TheHistoryofIslam

APWorldHistoryUnit
Overview
InthispartofthelessonyouwilllearnaboutthereligionofIslam.Aswiththeotherreligions,
youwillsurveyitsoriginsandtracethelifeofMuhammad,theprophetofIslam,andtryto
understandhisrolebothasafounderofareligionandastheshaperofanewcommunity.Then
youwilldiscoverthefundamentaltenetsoftheIslamicfaithandthemaincomponentsofits
doctrinesandpractices.Youwillalsocometoknowofthesacredtextsofthereligion,andofthe
firstfewleadersoftheMuslimcommunityafterthedeathofMuhammad.BecauseIslaminthe
seventhcenturyspreadthefastestofallfaithsinhistory,youwillexaminethenatureandextent
oftheinitialdiffusionofIslam,aswellastheideologicalbasisofitsinteractionwiththeother
religionsitencountered.Finally,youwillreviewthemainsectsofIslam.
StudyNotes
IslamisthereligionpromulgatedinArabiabytheprophetMuhammadintheseventhcentury
C.E.InArabicIslammeanssurrendertoGod,andaMuslimisonewhosubmitscompletelyto
thewillofGod.Islamisastrictmonotheism,recognizingnoothergodthanAllah(theArabicfor
God),whosemortalprophetwasMuhammad.Islamtodayhasbecomethesecondlargest
religiouscommunityintheworld,nextonlytoChristianity.Thevastmajorityofthepeoplein
NorthandsubSaharanAfricaandWestandSoutheastAsiaareMuslims.Avastnumberof
MuslimsalsoinhabitCentralandSouthAsia.Althoughthisgreatgeographicaldiffusionmeansa
significantracialandculturalheterogeneityamongtheMuslims,allofthemareboundbya
commonreligionandsenseofbelongingtoasinglespiritualfraternity,auniversalcommunity
unitedbyfearofGod.
ArabianBackground
IslamhasitsoriginintheearlyseventhcenturyArabia.ThepreIslamicerainArabianhistoryis
viewedastheAgeofIgnorancebytheMuslims.Tribalismwasataveryadvancedstageof
developmentatthetimeMuhammadwaspreachingIslam.Despitedivisivewarfare,thedesert
tribesofArabiahadanevolvednomadicvaluesystembasedonhonor,loyalty,courage,
hospitality,andmagnanimity.IslamhassubsequentlyattachedgreatsignificancetotheseArab
traditionalqualities,hasstronglybolsteredtribalpatriarchism,and,atthesametime,has
eradicatedthepaganreligiousbeliefsandpracticesofthepreIslamicnomads.Thepolytheistic
practicesofthesepreIslamicbedouinsofthedesert,aswellasstronglocalizedinfluencesof
monotheisticreligionslikeJudaismandChristianity,formthereligiousbackgroundofArabiaat
theadventofIslam.

Thedifferentnomadictribesworshippedtheirowndeitiesandhonoredavarietyofspiritsin
sixthcenturyArabia.Awidespreadcultofastral(relatedtoplanetsandstars)deitiesflourished
inthesouthernpartoftheArabianpeninsula.AroundMeccathethreedaughtersofAllahthe
sungoddess,themorningstar,andthegoddessofdestinywereworshipped.TheJewshada
strongpresenceatMedina.TheChristianshadtheirsettlementsinthesoutherncoast,whichalso
experiencedZoroastrian(anancientPersianreligionfoundedbyZarathustra)influenceduring
theSassanidrulesinceca.575.BothsouthernArabiaandtheimportantcityofMeccawere
confluencesofvitaltraderoutes,theformerconnectingEastAfricaandwesternIndia,thelatter
withSyriaandtheRedSea.Asaconsequence,thoseregionswerefertilewithforeignreligious
ideasthatpercolatedintothedesertheartlandofArabia.


TheMeccans,besidesveneratingtheKabah,orthegreatBlackStone,practicedidolatryand
animism,andworshippedinthesanctuaryseveraldeities,thechiefamongwhomwasHubal,the
godofrainandwarfare.ThedevoteesofthisgodofferedthestrongestoppositiontoMuhammad
whenhepreachedtheuncompromisingmonotheismofIslam.Oneofthefirsticonoclastic(idol
breaking)actsofIslamwasMuhammadsdestructionofmostoftheidolsandimagesofdeitiesin
thesanctuariesofMecca,whenthecityfellintohispower.Meccaisthemostsacredcityofthe
Muslims,asJerusalemisoftheJews,andAmritsarisoftheSikhs.
TheProphet
Muhammad,theprophetofIslam,wasbornintheQurayshtribeatMeccainca.570.Bornafter
hisfathersdeath,Muhammadlosthismotherattheageofsix,andwasrearedbyhispaternal
uncle.Asayouth,heparticipatedinthecaravantradewithSyria.Inca.595,hemarriedaformer
employerandrichwidow,Khadijah,whoborehimseveralchildren.ThebestknownisFatimah,
whowasmarriedtoMuhammadscousin,Ali,regardedbytheShiaMuslimsasMuhammads
truesuccessor.

MuhammadhadareflectivestateofmindandusedtoretireperiodicallytoahillnearMeccafor
solitarycontemplation.Duringonesuchperiod,inca.610,heissaidtohaveavisionofthe
archangelGabriel,whotoldhimthathewastheMessengerofGod.ThusMuhammadbecamean
apostleofGod,ortheProphet.Henceforth,untilhisdeath,Muhammadreceived,fromtimeto
time,divinerevelationsthatwereeithermemorizedortranscribeduntiltheirfinalcollectionin
writtenform,intheshapeoftheQuran(alsospelledKoran),inca.650.Muhammadisconsidered
bytheMuslimstobethelastofaseriesofprophets(intheJudeoChristiantradition)who
completesandperfectsallpreviousrevelations.TheQuranisheldbytheMuslimstobedirectly
emanatingfromGod.Assuch,itisinfallible,eternal,complete,andperfect,andmostdefinitely
notaproductofMuhammadsowncomposition.TheQuranisthereforeconsideredtobebeyond
theinfluenceofthecircumstancesofitsrevelation.Also,asitenshrineswithinitselftheultimate
wordofGodasrevealedtoHislastandgreatestprophet,theQurancannotbemodifiedor
supersededbyanyfuturescriptureclaimingdivineorigins.

