things that
a dollar could buy in the United States.[25] Usually, this
would translate to less local currency than the exchange
rate in poorer countries as the United States is a relatively
more expensive country.[25]
The poverty line threshold of $1.25 per day, as set by The
World Bank, is controversial. Each nation has its own
threshold for absolute poverty line; in the United States,
for example, the absolute poverty line was US$15.15 per
day in 2010 (US$22,000 per year for a family of four),[26]
while in India it was US$1.0 per day[27] and in China the
absolute poverty line was US$0.55 per day, each on PPP
basis in 2010.[28] These dierent poverty lines make data
comparison between each nations ocial reports qualitatively dicult. Some scholars argue that The World
Bank method sets the bar too high, others argue it is low.
Still others suggest that poverty line misleads as it measures everyone below the poverty line the same, when in
reality someone living on $1.20 per day is in a dierent state of poverty than someone living on $0.20 per
day. In other words, the depth and intensity of poverty

Life expectancy has been increasing and converging for most of

the world. Sub-Saharan Africa has recently seen a decline, partly
related to the AIDS epidemic. Graph shows the years 1950
2005.

According to Chen and Ravallion, about 1.76 billion people in developing world lived above $1.25 per day and 1.9
billion people lived below $1.25 per day in 1981. The
worlds population increased over the next 25 years. In
2005, about 4.09 billion people in developing world lived
above $1.25 per day and 1.4 billion people lived below
$1.25 per day (both 1981 and 2005 data are on ination
adjusted basis).[41][42] Some scholars caution that these
trends are subject to various assumptions, and not certain. Additionally, they note that the poverty reduction

2 MEASURING POVERTY

is not uniform across the world; economically prospering

countries such as China, India and Brazil have made more
progress in absolute poverty reduction than countries in
other regions of the world.[43]
The absolute poverty measure trends noted above are supported by human development indicators, which have
also been improving. Life expectancy has greatly increased in the developing world since World War II and
is starting to close the gap to the developed world. Child
mortality has decreased in every developing region of the
world.[44] The proportion of the worlds population living
in countries where per-capita food supplies are less than
2,200 calories (9,200 kilojoules) per day decreased from
56% in the mid-1960s to below 10% by the 1990s. Similar trends can be observed for literacy, access to clean
water and electricity and basic consumer items.[45]

2.3

Relative poverty

Relative poverty reects better the cost of social inclusion and equality of opportunity in a specic time and
space.[52]
Once economic development has progressed beyond a
certain minimum level, the rub of the poverty problem
from the point of view of both the poor individual and of
the societies in which they live is not so much the eects
of poverty in any absolute form but the eects of the contrast, daily perceived, between the lives of the poor and
the lives of those around them. For practical purposes,
the problem of poverty in the industrialized nations today is a problem of relative poverty (page 9).[52][53]
In 1776 Adam Smith in the Wealth of Nations argued that
poverty is the inability to aord, not only the commodities which are indispensably necessary for the support of
life, but whatever the custom of the country renders it indecent for creditable people, even of the lowest order, to
be without.[54][55]
In 1958 J. K. Galbraith argued that, People are poverty
stricken when their income, even if adequate for survival,
falls markedly behind that of their community.[55][56]
In 1964 in a joint committee economic Presidents report
in the United States, Republicans endorsed the concept
of relative poverty. No objective denition of poverty
exists... The denition varies from place to place and time
to time. In America as our standard of living rises, so does
our idea of what is substandard.[55][57]

This graph shows the proportion of world population in extreme

poverty 19812008 according to the World Bank.

Relative poverty views poverty as socially dened and

dependent on social context, hence relative poverty is a
measure of income inequality. Usually, relative poverty
is measured as the percentage of population with income Children of the Depression-era migrant workers, Arizona, 1937
less than some xed proportion of median income. There
are several other dierent income inequality metrics, for In 1965 Rose Friedman argued for the use of relative
example the Gini coecient or the Theil Index.
poverty claiming that the denition of poverty changes
Relative poverty is the most useful measure for with general living standards. Those labelled as poor in
standard of living than
ascertaining poverty rates in wealthy developed 1995, would have had a higher [55][58]
many
labelled
not
poor
in
1965.
[46][47][48][49][50]
nations.
Relative poverty measure
is used by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the United Nations Childrens Fund
(UNICEF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) and Canadian poverty
researchers.[46][47][48][49][50] In the European Union, the
relative poverty measure is the most prominent and
mostquoted of the EU social inclusion indicators.[51]

In 1979, British sociologist, Peter Townsend published

his famous denition, individuals [...] can be said to be in
poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types
of diet, participate in the activities and have the living
conditions and amenities which are customary, or are at
least widely encouraged or approved, in the societies to
which they belong (page 31).[59]

2.4

Other aspects

Brian Nolan and Christopher T. Whelan of the Economic

and Social Research Institute (ESRI) in Ireland explained
that, "[P]overty has to be seen in terms of the standard of
living of the society in question.[60]
Relative poverty measures are used as ocial poverty
rates by the European Union, UNICEF and the OEDC.
The main poverty line used in the OECD and the
European Union is based on economic distance, a
level of income set at 60% of the median household
income.[61]

2.4

Other aspects
An early morning outside the Opera Tavern in Stockholm, with

Economic aspects of poverty focus on material needs, a gang of beggars waiting for delivery of the scraps from the
typically including the necessities of daily living, such as previous day. Sweden, 1868.
food, clothing, shelter, or safe drinking water. Poverty in
this sense may be understood as a condition in which a
Excluded locations
person or community is lacking in the basic needs for a
minimum standard of well-being and life, particularly as
Gender relationships
a result of a persistent lack of income.
Lack of security
Analysis of social aspects of poverty links conditions of
scarcity to aspects of the distribution of resources and
Limited capabilities
power in a society and recognizes that poverty may be a
function of the diminished capability of people to live
Physical limitations
the kinds of lives they value. The social aspects of poverty
may include lack of access to information, education,
Precarious livelihoods
health care, or political power.[62][63]
Problems in social relationships
Poverty levels are snapshot picture in time that omits
the transitional dynamics between levels. Mobility statis Weak community organizations
tics supply additional information about the fraction who
leave the poverty level. For example, one study nds that
in a sixteen-year period (1975 to 1991 in the U.S.) only David Moore, in his book The World Bank, argues that
5% of those in the lower fth of the income level were still some analysis of poverty reect pejorative, sometimes
powerless
in that level, while 95% transitioned to a higher income racial, stereotypes of impoverished people as [69]
[64]
victims
and
passive
recipients
of
aid
programs.
category.
Poverty levels can remain the same while
those who rise out of poverty are replaced by others. The Ultra-poverty, a term apparently coined by Michael
transient poor and chronic poor dier in each society. In Lipton,[70] connotes being amongst poorest of the poor
a nine-year period ending in 2005 for the U.S., 50% of in low-income countries. Lipton dened ultra-poverty as
the poorest quintile transitioned to a higher quintile.[65]
receiving less than 80 percent of minimum caloric intake
Poverty may also be understood as an aspect of unequal whilst spending more than 80% of income on food. Altersocial status and inequitable social relationships, experi- natively a 2007 report issued by International Food Policy
ultra-poverty as living on less
enced as social exclusion, dependency, and diminished Research Institute dened
[71]
than
54
cents
per
day.
capacity to participate, or to develop meaningful connections with other people in society.[66][67][68] Such social
exclusion can be minimized through strengthened connections with the mainstream, such as through the provision of relational care to those who are experiencing
poverty.