Atthebeginning,Muhammadcommunicatedhisrevelationstohismostintimaterelativesand
friends,butfromca.613hebegantopreachpublicly.Soonhisteachingsencounteredopposition
fromtheinfluentialpolytheisticmercantiletribesatMecca.Fromca.615onward,Muhammad
facedcontinuedhostilityandpersecution.Thesituationgraduallybecamesoinimicalfor
Muhammadthatin622hewasobligedtofleeMeccaforthefriendlieroasistownofMedina.This
istheHijrah,oremigration(Latin,Hegira),aneventcelebratedtraditionallyasthebeginningof
Islamichistory.TheIslamicEra(AH,orAnnoHegirae)alsobeginsonthefirstdayoftheArabic
yearinwhichthehijrahoccurred,whichwas16July622.

AperiodofhostilitybetweenMeccaandMedinaensuedwhenMeccancaravansweresubjected
repeatedlytoraidsofvaryingdegreesofsuccess.IncreasingnumbersofArabiantribespeople,
amongthem,notablyMeccans,convertedtoIslam,thusaffordingasignificantaccretionto
Muhammadspowerandcontroloverhisfollowers.Afterprotractedbutindecisivefighting,
Muhammadmarchedin630onMecca,whichcapitulatedvirtuallywithoutresistancetothe
triumphantprophetandhisfollowers.Finally,thevictoryattheBattleofHunaynoverhostile
tribesmeninthesameyearestablishedMuhammadastheunifierofArabiaanditsmost
powerfulmanofreligionandarms.


By630,Islamhadattainedadefinitedoctrinalformandestablishedanincreasinglyfirm
influenceoverArabia.Muhammadenjoyed,atleastnominally,theallianceofthemostpowerful
nomadictribesinthepeninsula,whilehisseriesofmarriagesintoseveraltribesstrengthenedhis
tieswiththem.In630,astheheadofapanArabicIslamicconfederacy,hewagedagreatraidon
theSyrianborder,whichsettheexampleofthegreatmilitaryexpansionbyhisfollowersafterhis
death,aswellastheirsubsequentpoliticalarrangementswithconquerednonbelievers.
Meanwhile,thedefeatofthePersiansbytheByzantineEmpirein627628createdaclimate
favorableforthesubsequentconquestofSyriaandIraq.

WhenMuhammaddiedin632atMedina,hehadpoliticallyunitedalmosttheentireArabia
underthebannerofhisreligion.Personally,bydintofhisforceofcharacterandcharmof
personality,MuhammadbecamefortheIslamiccommunityanidealofhumanvirtues,amost
importantlocusofinspirationandadmirationforallMuslims.
TheCreed
TheteachingsofMuhammadwithafewmodificationsbecamethecreedofIslam,whose
fundamentaltenetsoffaitharetranscribedintheQuran.ThefollowerofthefaithisaMuslimor
submitter,whosurrenderstoandobeys,inacompleteandunqualifiedmanner,Allah,orGod.
GodswillwasrevealedthroughMuhammad,Hislastmessenger;throughtheangels;and
throughtheQuran,Hislastrevelation.TheQuran,astheholiestbookoftheMuslims,doesnot
concernitselfwiththesubtletiesandcomplexitiesofmetaphysicsandethics,butlaysdown
simplebutdefiniterulesofdailypracticethatensuresalvationforthebeliever.Mostofthe
articlesoftheIslamicfaithareconcernedwithdoctrine,religiousduty,andcorrectconduct.

TheQuranstatesthefivefundamentalbeliefsoftheMuslims:

1.Intheabsoluteoneness,omnipotence(allpowerfulness)andtranscendence(surpassing
nature)ofGod2.intheexistenceofangels

3.Inrevealedscripturestransmittedtotheworldbydivinemessengers,thelastofwhomis
Muhammad

4.IntheLastDay,whentheultimatedivinejudgmentisdispensedtoall

5.Intheeternalomniscience(allknowingness)ofGod

Althoughhumanbeingsareaccordedthepowerofchoiceoverindividualactions,everything
everywhereoccursonlywithdivineforeknowledgeandpredetermination.Thecentraltenetof
theIslamicfaithisthemostimportantformulainitstheology:ThereisnogodbutAllah,and
MuhammadistheProphetofAllah.Godisone,wholeandsupreme,omniscientand
omnipotent.Heisthesolecreatoroftheuniverse,andtheonlyarbiterofthefateofallbeingson
theJudgmentDay.Hiswilldetermineseverythingbutisincomprehensible,andHismercyis
unsurpassedtothosewhosubmittoitwithenthusiasmandwithoutquestioning.

IslamvigorouslyrepudiatestheTrinitarianismofChristianity,orthebeliefinthreeprinciplesof
divinityinonesubstance.AccordingtoIslam,onlyhumanbeingsarecapableofbeingethical,
andtherefore,areGodsgreatestcreation.Thereasonforhumanexistenceistheirunquestioning

serviceandcompleteobediencetothedivinewill.ThecardinalsininIslamisthepridethatleads
humanbeingstocommittheultimateviolationoffaith,whichisascribingtooneselfanydivine
quality.