Asset poverty is an economic and social condition that is

more persistent and prevalent than income poverty.[72] It
can be dened as a households inability to access wealth
resources that are sucient enough to provide for basic
needs for a period of three months. Basic needs refer to
The World Banks Voices of the Poor, based on re- the minimum standards for consumption and acceptable
search with over 20,000 poor people in 23 countries, needs.[1] Wealth resources consist of home ownership,
identies a range of factors which poor people identify other real estate (second home, rented properties, etc.),
net value of farm and business assets, stocks, checking
as part of poverty. These include:
and savings accounts, and other savings (money in savings
bonds, life insurance policy cash values, etc.).[2] Wealth
Abuse by those in power
is measured in three forms: net worth, net worth minus
Dis-empowering institutions
home equity, and liquid assets. Net worth consists of all

the aspects mentioned above. Net worth minus home equity is the same except it does not include home ownership in asset calculations. Liquid assets are resources that
are readily available such as cash, checking and savings
accounts, stocks, and other sources of savings.[2] There
are two types of assets: tangible and intangible. Tangible
assets most closely resemble liquid assets in that they include stocks, bonds, property, natural resources, and hard
assets not in the form of real estate. Intangible assets are
simply the access to credit, social capital, cultural capital,
political capital, and human capital.[3]

Characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS

Infectious diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis can

perpetuate poverty by diverting health and economic resources from investment and productivity; malaria decreases GDP growth by up to 1.3% in some developing
nations and AIDS decreases African growth by 0.31.5%
annually.[81][82][83]
A pair of studies of the inuence of poverty on the ability
to reason about complicated issues requiring an immediate solution found that poverty directly impedes cognitive
function. Financial worries appear to put a severe burden
on ones mental resources so that they are no longer fully
available for solving complicated problems. The reduced
capability for problem solving can lead to suboptimal decisions and further perpetuate poverty.[84]

Infectious diseases continue to blight the lives of the poor

The eects of poverty may also be causes, as listed above, across the world. An estimated 40 million people are
thus creating a poverty cycle operating across multiple living with HIV/AIDS, with 3 million deaths in 2004.
levels, individual, local, national and global.
Every year there are 350500 million cases of malaria,
with 1 million fatalities: Africa accounts for 90 percent
of malarial deaths and African children account for over
3.1 Health
80 percent of malaria victims worldwide.[85]
Main articles: Diseases of poverty and Disability and
poverty
3.2 Hunger
One third of deaths some 18 million people a year or
See also: Malnutrition
Rises in the costs of living making poor people less able

A Somali boy receiving treatment for malnourishment at a health

facility.

50,000 per day are due to poverty-related causes: in

total 270 million people. People of color, women and A poor woman in India.
children, are over represented among the global poor and
these eects of severe poverty.[73] [74][75] Those living
in poverty suer disproportionately from hunger or even
starvation and disease.[76] Those living in poverty suffer lower life expectancy. [77] According to the World
Health Organization, hunger and malnutrition are the single gravest threats to the worlds public health and malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality,
present in half of all cases.[78]
Almost 90% of maternal deaths during childbirth occur
in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, compared to less than
1% in the developed world.[79] Those who live in poverty
have also been shown to have a far greater likelihood of People who earn their living by collecting and sorting garbage
having or incurring a disability within their lifetime.[80] and selling them for recycling, Payatas, Manila, Philippines.

3.4

Shelter

to aord items. Poor people spend a greater portion of

their budgets on food than richer people. As a result, poor
households and those near the poverty threshold can be
particularly vulnerable to increases in food prices. For
example, in late 2007 increases in the price of grains[86]
led to food riots in some countries.[87][88][89] The World
Bank warned that 100 million people were at risk of sinking deeper into poverty.[90] Threats to the supply of food
may also be caused by drought and the water crisis.[91]
Intensive farming often leads to a vicious cycle of exhaustion of soil fertility and decline of agricultural yields.[92]
Approximately 40% of the worlds agricultural land is seriously degraded.[93][94] In Africa, if current trends of soil
degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed
just 25% of its population by 2025, according to United
Nations University's Ghana-based Institute for Natural
Resources in Africa.[95] Every year nearly 11 million children living in poverty die before their fth birthday. 1.02
billion people go to bed hungry every night.[96]

7
ilies and society who submit low levels of investment in
the education and development of less fortunate children
end up with less favorable results for the children who see
a life of parental employment reduction and low wages.
Higher rates of early childbearing with all the connected
risks to family, health and well-being are major important
issues to address since education from preschool to high
school are both identiably meaningful in a life.[99]

Poverty often drastically aects childrens success in

school. A childs home activities, preferences, mannerisms must align with the world and in the cases that
they do not these students are at a disadvantage in the
school and most importantly the classroom.[101] Therefore, it is safe to state that children who live at or below
the poverty level will have far less success educationally
than children who live above the poverty line. Poor children have a great deal less healthcare and this ultimately
results in many absences from the academic year. Additionally, poor children are much more likely to suer
According to the Global Hunger Index, Sub-Saharan from hunger, fatigue, irritability, headaches, ear infecAfrica had the highest child malnutrition rate of the tions, u, and colds.[101] These illnesses could potentially
worlds regions over the 2001-2006 period.[97]
restrict a child or students focus and concentration.[102]

3.3

Education

See also: Impact of health on intelligence, Social determinants of health in poverty Education and Disability
and poverty Education
In 2000, almost a billion people were unable to read a
book or sign their names.[98]
Research has found that there is a high risk of educational
underachievement for children who are from low-income
housing circumstances. This is often a process that begins in primary school for some less fortunate children.
Instruction in the US educational system, as well as in
most other countries, tends to be geared towards those
students who come from more advantaged backgrounds.
As a result, children in poverty are at a higher risk than
advantaged children for retention in their grade, special
deleterious placements during the schools hours and even
not completing their high school education.[99] There are
indeed many explanations for why students tend to drop
out of school. One is the conditions of which they attend
school. Schools in poverty-stricken areas have conditions
that hinder children from learning in a safe environment.
Researchers have developed a name for areas like this:
an urban war zone is a poor, crime-laden district in which
deteriorated, violent, even war-like conditions and underfunded, largely ineective schools promote inferior academic performance, including irregular attendance and
disruptive or non-compliant classroom behavior.[100]

For a child to grow up emotionally healthy, the children

under three need A strong, reliable primary caregiver
who provides consistent and unconditional love, guidance, and support. Safe, predictable, stable environments. Ten to 20 hours each week of harmonious, reciprocal interactions. This process, known as attunement,
is most crucial during the rst 624 months of infants
lives and helps them develop a wider range of healthy
emotions, including gratitude, forgiveness, and empathy.
Enrichment through personalized, increasingly complex
activities.
Harmful spending habits mean that the poor typically
spend about 2 percent of their income educating their
children but larger percentages on alcohol and tobacco
(For example, 6 percent in Indonesia and 8 percent in
Mexico).[103]

3.4 Shelter

For children with low resources, the risk factors are similar to others such as juvenile delinquency rates, higher Street child in Bangladesh.
levels of teenage pregnancy, and the economic dependency upon their low income parent or parents.[99] Fam- See also: Slums, Street children and Orphanages

4 POVERTY REDUCTION

[104]

Poverty increases the risk of homelessness.