Asnotedabove,accordingtoMuslims,Muhammadisthelast,greatest,andmostperfectofall
theprophetsofGodwhobearHiswitnessandmessage.TheearlierJudeoChristianprophetsof
theHebrewandChristianbiblesfigureslikeAdam,Noah,Abraham,Joseph,Moses,David,
Solomon,Elijah,Job,Jonah,JohntheBaptist,theVirginMary,andJesusarerecognizedas
messengersofGod.ButMuhammadhasthehighestwisdomandauthority,andhisrevelationis
themostcompleteandthemostperfect.TheQuran,revealedonlytoMuhammadthroughthe
angelGabriel,istheundistortedandinfalliblewordofAllahtotheworld,anditistheconviction
ofeveryMuslimthattheQuranistheearthlyreproductionoftheoriginalandeternaldivine
scrolltranscribedinthecelestialrealmsinthelanguageofheaven.

LikeChristianity,Islamalsobelievesinevilspirits,angels,theDevil,andtheLastJudgment.
DespiteindignantrejectionoftheideabyMuslims,theIslamicdoctrineswerelikelyinfluenced
byJudaism,Zoroastrianism,andChristianity.Besidesacceptingtheprophetsandpatriarchsof
theHebrewBible,Islamhasaworldviewthatperceivesaninherentdualrealism(thatofgood
andevil)intheworldthatisnotunlikeZoroastrianism.ThusIslamsharplydividesrealityintoa
transcendent(here,meaningotherworldly),sacredsphereofspirituality,andopposedtoit,the
phenomenal,profaneworldofmundanelife.Atthesuperhumanlevel,too,Gabrielisthe
supremeangelwhorevealedGodswordtoMuhammad,andtheDevilisthefallenangelwho
temptshumanbeingsastray.OntheJudgmentDay,allthedeadsoulswakeupatthetrumpets
callandassemblebeforethethroneofAllah,whodispatchesthem(whilemercifullyredeeming
certainsinners)toeitherheavenorhell,accordingtothenatureoftheirpastdeeds.

HeavenandhellaredepictedvividlyintheQuran.Hellistheplacereservedfornonbelievers,
apostates(whoabandonsfaith),andsinnersahorribleregionofperpetualpainandtorment.By
contrast,believers,martyrs,andthepiousfindtheirpermanentabodeinheaven,whichissimilar
toagardenparadise,wheretheycanconsumethebestoffruitsandwines,andconsummatewith
beautiful,virginalfairies.
FivePillarsoftheFaith
Apartfromdoctrine,religiousdutyandrightconductaretheotherthemesofarticlesofthe
Islamicfaith.ThemostfundamentalaspectofthereligiousdutiesprescribedbyIslamistheFive
PillarsofObservanceofthefaith.EveryMuslimhastoobserveandupholdtheseFivePillars:

1.Repetitionofthecreed;

2.Prayerfivetimesaday;

3.Givingtocharity;

4.FastingduringdaytimeduringthemonthofRamadan

5.PilgrimagetoMecca,atleastonceinlife,ifpossible

SincetheFivePillarsconstitutethemostfundamentalaspectofthepracticeoftheIslamicfaith,

theymeritsomediscussion.First,everyMuslimhastoconfesshisfaithbyrepeatinghiscreedal
formulaseveraltimes.Thisisactuallyastatementreferredtoearlier,involvingtheaffirmationin
theunityofgodhoodandtheprophethoodofMuhammad.Itcannotbeoveremphasizedthat
monotheismisthemostinviolabletenetofIslamicdoctrine,andpolytheismthemostheinousact.

Second,fivetimesadayadevoutMuslimbowsdown,individuallyoratcongregations,toward
thedirectionofMecca,andofferstoAllahaversefromtheQuranthatexpressespraiseand
confirmssubmissiontoHim.Everyweek,publicprayerisreservedforFriday,whenalladult
malesassembleinthecourtyardofthemosquetoofferritualprayer.Thisisdoneunderthe
guidanceofthelocalreligiousleader(whoisnotapriest,asIslamhasnoofficialclergy),whose
dutyistoadministertheprayerserviceanddeliverthesermon.

Third,apiousMuslimhastodonateapermanenttax(rangingfromonefortiethtoonetenthof
hisassets)involuntarycharitytothepoororasdonationsforpurposesofreligiouspiety.Thisis
calledzakat,andwasonceuniversallyobligatory.Itisquitedifferentfromtributeexactedfrom
theunconverted,protected,nonMuslimcommunityinanIslamiccountry.

Fourth,duringRamadan,theninthmonthintheIslamiccalendar,allMuslims,ifphysicallyable
todoso,areobligedtoabstainfromeatinganddrinkingbetweendaybreakandsundown.They
are,however,inallcases,requiredtodesistfromusinganyperfume,consuminganyintoxicant,
andfromindulginginsexualactivities.Theyarealsoencouragedtofeedapoorpersondaily
duringtheperiod,ifaffordable.