Slumdwellers, who make up a third of the worlds urban population, live in a poverty no better, if not worse, than rural
people, who are the traditional focus of the poverty in
the developing world, according to a report by the United
Nations.[105]
There are over 100 million street children worldwide.[106]
Most of the children living in institutions around the
world have a surviving parent or close relative, and
they most commonly entered orphanages because of
poverty.[107] Experts and child advocates maintain that
orphanages are expensive and often harm childrens
development by separating them from their families.[107]
It is speculated that, ush with money, orphanages are increasing and push for children to join even though demographic data show that even the poorest extended families
usually take in children whose parents have died.[107]

3.5

Utilities

the population and those outside informal housing. As

a result of heavy consumption subsidies, the price of
water decreases to the extent that only 30%, on average, of the supplying costs in developing countries is
covered.[108][110] This results in a lack of incentive to
maintain delivery systems, leading to losses from leaks
annually that are enough for 200 million people.[108][111]
This also leads to a lack of incentive to invest in expanding the network, resulting in much of the poor population
being unconnected to the network. Instead, the poor buy
water from water vendors for, on average, about ve to
16 times the metered price.[108][112] However, subsidies
for laying new connections to the network rather than for
consumption have shown more promise for the poor.[110]
Similarly, the poorest fth receive 0.1% of the worlds
lighting but pay a fth of total spending on light, accounting for 25 to 30 percent of their income.[109] Indoor air pollution from burning fuels kills 2 million, with
almost half the deaths from pneumonia in children under 5.[113] Fuel from Bamboo burns more cleanly and
also matures much faster than wood, thus also reducing
deforestation.[113] Additionally, using solar panels is promoted as being cheaper over the products lifetime even
if upfront costs are higher.[109]

3.6 Violence
See also: Slavery and Human tracking
According to experts, many women become victims
of tracking, the most common form of which is
prostitution, as a means of survival and economic
desperation.[114] Deterioration of living conditions can
often compel children to abandon school to contribute
to the family income, putting them at risk of being
exploited.[115] For example, in Zimbabwe, a number of
girls are turning to sex in return for food to survive because of the increasing poverty.[116]
In one survey, 67% of children from disadvantaged inner
cities said they had witnessed a serious assault, and 33%
reported witnessing a homicide.[117] 51% of fth graders
from New Orleans (median income for a household:
$27,133) have been found to be victims of violence, compared to 32% in Washington, DC (mean income for a
household: $40,127).[118]

The urban poor buy water from water vendors for, on average,
about ve to 16 times the metered price.[108] The poorest fth receive 0.1% of the worlds lighting but pay a fth of total spending
on light.[109]

4 Poverty reduction
Main article: Poverty reduction
See also: Aid and Development aid

Water utility subsidies tend to subsidize water consump- Various poverty reduction strategies are broadly categotion by those connected to the supply grid, which typ- rized here based on whether they make more of the baically skewed towards the richer and urban segment of sic human needs available or whether they increase the

4.1

Increasing the supply of basic needs

disposable income needed to purchase those needs. Some are used to sell basic needs to remote areas for below marstrategies such as building roads can both bring access to ket prices.[125][126]
various basic needs, such as fertilizer or healthcare from
urban areas, as well as increase incomes, by bringing better access to urban markets.
4.1.2 Health care and education

4.1
4.1.1

Increasing the supply of basic needs

Food and other goods

Hardwood surgical tables are commonplace in rural Nigerian

clinics.

See also: Health care system and Primary education

A large, modern fertilizer spreader

Agricultural technologies such as nitrogen fertilizers, pesticides, new seed varieties and new irrigation methods
have dramatically reduced food shortages in modern
times by boosting yields past previous constraints.[119]
Before the Industrial Revolution, poverty had been mostly
accepted as inevitable as economies produced little, making wealth scarce.[120] Georey Parker wrote that In
Antwerp and Lyon, two of the largest cities in western
Europe, by 1600 three-quarters of the total population
were too poor to pay taxes, and therefore likely to need
relief in times of crisis.[121] The initial industrial revolution led to high economic growth and eliminated mass
absolute poverty in what is now considered the developed
world.[120] Mass production of goods in places such as
rapidly industrializing China has made what were once
considered luxuries, such as vehicles and computers, inexpensive and thus accessible to many who were otherwise too poor to aord them.[122][123]
Even with new products, such as better seeds, or greater
volumes of them, such as industrial production, the poor
still require access to these products. Improving road and
transportation infrastructure helps solve this major bottleneck. In Africa, it costs more to move fertilizer from
an African seaport 60 miles inland than to ship it from
the United States to Africa because of sparse, low quality roads, leading to fertilizer costs two to six times the
world average.[124] Microfranchising models such as door
to door distributors who earn commission-based income

Nations do not necessarily need wealth to gain health.[127]

For example, Sri Lanka had a maternal mortality rate of
2% in the 1930s, higher than any nation today.[128] It reduced it to 0.50.6% in the 1950s and to .06% today
while spending less each year on maternal health because
it learned what worked and what did not.[128] Cheap water
lters and promoting hand washing are some of the most
cost eective health interventions and can cut deaths from
diarrhea and pneumonia.[129][130] Knowledge on the cost
eectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive
and educational measures have been made to disseminate
what works, such as the Copenhagen Consensus.[127]
Strategies to provide education cost eectively include
deworming children, which costs about 50 cents per child
per year and reduces non-attendance from anemia, illness
and malnutrition, while being only a twenty-fth as expensive as increasing school attendance by constructing
schools.[131] Schoolgirl absenteeism could be cut in half
by simply providing free sanitary towels.[132]
Desirable actions such as enrolling children in school or
receiving vaccinations can be encouraged by a form of
aid known as conditional cash transfers.[133] In Mexico,
for example, dropout rates of 16- to 19-year-olds in rural area dropped by 20% and children gained half an
inch in height.[134] Initial fears that the program would
encourage families to stay at home rather than work to
collect benets have proven to be unfounded. Instead,
there is less excuse for neglectful behavior as, for example, children stopped begging on the streets instead of going to school because it could result in suspension from
the program.[134]