Fifthandlast,atleastonceinalifetime,everyMuslim,unlessconstrainedbyimpossible
circumstances,isexpectedtomakeapilgrimage(hajj)totheholycityofMeccaduringthetenth
andlastIslamicmonth.Duringthepilgrimage,whichismadeeachyearbymillions,devout
pilgrimsobservecertainceremonies,includingwalkinginaseamlesswhitegarmentseventimes
aroundtheveneratedshrineoftheKabah.
CodeofConduct
Besidesstrictinjunctionsonreligiousdoctrineandduty,Islamhascomprehensiveandvery
categoricalrulesregardingcorrectbehaviorthatisexpectedofeveryMuslim.Strictobservanceof
theIslamiccodeofrightconductisalmostasimportantforachievingsalvationforaMuslimas
obeyingGodswill.ThemoralcodethuslaiddowninIslamicscriptureswasoriginallyintended
toforgeafraternityoffaithfulsfromaseventhcenturytribal,nomadicsocietycharacterizedby
polytheismandendemicstrife.Thelawsofconductwere,consequently,notonlytoreform
society,butalsotoregulateofalmosteveryact,individualandsocial,frombirthtodeath,of
everyMuslim.AccordingtoIslamiclaws,orphanscannotbedeniedtheirinheritance,amancan
havefourwives,drinkingalcoholandgamblingareprohibited,andconsumptionofcertain
kindsofmeat,includingpork,isstrictlyforbidden.
TheHolyTexts
Again,theQuranisthemostsacredandfundamentalIslamicreligioustext.Itisbelievedtobe
thehighestrevelationthetruewordofGodgiventoMuhammadbytheangelGabriel.Assuch,
itfulfillsandperfects,accordingtotheMuslims,allotherpreviousandpartialrevelationsknown
totheworldthroughprophetsactingasGodsmessengers.

BesidestheQuran,themostimportantIslamiccanonisthebodyofliteratureknownasthe

Hadith(pluraltermAhadith),acompilationofthesayingsanddoingsoftheprophet,
Muhammad,aspassedonbytradition.TheHadithconsistsofauthenticatedrecollectionofthe
wordsandactionsofMuhammadandhisclosecompanionsoraspracticedincontemporary
Medina.ThustheHadithisanauthoritythatprescribesguidelinesforauniversalIslamicbodyof
socialprecedentsandconventions.

TheentirebodyofaccumulatedHadithmaterialcomprisetheSunna.ThenumberoftheHadith
collectionmultipliedingenerations,numberinginthousands,anditisanintellectualpursuit
amongMuslimtheologicalscholarstosiftandweigheveryminutiaeoftheencyclopedic
evidencetojudgetheirvalueandauthenticity,andinterpretthemaccurately.

LiketheQuran,theSharia,orLawofIslam,isconsideredtoemanatefromGod.TheSharia
delineateswithgreatprecisionregulationsaboutindividualandsocialconduct.Italso
determinestheworldviewofthefaithfulthroughouttheIslamicworld.Althoughthereare
differentschoolsofIslamicjurisprudence,theSharialaw,eventoday,pervadesalmostevery
aspectofhumanlifeandbehaviorinanIslamiccountry.Itregulatesnotonlyindividualpractices
ofdietanddress,butalsointerpersonalsocialrelationships.Itlaysdownstrictinjunctionson
penal,transactional,familial,andinheritancelaws,whichoverthecenturieshaveundergone
considerablereforms.
TheSpreadoftheFaith
Muhammad,thefounderofIslam,hadforgedthenomadicArabsintoacohesivefightingforce
unitedbyabondofcommonreligionandinstilledwithanundyingzealtoconquertheworld
andconverthumanitytothefaith.TheprophetsmarchtotheborderofSyriain630lefthis
followerspoisedforterritorialexpansionbeyondthearidArabianpeninsula.Theparticular
ethosofthecreed,fusingtogetherspiritualandsecularaspectsoflife,aswellasits
uncompromisingattitudetowardotherreligions,wereexpressedinitsofficialpolicyofconquest
ofthelandsofnonbelievers.

Islammakesadistinctionamongfollowersofotherreligions.Theleastobjectionableformof
infidelityisbeingpracticedbythesocalledPeopleoftheBook,whoareguiltynotofan
absolutedenialoftruthasrevealedbytheQuranbutofapartialperversionofit.Thisstatusof
thePeopleoftheBookwasoriginallyreservedfortheJewsandtheChristians,andlater,the
Zoroastrians,theBuddhists,andimplicitly,forthesakeofpoliticalexpediency,eventhe
idolatrousHindus.Uponagreeingtofollowtheirownreligionquietlyandpayingacompulsory
polltaxcalledthejizyah,nonMuslimsubjectscouldsometimesbecomeprotectedcommunityor
dhimmi.Onlyinthismannercouldtheytechnicallyreceiveanyprotectionofpersonand
propertyinanIslamicstate.

ForMuslims,anincumbentreligiousdutycommissionedofMuslimsbyGodistopersistinholy
crusade,orjihad,forthepurposeofbringingtheentireworldultimatelyunderIslam.Jihadis
generallyviewed(althoughnotuniversallypracticedforpracticalreasons)bytheMuslim
communityassacredwarfaretoconvertthedarulharb(alandofwarfare,ormoreprecisely,
anyinfidelcountrynotyetunderthesecureruleoftheSharia)intotheuniversaldarulIslam
(landofIslamor,morespecifically,thepartoftheworldwheretheedictsofIslamarefully
promulgated).ThisdoctrineprovidedtheMuslimswiththeirideologyforterritorialconquest
andreligiousconversionbeyondArabia.

However,militarysubjugationalonedidnotbringthevastvarietyofracesandculturesintothe
foldofIslam.MissionaryactivitiesoftheSufis,ormystics,spreadIslaminsubSaharanAfrica,
Turkey,SouthandCentralAsia,whileMuslimmerchantstransportedtheirfaiththroughthe
longSilkRoadtoChina,andthroughtheIndianOceantoSoutheastAsia.

YetIslamowesitswidespreadconquestsandmillionsofconvertsduringthefirstfewcenturies
ofitsphenomenalexpansionlargelytothesword.WithintwodecadesofMuhammadsdeath,
Islamforgeditsfirstempire,which,inthecourseofalittlemorethanahundredyears,stretched
fromSpaininthewesttoCentralAsiaintheeast,withArabic,thelanguageoftheQuranasthe
linguafrancaintheconqueredlands.First,in640,thearmsofIslamconqueredSyriafromthe
RomanEmpire,markingaseriesofspectacularmilitaryandpoliticalsuccesses.TheSassanid
EmpireofPersiafellin651;butbythattimePalestine,Lebanon,Egypt,andLibyawerealready
underIslamicdominion.WithinanothertwentyyearstheMuslimshadoccupiedAlgeriaand
Morocco,andwithinafurtherforty,invadedSpaininthewestandIndiaintheeast.By751,
CentralAsiaasfarasTashkentwasunderthebannerofIslam.