10

4 POVERTY REDUCTION

4.1.3

Removing constraints on government services the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer even while many farmers cannot aord
See also: Political corruption, Tax havens, Transfer mis- them at market prices.[144] In Malawi, almost ve milpricing, Developing countries debt and Conditionality
lion of its 13 million people used to need emergency food
Government revenue can be diverted away from basic aid but after the government changed policy and subsidies for fertilizer and seed were introduced, farmers produced record-breaking corn harvests in 2006 and 2007
as Malawi became a major food exporter.[144] A major
proportion of aid from donor nations is tied, mandating
that a receiving nation spend on products and expertise
originating only from the donor country. [145] US law requires food aid be spent on buying food at home, instead
of where the hungry live, and, as a result, half of what is
spent is used on transport.[146]
Distressed securities funds, also known as vulture funds,
buy up the debt of poor nations cheaply and then sue
countries for the full value of the debt plus interest which
can be ten or 100 times what they paid.[147] They may
Local citizens from the Jana bi Village wait their turn to gather pursue any companies which do business with their targoods from the Sons of Iraq (Abna al-Iraq) in a military opera- get country to force them to pay to the fund instead.[147]
tion conducted in Yusuyah, Iraq.
Considerable resources are diverted on costly court cases.
For example, a court in Jersey ordered Congo to pay
services by corruption.[135][136] Funds from aid and natu- an American speculator $100 million in 2010.[147] Now,
ral resources are often sent by government individuals for the UK, Isle of Man and Jersey have banned such
money laundering to overseas banks which insist on bank payments.[147]
secrecy, instead of spending on the poor.[137] A Global
Witness report asked for more action from Western banks
as they have proved capable of stanching the ow of funds
linked to terrorism.[137]
Illicit capital ight from the developing world is estimated
at ten times the size of aid it receives and twice the debt
service it pays.[138] About 60 per cent of illicit capital
ight from Africa is from transfer mispricing, where a
subsidiary in a developing nation sells to another subsidiary or shell company in a tax haven at an articially
low price to pay less tax.[139] An African Union report estimates that about 30% of sub-Saharan Africas GDP has
been moved to tax havens.[140] Solutions include corporate country-by-country reporting where corporations
disclose activities in each country and thereby prohibit
the use of tax havens where no eective economic activity occurs.[139]
A family planning placard in Ethiopia. It shows some negative
Developing countries debt service to banks and governments from richer countries can constrain government
spending on the poor.[141] For example, Zambia spent
40% of its total budget to repay foreign debt, and only
7% for basic state services in 1997.[142] One of the proposed ways to help poor countries has been debt relief.
Zambia began oering services, such as free health care
even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure,
because of savings that resulted from a 2005 round of
debt relief.[143]
The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund,
as primary holders of developing countries debt, attach
structural adjustment conditionalities in return for loans
which generally include the elimination of state subsidies and the privatization of state services. For example,

eects of having too many children.

4.1.4 Reversing brain drain

Main articles: Reverse brain drain and Human capital
ight
The loss of basic needs providers emigrating from impoverished countries has a damaging eect.[148] As of
2004, there were more Ethiopia-trained doctors living in
Chicago than in Ethiopia.[149] Proposals to mitigate the
problem by the World Health Organization include compulsory government service for graduates of public medical and nursing schools and creating career-advancing

4.2

Increasing personal income

11

programs to retain personnel.[148]

unemployment benets, as the minimum wage eectively

imposes a high marginal tax on employers, causing losses
in eciency. In 1968, Paul Samuelson, John Kenneth
Galbraith and another 1,200 economists signed a document calling for the US Congress to introduce a system
of income guarantees.[159] Winners of the Nobel Prize in
Economics, with often diverse political convictions, who
support a basic income include Herbert A. Simon,[160]
Friedrich Hayek,[161] Robert Solow,[160] Milton Friedman,[162] Jan Tinbergen,[160] James Tobin[163][164][165]
and James Meade.[160]

4.1.5

Controlling overpopulation

Some argue that overpopulation and lack of access to

birth control leads to population increase to exceed food
production and other resources.[34][150][151] Better education for both men and women, and more control of
their lives, reduces population growth due to family planning.[152] According to UNFPA-United Nations Population Fund, by giving better education to men and women,
they can earn money for their lives and can help them to Income grants are argued to be vastly more ecient in
extending basic needs to the poor than subsidizing supstrengthen economic security.[153]
plies. Its eectiveness in poverty alleviation is diluted by
the non-poor who enjoy the same subsidized prices.[166]
4.2 Increasing personal income
In some countries, fuel subsidies are a larger part of the
budget than health and education.[167][168] A 2008 study
The following are strategies used or proposed to increase concluded that the money spent on in-kind transfers in
personal incomes among the poor. Raising farm incomes India in a year could lift all Indias poor out of poverty
is described as the core of the antipoverty eort as three for that year if transferred directly.[169] The primary obquarters of the poor today are farmers.[154] Estimates stacle argued against direct cash transfers is the impractishow that growth in the agricultural productivity of small cally for poor countries of such large and direct transfers.
farmers is, on average, at least twice as eective in bene- In practice, payments determined by complex iris scanting the poorest half of a countrys population as growth ning are used by war-torn Congo and Afghanistan,[170]
generated in nonagricultural sectors.[155]
while India is phasing out its fuel subsidies in favor of direct transfers.[171] Additionally, in aid models, the famine
relief model increasingly used by aid groups calls for
4.2.1 Income grants
giving cash or cash vouchers to the hungry to pay local farmers instead of buying food from donor countries,
often required by law, as it wastes money on transport
costs.[172][173]

4.2.2 Economic freedoms

See also: Economic freedom and Red tape

Afghan girl begging in Kabul.

Main articles: Guaranteed minimum income, Social

security and Welfare
A guaranteed minimum income ensures that every citizen will live be able to purchase a desired level of basic
needs. A basic income (or negative income tax) is a system of social security, that periodically provides each citizen, rich or poor, with a sum of money that is sucient
to live on. Studies of large cash-transfer programs in
Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi show that the programs
can be eective in increasing consumption, schooling,
and nutrition, whether they are tied to such conditions
or not.[156][157][158] Proponents argue that a basic income
is more economically ecient than a minimum wage and

In Canada, it takes two days, two registration procedures,

and $280 to open a business,[174] while an entrepreneur
in Bolivia must pay $2,696 in fees, wait 82 business days,
and go through 20 procedures to do the same. Such
costly barriers favor big rms at the expense of small enterprises, where most jobs are created.[175] Often, businesses have to bribe government ocials even for routine activities, which is, in eect, a tax on business.[176]
Noted reductions in poverty in recent decades has occurred in China and India mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the ending of
the central planning model known as the License Raj in
India.[177][178][179] The World Bank concludes that governments and feudal elites extending to the poor the right
to the land that they live and use is 'the key to reducing
poverty' citing that land rights greatly increase poor peoples wealth, in some cases doubling it.[180] Although approaches varied, the World Bank said the key issues were
security of tenure and ensuring land transactions costs
were low.[180]

12

6 CLIMATE CHANGE

Greater access to markets brings more income to the issued back in cash with a small commission, making
poor. Road infrastructure has a direct impact on remittances safer.[189]
poverty.[181][182] Additionally, migration from poorer
countries resulted in $328 billion sent from richer to
poorer countries in 2010, more than double the $120 billion in ocial aid ows from OECD members. In 2011,
India got $52 billion from its diaspora, more than it took
in foreign direct investment.[183]
4.2.3

Financial services

A beggar in the streets of Beijing, China in 2005. Disability discrimination is a major cause of extreme poverty.[190]

4.2.4 Cultural factors to productivity

Information and communication technologies for development

help to ght poverty.

See also: Micronance and Microcredit

Microloans, made famous by the Grameen Bank, is where
small amounts of money are loaned to farmers or villages,
mostly women, who can then obtain physical capital to
increase their economic rewards. However, microlending has been criticized for making hyperprots o the
poor even from its founder, Muhammad Yunus, and in
India, which has seen a growing wave of defaults and
suicides.[184][185][186] Indian political activist Arundhati
Roy asserts that some 250,000 debt-ridden farmers have
been driven to suicide.[187]

Cultural factors, such as discrimination of various kinds,

can negatively aect productivity such as age discrimination, stereotyping,[191] discrimination against people with
physical disability,[190] gender discrimination, racial discrimination, and caste discrimination. Max Weber and
some schools of modernization theory suggest that cultural values could aect economic success.[192][193] However, researchers have gathered evidence that suggest that
values are not as deeply ingrained and that changing economic opportunities explain most of the movement into
and out of poverty, as opposed to shifts in values.[194]

5 Wealth concentration
See also: Economic inequality and Wealth concentration
Oxfam has called for an international movement to end
extreme wealth concentration as a signicant step towards ameliorating global poverty. The group stated that
the $240 billion added to the fortunes of the worlds
richest billionaires in 2012 was enough to end extreme
poverty four times over. Oxfam argues that the concentration of resources in the hands of the top 1% depresses economic activity and makes life harder for everyone else - particularly those at the bottom of the economic ladder.[195][196]

Those in poverty place overwhelming importance on having a safe place to save money, much more so than receiving loans.[188] Additionally, a large part of micronance
loans are spent not on investments but on products that
would usually be paid by a checking or savings account.[188] Microsavings are designs to make savings
products available for the poor, who make small deposits.
Mobile banking utilizes the wide availability of mobile 6 Climate change
phones to address the problem of the heavy regulation
and costly maintenance of saving accounts.[188] This usually involves a network of agents of mostly shopkeepers, See also: Eects of global warming
instead of bank branches, would take deposits in cash
and translate these onto a virtual account on customers A report published in 2013 by the World Bank, with supphones. Cash transfers can be done between phones and port from the Climate & Development Knowledge Net-

13
work, found that climate change was likely to hinder future attempts to reduce poverty. The report presented the
likely impacts of present day, 2 C and 4 C warming on
agricultural production, water resources, coastal ecosystems and cities across Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia
and South East Asia. The impacts of a temperature rise
of 2 C included: regular food shortages in Sub-Saharan
Africa; shifting rain patterns in South Asia leaving some
parts under water and others without enough water for
power generation, irrigation or drinking; degradation and
loss of reefs in South East Asia, resulting in reduced sh
stocks; and coastal communities and cities more vulnerable to increasingly violent storms.[197]

Voluntary

eration implied in the former favors solidarity, and is a

necessary condition so as to ght eectively to eradicate
the abuse of the latter.[198]
As it was indicated above the reduction of poverty results
from religion, but also can result from sustainable development or solidarity.[199]

8 Notes
[1] In his book entitled The End of Poverty Jerey Sachs argued that extreme global poverty could be eliminated by
2025 if the wealthy countries of the world were to increase
their combined foreign aid budgets to between $135 billion and $195 billion from 2005 to 2015. In 2004, 1.1
billion people lived in extreme poverty on less than a dollar a day.

See also: Simple living and Evangelical counsels

Among some individuals, poverty is considered a nec-

9 See also
9.1 Nations
Countries by GDP (PPP)
Countries by poverty rate
Least developed country
Poverty by country
Category:Poverty by country

9.2 Theology
Charity (virtue)
Sadaqah
Tzedakah
St. Francis of Assisi renounces his worldly goods in a painting
attributed to Giotto di Bondone.

Zakat

essary or desirable condition, which must be embraced 9.3 Organizations and campaigns
to reach certain spiritual, moral, or intellectual states.
Poverty is often understood to be an essential element
9.4 In documentary photography and lm
of renunciation in religions such as Buddhism (only for
monks, not for lay persons) and Jainism, whilst in Roman Catholicism it is one of the evangelical counsels. The 10 References
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2008). More for the Poor and Less for and by the State:
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The Case for Direct Cash Transfers (PDF). Retrieved 23
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saved a Namibian village. Der Spiegel. Retrieved 28 May
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Global Development. 14 October 2010. Retrieved 6
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[158] Namibians line up for free cash. BBC News. 23 May
2008. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[171] India announces changes in subsidies, will hand out cash
to its poor. Washington Post. 28 February 2011. Re[159] Economists Statement on Guaranteed Annual Income,
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Series, Papers of John Kenneth Galbraith, John F. [172] UN aid debate: give cash not food?". csmonitor.com. 4
Kennedy Presidential Library. Cited in: Jyotsna SreeniJune 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
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2009), page 269
[160] Guy Standing (2005). 1. About Time: Basic Income
Security As A Right. In Guy Standing. Promoting Income Security as a Right: Europe and North America (2nd
ed.). London: Anthem Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-184331-174-4. Among those who have become convinced
of the virtues of the basic income approach are several
Nobel Prize-winning economists of surprisingly diverse
political convictions: Milton Friedman, Herbert Simon,
Robert Solow, Jan Tinbergen and James Tobin (besides,
of course, James Meade who was an advocate from his
younger days).

[174] Dipak Das Gupta; Mustapha K. Nabli; World Bank

(2003). Trade, Investment, and Development in the Middle
East and North Africa: Engaging With the World. World
Bank Publications. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-8213-5574-9.
[175] Ending mass poverty. cato.org. Retrieved 27 May
2011.
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years ago for a negative income tax.

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[185] Polgreen, Lydia; Bajaj, Vikas (17 November 2010). [203] United Nations Millennium Campaign.
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[192] Moore, Wilbert. 1974. Social Change. Englewood Clis,
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11 Further reading
Adato, Michelle & Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, eds.
Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty:
Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in
Six Countries (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press,
[http://www.ifpri.org/publication/
agricultural-research-livelihoods-and-poverty
International Food Policy Research Institute
Anzia, Lys Educate a Woman, You Educate a Nation South Africa Aims to Improve its Education
for Girls WNN Women News Network. 28 August 2007.
Atkinson, Anthony. Poverty in Europe 1998
Babb, Sarah (2009). Behind the Development Banks:
Washington Politics, World Poverty, and the Wealth
of Nations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780-226-03365-5.

[193] Parsons, Talcott. 1966. Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Englewood Clis, NJ: PrenticeHall.

Banerjee, Abhijit & Esther Duo, Poor Economics:

A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global
Poverty (New York: PublicAairs, 2011)

[194] Kerbo, Harold. 2006. Social Stratication and Inequality: Class Conict in Historical, Comparative, and Global
Perspective, 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Bergmann, Barbara. Deciding Whos Poor,

Dollars & Sense, March/April 2000

[195] Khazan, Olga (20 January 2013). Can we ght poverty

by ending extreme wealth?". Washington Post. Retrieved
18 September 2014.