Inthewest,theMuslimsadvancedasfarasTours,wherein732theywerebeatenbackbya
ChristianarmyledbyCharlesMartel.ThentheyspreadtosouthernFrance,northernItaly,
Corsica,andSardinia,fromwheretheywithdrewonlyduringthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury.
AlthoughtheMuslimdominanceinsouthwesternEuropedeclinedfromthemiddleofthetenth
centuryonward,theywerenotcompletelyousteduntil1492withthefalloftheirstrongholdat
GranadainSpain.

Bytheendoftheseventhcenturyintheeast,theMuslimshadoccupiedAfghanistan.By715they
conqueredChineseTurkestan,andin1206,afteralongseriesofinvasions,theyestablisheda
Sultanate(empireunderaSultan)innorthernIndia.Moreover,Islamcontributedtothe
downfalloftheEasternRoman(Byzantine)EmpirewithitsfinalcaptureofConstantinople
(modernIstanbul)in1453.
Shiaism
TodaytheMuslimcommunity,orummah,comprisesmanysects,theprincipalamongwhichare
theSunni,ortraditionalists,whoconstitutethemajorityofthefaithfuls,andtheminorityShia,or
legitimists.Nowadays,theShiaMuslimsaremostlyfoundinIran,Iraq,andtheIndian
subcontinent.ThesplitbetweenthetwopartiesoccurredalmostimmediatelyafterMuhammads
deathin632,overthequestionofleadershipintheIslamicworldastheprophethimselfhad
designatednosuccessor.Subsequently,therealsodeveloped,inthecourseofcenturies,
substantialtheologicaldifferencesbetweenthesetwomainsectsofIslam.

AssoonasMuhammaddied,theinhabitantsofMedina,atthebehestoftheclosestkinsmenof
theprophetstribe(theQuraysh),consentedtoelectAbuBakr,fatheroftheprophetsfavorite
survivingwife,Aishah,asthesuccessor(Khalifah,hencecaliph)ofMuhammad,andthespiritual
andtemporalleaderoftheMuslimcommunity.Theyoverlookedtheclaimsoftheprophets
actuallypreferredsuccessor,Ali,husbandofhisdaughter,Fatimah,hisonlysurvivingoffspring.
TheShias,orpartisansofAli,reluctantlyacceptedthisforthesakeofunityinthecommunityof
believers.AbuBakr(632634)wassucceededatMedinabyUmarI(634644),andUthman(644
656).

AftertheassassinationofUthmanduringaperiodofcivilstrife,Ali(656661)becamethefourth

caliph,butsoonanopenschismoccurredwithinthereligiouscommunityoverhissuccession.By
661,Alihimselfwasassassinated,andthecaliphatewastakenbyhisrival,amemberof
UthmansUmayyadclan.

TheUmayyadcaliphateruledfromDamascusuntil750,supportedbythemajorityofMuslims.It
wasopposedbythedissentingShias,whoclaimedtheirloyaltytothedescendantsofAli,and
soughttherestorationofthecaliphatetothem.TheShiasmaintainthatthetruesuccessorsofAli
werehistwomurderedsons,Hasan(d.669)andHusayn(d.680).Accordingtothem,after
Muhammadsdeath,therehavebeentwelveholyimams,ordivinelyappointedandguided,and
exemplary,spiritualleaders.Theseimamsareentirelyimmunefromanysinorerrorand
continuethetraditionofprophethoodineveryrespectexceptinsofarastheycannotformulatea
newscriptureaftertheQuran.

TheShiasconsidertheseimamsasthebestowersofthetrueandsecretmeaningoftheQuran,
andtheonlylegitimatesuccessorsofMuhammad,andholdthevastmajorityoftheMuslims(the
Sunnis)tobeapostaticforfailingtorecognizethemassuch.Ali,Hasan,andHusaynarethefirst
threeimams,whilethetwelfthandlastimam,theMahdi,isbelievedbytheShiastobetheruler
oftheworld.TheMahdidisappearedin941,buthewillreappearatatimewhenitwillbe
necessarytodestroyalltheevilsoftheworldandestablishtheruleofjusticeinperfectaccord
withthedivinelaw.Meanwhile,theShiadivinesinterpretdoctrineandlawpresumablyunder
theguidanceofthedisappearedimam.
Sunnism
IncontrasttoShiaism,SunnismisthepathoftheconsolidatedmajorityoftheMuslim
community,andtheSunnisconsidertheShiasashavingafluiddoctrineandbelongingtoa
peripheralsectwithintheMuslimcommunity.Sunnismiscatholic(thatis,universal)bynature,
andtheologically,themoreorthodoxofthetwo.ThemostimportantformulatorsoftheSunni
creedandtheologysoughttocompromisebetweendivineomnipotenceandhumanfreewill.
OtherSects
Shiaismhas,overthecenturies,producedavarietyofsectsoutofitself;thetwomostimportant
duringthefirstfivehundredyearsaretheIsmailisandtheDruze.Bothareconsideredheterodox
bysomeandhaveconsiderablenumberofadherentseventoday.TheIsmailisrecognizeIsmail
(theelderbrotheroftheShiaimam,Musa)astheseventhimam,insteadofMusa,andupholdthe
legitimacyofthedescendantsofIsmail.SomeIsmailis,calledtheSabiyahsortheSeveners,
believeIsmailtobethelastoftheimams.TheIsmailisbecameprominentintheninthcentury,
andtheirteachingsspreadfromtheNiletotheIndusRiver.

TheIsmailiFatimiddynastyruledinEgyptbetween969and1171.TheFatimidcaliph,alHakim
oftheeleventhcentury,hasbeendeifiedbyacult,themembersofwhichareknownasthe
Druzes,whonowlivemostlyinLebanon,andwhoaresometimesregardedasasect
independentofIslam.
Sufism,orIslamicMysticism
MysticisminIslamaroseoutoftheearlyIslamicasceticism,whichrepudiatedtheincreasing
worldlinessoftheUmayyaddynasty.Italsosoughttodiscoverthetruthoftheultimate
knowledgenotthroughlegalisticreligiouspracticesbutthroughcultivationoftheinnerlifeand
directpersonalexperienceofGod.Byseekingtoexperiencetheinfinitudeofdivineloveand

wisdominthisworld,thesemysticshavestrivedtoattaintheirownpersonalcomprehensionof
theinnertruthofIslam.Withtherealizationofdivinepresenceasitsspiritualgoal,Sufism
focusesonesotericspiritualknowledgeandcommunionwithGodasmeansofpersonal
salvation.

SufismisananglicizedexpressionfortheIslamicmystic,Sufi(anasceticwhousuallyworea
garmentofcoarsewoolorSuf,inearlymedievalArabic).Fakir(fromArabicfaqir)anddervish
(fromPersiandarvish)arealsoEnglishwords,synonymouswithpoorSufis.Sufismderivessome
ofitsrootsfromearlyChristianmysticism,calledGnosticism(itsprincipleofintuitive
knowledge),Buddhism(itsritualsofmeditativecontemplationandchantingofprayers),and
Hinduism(itstrendsofpantheismandlovingdevotiontoapersonalGod).

Sinceitsinception,Sufismhasemphasizedstrongdevotionalismandasceticism,witha
correspondingabnegationofbothreligioustechnicalitiesandmaterialism.Rabiyah,alateeighth
centurywomanfromBasra(inmodernIraq),firstformulatedthemysticalSufiidealofatotally
selflessloveof,anddevotionto,God.FromthisstemmedtheeighthcenturySufialBistamis
doctrineofannihilation(thatis,ofthehumanselfinGod).

PerhapsthemostcelebratedamongtheSufisisthepoetmystic,MansuralHallaj,whowas
executedin922inBaghdad,becomingthustheIslamicmartyrofloveparexcellenceforuttering,
IamtheCreativeTruth(oftenrenderedasIamGod),anapparentlyblasphemousphrasein
Islam,butreallyanexpressionofpantheisticvisionofamanintoxicatedbythedivinespirit.

TheSufishavecreatedtheirownextensiveliterature,developedtheirownhierarchyofsaints,
andevolvedtheirownfraternalorderswithdistinctivedisciplinesandrituals.Throughoutthe
Islamicworld,fromMoroccotoIndonesia,theSufisareresponsibleforshapingpartsofthe
Islamicsocietybymeansoftheattractionoftheirmysticalbeliefsanddiversepractices(like
saintworship,performanceofmiracles,includinghealing,andadaptationoflocal,evennon
Muslimcustom).

TheSufisalsohavegreatlycontributedtolargescaleconversionofnonbelieversintotheIslam
faith,bydintoftheirlocalinfluenceandspiritofaccommodation.Besides,theyhaveexerted
strongpoliticalinfluence,assomeSufiordersextendedIslamizationinmoderntimestopartsof
westernAfricaandcentralAsia.

Yet,theirreligiouspiety,faithindivinelove,andvenerationoftheprophethaveremained
perennialhallmarksoftheircreed.TheSufispiritualheritageispreservedatpresentby
individuals,andintheWesternworldandamongnonIslamicpeoples.Lastly,Sufismhas
permeatedmostoftherichPersianliterature,andagreatpartofanequallyrichArabicliterature.

GeneralCharacteristicsofIslamicCivilization
Islamwasdestinedtobecomeaworldreligionandtocreateacivilizationwhichstretchedfrom
oneendoftheglobetotheother.AlreadyduringtheearlyMuslimcaliphates,firsttheArabs,
thenthePersiansandlatertheTurkssetabouttocreateclassicalIslamiccivilization.Later,inthe
13thcentury,bothAfricaandIndiabecamegreatcentersofIslamiccivilizationandsoon