Betson, David M. & Warlick, Jennifer L. Alternative Historical Trends in Poverty. American Economic Review 88:34851. 1998. in JSTOR

[196] Oxfam seeks 'new deal' on inequality from world leaders. BBC News. 18 January 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2014.

Brady, David Rethinking the Sociological Measurement of Poverty Social Forces 81#3 2003, pp.
715751 Online in Project Muse. Abstract: Reviews

[197] REPORT: Warmer world will keep millions of people

trapped in poverty. Climate & Development Knowledge
Network. Downloaded 31 July 2013.

shortcomings of the ocial U.S. measure; examines several theoretical and methodological advances in poverty
measurement. Argues that ideal measures of poverty
should: (1) measure comparative historical variation effectively; (2) be relative rather than absolute; (3) conceptualize poverty as social exclusion; (4) assess the impact
of taxes, transfers, and state benets; and (5) integrate the
depth of poverty and the inequality among the poor. Next,
this article evaluates sociological studies published since
1990 for their consideration of these criteria. This article
advocates for three alternative poverty indices: the interval measure, the ordinal measure, and the sum of ordinals
measure. Finally, using the Luxembourg Income Study,
it examines the empirical patterns with these three measures, across advanced capitalist democracies from 1967
to 1997. Estimates of these poverty indices are made
available.

[198] World Peace Day Address 2009. The Vatican. 1 January 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
[199] S. Adamiak, D. Walczak, Catholic social teaching, sustainable development and social solidarism in the context
of social security, Copernican Journal of Finance & Accounting, Vol 3, No 1, p. 17.
[200] Campaign to Reduce Poverty in America. Catholiccharitiesusa.org. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
[201] transforming slums. Homeless International. Retrieved
24 October 2010.
[202] The ONE Campaign. One.org. Retrieved 24 October
2010.

20
Buhmann, Brigitte, et al. 1988. Equivalence
Scales, Well-Being, Inequality, and Poverty: Sensitivity Estimates Across Ten Countries Using the
Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) Database. Review of Income and Wealth 34:11542.
Cox, W. Michael & Alm, Richard. Myths of Rich
and Poor 1999
Danziger, Sheldon H. & Weinberg, Daniel H. The
Historical Record: Trends in Family Income, Inequality, and Poverty. Pp. 1850 in Confronting
Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, edited by Sheldon H. Danziger, Gary D. Sandefur, and Daniel. H.
Weinberg. Russell Sage Foundation. 1994.
Firebaugh, Glenn. Empirics of World Income
Inequality. American Journal of Sociology (2000)
104:15971630. in JSTOR
Frank, Ellen, Dr. Dollar: How Is Poverty Dened
in Government Statistics? Dollars & Sense, January/February 2006
Gans, Herbert J., The Uses of Poverty: The Poor
Pay All, Social Policy, July/August 1971: pp. 20
24
George, Abraham, Wharton Business School Publications Why the Fight Against Poverty is Failing:
a contrarian view
Gordon, David M. Theories of Poverty and Underemployment: Orthodox, Radical, and Dual Labor
Market Perspectives. 1972.
Haveman, Robert H. Poverty Policy and Poverty Research. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press
1987 ISBN 0-299-11150-4
Haymes, Stephen, Maria Vidal de Haymes and
Reuben Miller (eds). The Routledge Handbook of
Poverty in the United States. Routledge, 2015. ISBN
0415673445.
Iceland, John Poverty in America: a handbook University of California Press, 2003
McEwan, Joanne, and Pamela Sharpe, eds. Accommodating Poverty: The Housing and Living Arrangements of the English Poor, c. 16001850 (Palgrave
Macmillan; 2010) 292 pages; scholarly studies of
rural and urban poor, as well as vagrants, unmarried
mothers, and almshouse dwellers.
O'Connor, Alice (2000). Poverty Research and
Policy for the Post-Welfare Era. Annual Review of
Sociology.
Osberg, Lars; Xu, Kuan. International Comparisons of Poverty Intensity: index decomposition and
bootstrap inference. The Journal of Human Resources 2000 (35): 5181.

11 FURTHER READING
Paugam, Serge. Poverty and Social Exclusion: a
sociological view. Pp. 4162 in The Future of European Welfare, edited by Martin Rhodes and Yves
Meny, 1998.
Philippou, Lambros (2010).
Public Space,
Enlarged Mentality and Being-In-Poverty.
Philosophical Inquiry 32 (12):
103115.
doi:10.5840/philinquiry2010321/218.
Prashad, Vijay. The Poorer Nations: A Possible History of the Global South. Verso Books, June 2014.
ISBN 1781681589
Pressman, Steven, Poverty in America: an annotated
bibliography. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press,
1994 ISBN 0-8108-2833-2
Rothman, David J., (editor). The Almshouse Experience (Poverty U.S.A.: the Historical Record).
New York: Arno Press, 1971. ISBN 0-405-030924Reprint of Report of the committee appointed by the
Board of Guardians of the Poor of the City and Districts of Philadelphia to visit the cities of Baltimore,
New York, Providence, Boston, and Salem (published in
Philadelphia, 1827); Report of the Massachusetts General Courts Committee on Pauper Laws (published in
[Boston?], 1821); and the 1824 Report of the New York
Secretary of State on the relief and settlement of the poor
(from the 24th annual report of the New York State Board
of Charities, 1901).

Roy, Arundhati. Capitalism: A Ghost Story.

Haymarket Books, 2014. ISBN 1608463850
Salehi Nejad, Alireza. The Third World: Country or
People?. London: Titan Inc., 2011
Sen, Amartya Poverty and Famines: an essay on entitlement and deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1981
Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. New
York: Knopf, 1999
Smeeding, Timothy M., O'Higgins, Michael &
Rainwater, Lee. Poverty, Inequality and Income
Distribution in Comparative Perspective. Urban Institute Press 1990.
Smith, Stephen C., Ending Global Poverty: a guide
to what works, New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2005
Triest, Robert K. Has Poverty Gotten Worse?".
Journal of Economic Perspectives 1998 (12): 97
114.
Wilson, Richard & Pickett, Kate. The Spirit Level,
London: Allen Lane, 2009
World Bank: Can South Asia End Poverty in a
Generation?"

21
World Bank, "World Development Report 2004:
Making Services Work For Poor People, 2004.

Summary of Human Development Report 2014, by

the United Nations Development Programme
2.2 Billion People Are Poor. Truthdig, 23 July 2014.