thereafterMuslimkingdomswereestablishedintheMalayIndonesianworldwhileChinese
MuslimsflourishedthroughoutChina.
Globalreligion
Islamisareligionforallpeoplefromwhateverraceorbackgroundtheymightbe.Thatiswhy
Islamiccivilizationisbasedonaunitywhichstandscompletelyagainstanyracialorethnic
discrimination.SuchmajorracialandethnicgroupsastheArabs,Persians,Turks,Africans,
Indians,ChineseandMalaysinadditiontonumeroussmallerunitsembracedIslamand
contributedtothebuildingofIslamiccivilization.Moreover,Islamwasnotopposedtolearning
fromtheearliercivilizationsandincorporatingtheirscience,learning,andcultureintoitsown
worldview,aslongastheydidnotopposetheprinciplesofIslam.Eachethnicandracialgroup
whichembracedIslammadeitscontributiontotheoneIslamiccivilizationtowhicheveryone
belonged.Thesenseofbrotherhoodandsisterhoodwassomuchemphasizedthatitovercameall
localattachmentstoaparticulartribe,race,orlanguageallofwhichbecamesubservienttothe
universalbrotherhoodandsisterhoodofIslam.TheglobalcivilizationthuscreatedbyIslam
permittedpeopleofdiverseethnicbackgroundstoworktogetherincultivatingvariousartsand
sciences.AlthoughthecivilizationwasprofoundlyIslamic,evennonMuslimpeopleofthe
bookparticipatedintheintellectualactivitywhosefruitsbelongedtoeveryone.Thescientific
climatewasreminiscentofthepresentsituationinAmericawherescientistsandmenandwomen
oflearningfromallovertheworldareactiveintheadvancementofknowledgewhichbelongsto
everyone.TheglobalcivilizationcreatedbyIslamalsosucceededinactivatingthemindand
thoughtofthepeoplewhoentereditsfold.AsaresultofIslam,thenomadicArabsbecametorch
bearersofscienceandlearning.ThePersianswhohadcreatedagreatcivilizationbeforetherise
ofIslamneverthelessproducedmuchmorescienceandlearningintheIslamicperiodthan
before.ThesamecanbesaidoftheTurksandotherpeopleswhoembracedIslam.Thereligionof
Islamwasitselfresponsiblenotonlyforthecreationofaworldcivilizationinwhichpeopleof
manydifferentethnicbackgroundsparticipated,butitplayedacentralroleindeveloping
intellectualandculturallifeonascalenotseenbefore.ForsomeeighthundredyearsArabic
remainedthemajorintellectualandscientificlanguageoftheworld.Duringthecenturies
followingtheriseofIslam,MuslimdynastiesrulinginvariouspartsoftheIslamicworldbore
witnesstothefloweringofIslamiccultureandthought.Infactthistraditionofintellectual
activitywaseclipsedonlyatthebeginningofmoderntimesasaresultoftheweakeningoffaith
amongMuslimscombinedwithexternaldomination.Andtodaythisactivityhasbegunanewin
manypartsoftheIslamicworldnowthattheMuslimshaveregainedtheirpolitical
independence.
ABriefHistoryofIslam,TheRightlyGuidedCaliphs
UponthedeathoftheProphet,AbuBakr,thefriendoftheProphetandthefirstadultmaleto
embraceIslam,becamecaliph.AbuBakrruledfortwoyearstobesucceededbyUmarwhowas
caliphforadecadeandduringwhoseruleIslamspreadextensivelyeastandwestconqueringthe
Persianempire,SyriaandEgypt.ItwasUmarwhomarchedonfootattheendoftheMuslim
armyintoJerusalemandorderedtheprotectionofChristiansites.Umaralsoestablishedthefirst
publictreasuryandasophisticatedfinancialadministration.Heestablishedmanyofthebasic
practicesofIslamicgovernment.UmarwassucceededbyUthmanwhoruledforsometwelve
yearsduringwhichtimetheIslamicexpansioncontinued.Heisalsoknownasthecaliphwho
hadthedefinitivetextoftheNobleQurancopiedandsenttothefourcornersoftheIslamic
world.HewasinturnsucceededbyAliwhoisknowntothisdayforhiseloquentsermonsand

letters,andalsoforhisbravery.Withhisdeaththeruleoftherightlyguidedcaliphs,whohold
aspecialplaceofrespectintheheartsofMuslims,cametoanend.
Umayyad
TheUmayyadcaliphateestablishedin661wastolastforaboutacentury.Duringthistime
DamascusbecamethecapitalofanIslamicworldwhichstretchedfromthewesternbordersof
ChinatosouthernFrance.NotonlydidtheIslamicconquestscontinueduringthisperiod
throughNorthAfricatoSpainandFranceintheWestandtoSind,CentralAsiaandTransoxiana
intheEast,butthebasicsocialandlegalinstitutionsofthenewlyfoundedIslamicworldwere
established.
Abbasids
TheAbbasids,whosucceededtheUmayyads,shiftedthecapitaltoBaghdadwhichsoon
developedintoanincomparablecenteroflearningandcultureaswellastheadministrativeand
politicalheartofavastworld.Theyruledforover500yearsbutgraduallytheirpowerwaned
andtheyremainedonlysymbolicrulersbestowinglegitimacyuponvarioussultansandprinces
whowieldedactualmilitarypower.TheAbbasidcaliphatewasfinallyabolishedwhenHulagu,
theMongolruler,capturedBaghdadin1258,destroyingmuchofthecityincludingits
incomparablelibraries.WhiletheAbbasidsruledinBaghdad,anumberofpowerfuldynasties
suchastheFatimids,AyyubidsandMamluksheldpowerinEgypt,SyriaandPalestine.Themost
importanteventinthisareaasfarastherelationbetweenIslamandtheWesternworldwas
concernedwastheseriesofCrusadesdeclaredbythePopeandespousedbyvariousEuropean
kings.Thepurpose,althoughpolitical,wasoutwardlytorecapturetheHolyLandandespecially
JerusalemforChristianity.AlthoughtherewasatthebeginningsomesuccessandlocalEuropean
rulewassetupinpartsofSyriaandPalestine,Muslimsfinallyprevailedandin1187Saladin,the
greatMuslimleader,recapturedJerusalemanddefeatedtheCrusaders.
NorthAfricaandSpain
WhentheAbbasidscapturedDamascus,oneoftheUmayyadprincesescapedandmadethelong
journeyfromtheretoSpaintofoundUmayyadrulethere,thusbeginningthegoldenageofIslam
inSpain.CordobawasestablishedasthecapitalandsoonbecameEuropesgreatestcitynotonly
inpopulationbutfromthepointofviewofitsculturalandintellectuallife.TheUmayyadsruled
overtwocenturiesuntiltheyweakenedandwerereplacedbylocalrulers.MeanwhileinNorth
Africa,variouslocaldynastiesheldswayuntiltwopowerfulBerberdynastiessucceededin
unitingmuchofNorthAfricaandalsoSpaininthe12thand13thcenturies.Afterthemthisarea
wasruledonceagainbylocaldynastiessuchastheSharifidsofMoroccowhostillruleinthat
country.AsforSpainitself,MuslimpowercontinuedtowaneuntilthelastMuslimdynastywas
defeatedinGranadain1492thusbringingnearlyeighthundredyearsofMuslimruleinSpainto
anend.
IslamicHistoryaftertheMongolInvasion
TheMongolsdevastatedtheeasternlandsofIslamandruledfromtheSinaiDeserttoIndiafora
century.ButtheysoonconvertedtoIslamandbecameknownastheIlKhanids.Theywerein
turnsucceededbyTimurandhisdescendentswhomadeSamarqandtheircapitalandruledfrom
1369to1500.ThesuddenriseofTimurdelayedtheformationandexpansionoftheOttoman
empirebutsoontheOttomansbecamethedominantpowerintheIslamicworld.