12

External links

Reducing Global Poverty from the Dean Peter

Krogh Foreign Aairs Digital Archives
Data visualizations of the long-run development of
poverty and list of data sources on poverty on 'Our
World in Data'.
Islamic Development Bank
Luxembourg Income Study Contains a wealth of
data on income inequality and poverty, and hundreds of its sponsored research papers using this
data.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Contains reports on economic development
as well as relations between rich and poor nations.
OPHI Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative (OPHI)] Research to advance the human development approach to poverty reduction.
Transparency International Tracks issues of government and corporate corruption around the world.
United Nations Hundreds of free reports related to
economic development and standards of living in
countries around the world, such as the annual Human Development Report.
U.S. Agency for International Development USAID
is the primary U.S. government agency with the mission for aid to developing countries.
World Bank Contains hundreds of reports which can
be downloaded for free, such as the annual World
Development Report.
World Food Program Associated with the United
Nations, the World Food Program compiles hundreds of reports on hunger and food security around
the world.
Why poverty Documentary lms about poverty
broadcast on television around the world in November 2012, then will be available online.
Annual income of richest 100 people enough to end
global poverty four times over. Oxfam International,
19 January 2013.
Contains estimates on the number of people living
in poverty in selected countries from 1973 to 1985
This powerful Reddit thread reveals how the poor
get by in America (January 2015), The Washington
Post

Making Poverty History, by Vijay Prashad for

Jacobin. 10 November 2014.

22

13

13
13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Poverty Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty?oldid=666426194 Contributors: The Anome, Tarquin, Taw, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Gianfranco, William Avery, Ray Van De Walker, SimonP, Mswake, Heron, Tzartzam, Hephaestos, DennisDaniels,
Edward, Lir, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Alodyne, Dante Alighieri, Vera Cruz, Ixfd64, Delirium, Dori, Skysmith, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, EntmootsOfTrolls, Kingturtle, , RadRafe, Bogdangiusca, Palfrey, Raven in Orbit, JASpencer, Reddi, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Tempshill, JoeM, , Topbanana, Joy, Raul654, Pakaran, Francs2000, Hajor,
Robbot, Chealer, Earl Andrew, Altenmann, Kowey, Stewartadcock, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, Texture, Auric, Roscoe x, Tobycat, Hadal, Mushroom, Mattaschen, Pengo, Dina, Adam78, Terjepetersen, Alan Liefting, Dave6, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, Nikodemos,
Nat Krause, Orangemike, Monedula, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Hans Zarkov, Maver1ck, Eequor, Solipsist, Jackol, 47b, Stevietheman,
Chowbok, Utcursch, Andycjp, Antandrus, BozMo, Beland, OverlordQ, ClockworkLunch, Loremaster, Piotrus, PDH, Rdsmith4, Gsociology, DragonySixtyseven, Cihan, Bodnotbod, Icairns, Neutrality, Ukexpat, Deglr6328, Trevor MacInnis, Yethey, Canterbury Tail,
Lacrimosus, Alsocal, David Sneek, Miborovsky, DanielCD, Discospinster, William Pietri, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, LegCircus, Supercoop, Cacycle, Pluke, Euthydemos, Notinasnaid, Mjpieters, LeeHunter, Pavel Vozenilek, Rubicon, ESkog, Konstantin~enwiki, Sten,
Jaimedv, MBisanz, El C, Walden, Lycurgus, Mwanner, Shanes, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Causa sui, Bobo192, Smalljim, AugustinMa, BrokenSegue, Shenme, Viriditas, Johnteslade, Cohesion, Maurreen, Joe Jarvis, Ivansanchez, Sganzanga, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Krellis,
JavOs, Nsaa, Knucmo2, Vanished user lkjsdkf34ij48fjhk4, Disneyfreak96, Alansohn, Gary, Anthony Appleyard, Scuiqui fox, Rd232, Carbon Caryatid, Andrewpmk, Craigy144, John Quiggin, Lectonar, Night eule, Mysdaao, Mrholybrain, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Vengeful Cynic,
Wtmitchell, Velella, Freshraisin, Zantastik, Garzo, RJII, RainbowOfLight, Grenavitar, Mikeo, Paul Spicker, Vuo, Humble Guy, Bsadowski1, Versageek, DV8 2XL, TheCoee, HenryLi, Dennis Bratland, Ultramarine, RyanGerbil10, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ),
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Ohnoitsjamie, Frnchy444, Skizzik, M4lomb, Smeggysmeg, Scaife, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Kurykh, TimBentley, Wklee, Rkitko,
Quinsareth, Shicoco, Jordanhurley, Dingno, MalafayaBot, Rothery, SchftyThree, Corecirculator, BrendelSignature, CSWarren, Ctbolt,
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Kloss~enwiki, JohnCub, AstroChemist, Minna Sora no Shita, Osbus, Deadagblues, IronGargoyle, RomanSpa, Yogesh Khandke, Ckatz,
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Zootsuits, The Giant Pun, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, Smilestone, J Di, Sam Clark, Sooner016, Saturday, Beno1000, Dick77,
Courcelles, JLCA, Tawkerbot2, Ashv3524, Chris55, Cbrett, Lbr123, Deetdeet, Lahiru k, JForget, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Van helsing, Comrade42, Vision Thing, Woudloper, Page Up, Dgw, Green caterpillar, Melicans, Laurenjf, NickW557, Thomasmeeks, Requestion,
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Grison~enwiki, Kozuch, Ward3001, Hillshum, Zalgo, Nol888, Wanderingatlarge, Maziotis, Vkvora2001, Alucidinterval, CalculatinAvatar,
CieloEstrellado, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mercury~enwiki, Andrew.hermiz, Pstanton, Ante Aikio, O, Jd2718, N5iln, Andyjsmith, Gralo, Mojo
Hand, Marek69, John254, NorwegianBlue, Kathovo, James086, Merbabu, Philu, Notmyrealname, Mailseth, Jashper, GDP, CherylK,
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ASDFGHJKL, Jayron32, MTomsons, Pwhitwor, Alexeditor, Mattb1, Blink182rocks, Danger, Malcolm, Gdo01, Spencer, Specied Directory Quantity, Falconleaf, Qwerty Binary, Leuqarte, Ingolfson, MikeLynch, Aiyer, MER-C, Malik1, Andonic, ZOINK!, Sitethief, ,
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Subversive element, Morrad, J.delanoy, Alasdair22, Captain panda, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Acumensch, Trusilver, ANFO, Ali, Uncle
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Leebo, Je G., Luna7, Rajankila, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, Scott64, TXiKiBoT, Jkstark, Jacob Lundberg, Zardinuk, LaNicoya, Inkani,
GDonato, ClintonKu, Anonymous Dissident, Speed667, Crohnie, Drestros power, Koopa turtle, Dan B Davis, C.J. Grin, Anna Lincoln, Steven J. Anderson, Abbw254, Lradrama, Corvus cornix, Alezangrilli, Vivek1982, Martin451, Broadbot, Crusader1179, AndrewJD,