OttomanEmpire
FromhumbleoriginstheTurksrosetodominateoverthewholeofAnatoliaandevenpartsof
Europe.In1453MehmettheConquerorcapturedConstantinopleandputanendtothe
Byzantineempire.TheOttomansconqueredmuchofeastemEuropeandnearlythewholeofthe
Arabworld,onlyMoroccoandMauritaniaintheWestandYemen,Hadramautandpartsofthe
Arabianpeninsularemainingbeyondtheircontrol.Theyreachedtheirzenithofpowerwith
SuleymantheMagnificentwhosearmiesreachedHungaryandAustria.Fromthe17thcentury
onwardwiththeriseofWestemEuropeanpowersandlaterRussia,thepoweroftheOttomans
begantowane.ButtheyneverthelessremainedaforcetobereckonedwithuntiltheFirstWorld
WarwhentheyweredefeatedbytheWesternnations.SoonthereafterKamalAtaturkgained
powerinTurkeyandabolishedthesixcenturiesofruleoftheOttomansin1924.
Persia
WhiletheOttomanswereconcernedmostlywiththewestemfrontoftheirempire,totheeastin
PersiaanewdynastycalledtheSafavidscametopowerin1502.TheSafavidsestablisheda
powerfulstateoftheirownwhichflourishedforovertwocenturiesandbecameknownforthe
floweringofthearts.Theircapital,Isfahan,becameoneofthemostbeautifulcitieswithitsblue
tiledmosquesandexquisitehouses.TheAfghaninvasionof1736putanendtoSafavidruleand
preparedtheindependenceofAfghanistanwhichoccuredformallyinthe19thcentury.Persia
itselffellintoturmoiluntilNaderShah,thelastOrientalconqueror,reunitedthecountryand
evenconqueredIndia.Buttheruleofthedynastyestablishedbyhimwasshortlived.TheZand
dynastysoontookovertobeoverthrownbytheQajarsin1779whomadeTehrantheircapital
andruleduntil1921whentheywereinturnreplacedbythePahlavis.
India
AsforIndia,IslamenteredintothelandeastoftheIndusRiverpeacefully.GraduallyMuslims
gainedpoliticalpowerbeginningintheearly13thcentury.Butthisperiodwhichmarkedthe
expansionofbothIslamandIslamicculturecametoanendwiththeconquestofmuchofIndiain
1526byBabur,oneoftheTimuridprinces.HeestablishedthepowerfulMogulempirewhich
producedsuchfamousrulersasAkbar,Jahangir,andShahJahanandwhichlasted,despitethe
gradualriseofBritishpowerinIndia,until1857whenitwasofficiallyabolished.
MalaysiaandIndonesia
FarthereastintheMalayworld,Islambegantospreadinthe12thcenturyinnorthernSumatra
andsoonMuslimkingdomswereestablishdinJava,SumatraandmainlandMalaysia.Despite
thecolonizationoftheMalayworld,IslamspreadinthatareacoveringpresentdayIndonesia,
Malaysia,thesouthernPhililppinesandsouthernThailand,andisstillcontinuinginislands
farthereast.
Africa
AsfarasAfricaisconcerned,IslamenteredintoEastAfricaattheverybeginningoftheIslamic
periodbutremainedconfinedtothecoastforsometime,onlytheSudanandSomaliland
becominggraduallybothArabizedandIslamized.WestAfricafeltthepresenceofIslamthrough
NorthAfricantraderswhotraveledwiththeircamelcaravanssouthoftheSahara.Bythe14th
centurytherewerealreadyMuslimsultanatesinsuchareasasMali,andTimbuctuinWestAfrica
andHararinEastAfricahadbecomeseatsofIslamiclearning.GraduallyIslampenetratedboth
inlandandsouthward.Therealsoappearedmajorcharismaticfigureswhoinspiredintense
resistanceagainstEuropeandomination.TheprocessoftheIslamizationofAfricadidnotcease

duringthecolonialperiodandcontinueseventodaywiththeresultthatmostAfricansarenow
Muslimscarryingonatraditionwhichhashadpracticallyaslongahistoryincertainareasof
subSaharanAfricaasIslamitself.

MajorDatesofIslamicHistory

BirthoftheProphetMuhammed570A.D.
TheSeljuqs1371300
FirstversesoftheNobleQuranrevealed609
SaladinsConquestofJeruslem1187
ProphetsmigrationformMakkahtoMadinah
TheMamluks12521517
(hijrah),beginningofIslamiccalender622
DeathoftheProphet632
TheMongolConquestofBaghdad1258
TheRightlyGuidedCaliphs632661
TheOttomans12991924
TheUmayyads661750
TheTimurids13691500
TheAbbasids7501258
ConquestofConstantinople1453
TheSpanishUmayyads7561031
TheFallofGranada1492
TheFatimids9091171
TheSafavids15021736