13.2

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LeaveSleaves, Wassermann~enwiki, Raymondwinn, Mannafredo, Mustyoudie, Cheunggkl, MagnaKezo, Mizzike, Nikkul, Streetstrategist,
Yk Yk Yk, Wolfrock, Adam.J.W.C., Kpnutnut, Jason Leach, Singhissingh, VanBuren, ObjectivismLover, Thelikelylad, Ceranthor, Pjoef,
AlleborgoBot, Blackre0027, Ljay2two, Closenplay, Saltycrayons, CameronTheKing, NHRHS2010, PokeYourHeadO, Endexploitation,
Rayhawk, Mtclas, Thw1309, SieBot, StAnselm, Iceshark7, Andrew.robinson101, Coee, Liamdavies, Tresiden, Nihil novi, BotMultichill,
Ellbeecee, Lemonash, Winchelsea, Gerakibot, Jsc83, Dawn Bard, Matthew Yeager, Triwbe, Fcbagatta, Smsarmad, Yintan, Ideonaut,
Greatchange, WRK, Android Mouse, Pxma, Happysailor, Flyer22, Taylorct, Xkfusionxk, Oda Mari, Jasgrider, Hxhbot, 2Bdea, Jomar
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Steven Zhang, Lightmouse, Janshouse, Hobartimus, Alex.muller, Svick, PShadzik, Belligero, Correogsk, Chet1234567, LordAntagonist,
Cyfal, Lakabien, Dodger67, JustBeCool, Anchor Link Bot, Sean.hoyland, Mygerardromance, Mtaylor848, Ascidian, Busy Stubber, Superbeecat, Pinkadelica, AmerinRio, Jons63, Escape Orbit, Mumble45, Explicit, ImageRemovalBot, AaronLH, Blanche Poubelle, Jrochagzz,
Donald 918, ClueBot, SalineBrain, Jmcdonald wms, Rumping, The Thing That Should Not Be, Zarabtul, Rodhullandemu, Jamalhamou,
Rjd0060, Pozasa001, Minglingping, Elinas~enwiki, Joker12324, Bobith2, Jan1nad, RashersTierney, Hadrianheugh, Ndenison, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Wysprgr2005, Garyzx, Taroaldo, Arakunem, Metown, Drmies, WDavis1911, Alexhopkins, CounterVandalismBot, Clisteinman, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, TheSmuel, Otolemur crassicaudatus, ZoeBEE, Dellbrother, Bada12, PMDrive1061, Yulkmn, DragonBot, Dwrcan, Ktr101, Excirial, Teamhbr, CohesionBot, Diderots dreams, Alexbot, Mynameisnotpj, Watchduck, Bikerprof, Eeekster,
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Andylink115, Tintenschlein, Bobmack89x, Programmer13, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Vicenarian, Elockid, HRoestBot, Ktm24122,
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GregKaye, Amirrazor, Paboe, Okihita, Vrenator, Duoduoduo, BCJS, Reaper Eternal, Kitfoxxe, Mariadelcarmenpatricia, Diannaa, Suusion of Yellow, Bonzolive, Jonovb, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Obankston, Dhburns, Shadowman052, RjwilmsiBot, Prayerchick, Abland24, Nellycat13, Kda15, Fia3, Centre for Poverty Analysis, Mansi kumarasiri, Jimtaip, KissmeKate, Aircorn, Youthagents4, Mikael07, Turtlelick,
Tesseract2, FrickleSnitz, ArackBobama, Tartarus21, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Stryn, Scottrothstein, Alanmoll, Az29, Unimpeder, Ultratycoon, GoingBatty, Jadeslair, Ahmed Ghazi, Shamhat456, Plymouthpictures, Tommy2010, Stuckinthesnow, Ilysh, Wikipelli, Kiatdd,
Jamie891, Kolkata culture, Askeco, Brendowilko763, Markk01, Mamabear16, Theologianguy, 15turnsm, Zictor23, F, Theworldhasgonemad, Zhen Zhen, Lightswitch cruz, Makecat, Gz33, AfricanAngle, AutoGeek, Surumps, , Brandmeister, L Kensington,
Neftonos, Donner60, Sailsbystars, Benn Pieters, Damirgrati, ElockidAlternate, Ashish itct, Monteitho, Hayleyluvhszu, VictorianMutant,
Ace of Raves, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, ShineOnHarvestMoon, JonRicheld, Aletx, Thqwerty, NotNepaliScum, Petrb, Helpsome,
ClueBot NG, Mechanical digger, Rich Smith, Jack Greenmaven, Folder132, Valerie.H.Le, Satellizer, Wealthy duck uncle, Bped1985,
Loganhair, GoldenGlory84, Frietjes, Monsoon Waves, Q Ramona, Pescador555, Masssly, Chinagirl197, Widr, CJCalum26, Antiqueight,
WikiPuppies, Groupuscule, Lighting Engineer, Hardik32889, Jam000qaz, Pharle, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Research2011, Guest2625, Kinaro, BG19bot, VanishedUser99, Serbia101, Markdx777, Edevelo, MPSchneiderLC, HIDECCHI001,
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Anacaputo, FaZe Scopz, Mikemigzz, Joppa Chong, Bilorv, M Tracy Hunter, Monkbot, Indiamonsoon, Preston19192, Cassandra Truth,
Sudhir7777, DataVizMax, TranquilHope, Skoritz, Ps20231131, Physicsmathftw, Apenuta, Tom maxeld, M1902m, Benfxmth, SWinters3, Jodielavery, Jbitz743, Nikhil yadav 2, Shadowking72, Zest123, Therebase123, Renee1483, Asdafasdaf, Alfred h o4000, Imaad
khawaja, KasparBot, Dmck11, Hawra12345..., Brockson007 and Anonymous: 2064

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File:2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/2011_

UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
BlankMap-World6,_compact.svg Original artist: BlankMap-World6,_compact.svg: Canuckguy et al.
File:2014_Gini_Index_World_Map,_income_inequality_distribution_by_country_per_World_Bank.svg
Source:
http:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/2014_Gini_Index_World_Map%2C_income_inequality_distribution_by_country_
per_World_Bank.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: M Tracy Hunter

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13

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Afghan_girl_begging.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Afghan_girl_begging.jpg License: CC

BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Evstaev
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%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martin23230
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80%932008.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jacob Lundberg
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File:Kiwanja_uganda_charging_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Kiwanja_uganda_charging_1.
jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as kiwanja_uganda_charging_1 Original artist: Ken Banks
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rived
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<a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Life_Expectancy_2008_Estimates_CIA_World_Factbook.png'
class='image'><img alt='Life Expectancy 2008 Estimates CIA World Factbook.png' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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CIA_World_Factbook.png'
width='45'
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1.5x,
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src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/BlankMap-World6.svg/45px-BlankMap-World6.svg.png'
width='45'
height='23' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/BlankMap-World6.svg/68px-BlankMap-World6.svg.png
1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/BlankMap-World6.svg/90px-BlankMap-World6.svg.png 2x' data-lewidth='863' data-le-height='443' /></a> File:BlankMap-World6.svg by Canuckguy (en.wp), released under PD-self. Data from CIA The World Factbook 2008 - Rank Order - Life Expectancy at birth (as updated until 20 November 2008). Coloured using Inkscape.
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File:Percentage_population_living_on_less_than_1_dollar_day_2007-2008.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/1/1d/Percentage_population_living_on_less_than_1_dollar_day_2007-2008.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: Sbw01f
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Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Lobizn at English Wikipedia

13.3

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Parambikkulam%2C_India.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Augustus Binu/ www.dreamsparrow.
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original: Johann Dro (talk contribs)
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A4llaren.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Julius Ejdestam: De fattigas Sverige Original artist: Y. Broling in Ny illustrerad tidning
1868.
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VOA_Heinlein_-_Somali_refugees_September_2011_-_09.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: P. Heinlein: Somali Refugees Face
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