Shiva

Neelkanth redirects here. For the 2012 Indian lm,

see Neelkanth (lm).
For other uses, see Shiva (disambiguation).
Shiva (/iv/; Sanskrit: iva, meaning The Auspicious
One), also known as Mahadeva (Great God"), is one
of the main deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme god
within Shaivism, one of the three most inuential denominations in contemporary Hinduism.[2][3] He is one of
the ve primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition,[2]
and the Destroyer or the Transformer[4] among the
Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the
divine.
At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as limitless, transcendent, unchanging and formless.[5][6][7][8][9] Shiva also
has many benevolent and fearsome forms.[10] In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who
lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash,[4] as well as
a householder with wife Parvati and his two children,
Ganesha and Kartikeya, and in erce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also regarded as
the patron god of yoga and arts.[11][12][13]
Shiva absorbed in meditation, as depicted commonly in Hinduism

The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third

eye on his forehead, the snake Vasuki around his neck,
the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga owing from his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon and
the damaru as his musical instrument. Shiva is usually
worshiped in the aniconic form of Lingam.[14][15][16]

tain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[23]

Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word
ivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the
Sun (ivan, the Red one, in Tamil) and that Rudra is
also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.[24][25]

Etymology and other names

Adi Sankara, in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the

27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: The Pure One, or the One who is not
aected by three Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and
Tamas)" or the One who puries everyone by the very utterance of His name.[26] Swami Chinmayananda, in his
translation of Vishnu sahasranama, further elaborates on
that verse: Shiva means the One who is eternally pure
or the One who can never have any contamination of the
imperfection of Rajas and Tamas.[27]

Main article: List of titles and names of Shiva

The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: , iva) comes
from Shri Rudram Chamakam of Taittiriya Samhita (TS
4.5, 4.7) of Krishna Yajurveda. The root word i[17]
means auspicious. In simple English transliteration it is
written either as Shiva or Siva. The adjective iva, is used
as an attributive epithet for several Vedic deities, including Rudra.[18] Other popular names associated with Shiva
are Mahadev, Mahesh, Maheshwar, Shankar, Shambhu,
Rudra, Har, Trilochan, Devendra (meaning Chief of Shivas role as the primary deity of Shaivism is rethe gods) and Trilokinath (meaning Lord of the three ected in his epithets Mahdeva (Great god"; mah
Great and deva god),[28][29] Mahevara (Great
realms).[19][20][21]
lord),[30][31] and
The Sanskrit word aiva means relating to the god Lord"; mah great and vara
[32]
Shiva, and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one Paramevara (Supreme Lord).
of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of There are at least eight dierent versions of the Shiva
that sect.[22] It is used as an adjective to characterize cer- Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many
1

2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND LITERATURE

names of Shiva.[33] The version appearing in Book 13

(Anusanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered
the kernel of this tradition.[34] Shiva also has DashaSahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as
the atarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him
by many names.[35][36]

Historical development and literature

supposed to denote dierent forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and
worshipped. [...] Siva became identied with
countless local cults by the sheer suxing of
Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g.,
Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara.[40]
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra,
where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron
deity of farming and herding castes.[41] The foremost
center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in
Jejuri.[42] Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of
Shiva himself,[43] in which case he is worshipped in
the form of a lingam.[41][44] Khandobas varied associations also include an identication with Surya[41] and
Karttikeya.[45]

2.2 Indus Valley origins

Main article: Pashupati seal
Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal

A sculpture of Shiva depicting him with a moustache

The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced

widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.[37][38]

2.1

Assimilation of traditions

See also: Roots of Hinduism

The gure of Shiva as we know him today was built
up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single gure.[38] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well
documented.[39] According to Vijay Nath:
Visnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds.
The latter were either taken to represent the
multiple facets of the same god or else were

Seal discovered during excavation of the Indus Valley archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible
representation of a yogi or proto-Shiva gure

that has attracted attention shows a gure, either

horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly
ithyphallic[46][47][48] gure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was
named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro Pashupati
(lord of cattle), an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva
and Rudra.[46][49][50][51] Sir John Marshall and others
have claimed that this gure is a prototype of Shiva and
have described the gure as having three faces seated in
a yoga posture with the knees out and feet joined.
Some academics like Gavin Flood[52][53] and John Keay
have expressed doubts about this claim. John Keay writes
that He may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord

2.3

Indo-European origins

Shiva as Pashu- pati, but a couple of his specialties of

this gure does not match with Rudra.[54] Writing in 1997
Doris Srinivasan rejected Marshalls package of protoSiva features, including that of three heads. She interprets
what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human
but more bovine, possibly a divine bualo-man.[55] According to Iravatham Mahadevan symbols 47 and 48 of
his Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977), representing seated human-like
gures, could describe Hindu deity Murugan, popularly
known as Shiva and Parvatis son.[56]
Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while
it would be appropriate to recognize the gure as a deity,
its association with the water bualo, and its posture as
one of ritual discipline.[57]

2.3

Indo-European origins

Shivas rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identication with a host of Vedic deities,
including Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, Prajpati, Vyu,
and others.[58]
2.3.1

Rudra

Main article: Rudra

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with
the Vedic god Rudra,[59] and both Shiva and Rudra are
viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD
two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the
roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the which means to injure or to kill,[65] and Sharma
element he represents as a erce, destructive deity.
uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of
arva as One who can kill the forces of
The Hindu text Rig Veda, which is dated to between the name [64]
darkness.
The names Dhanvin (Bowman)[66] and
1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological
(Archer, literally Armed with arrows in his
evidence.[60] A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Bahasta
[66][67]
hands)
also refer to archery.
Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva.
In RV 2.33, he is described as the Father of the Rudras",
a group of storm gods.[61] Furthermore, the Rudram, one
of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the
Rig and the Yajur Vedas and addressed to Rudra, invokes
him as Shiva in several instances, but the term Shiva is
used as an epithet for the gods Indra, Mitra and Agni
many times. Since Shiva means pure, the epithet is possibly used to describe a quality of these gods rather than
to identify any of them with the God Shiva.

2.3.2 Agni

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[68][69] The identication between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudras
gradual development into the later character as RudraShiva.[70] The identication of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on
[71]
The identication of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is etymology, which says, Agni is also called Rudra.
The interconnections between the two deities are comnot universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
plex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
Rudra is called The Archer (Sanskrit:
The re myth of Rudra-iva plays on
arva),[62] and the arrow is an essential atthe whole gamut of re, valuing all its potribute of Rudra.[63] This name appears in the
tentialities and phases, from conagration to
Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes
illumination.[72]
that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later
[64]
languages.
In the atarudrya, some epithets of Rudra, such as SasiThe word is derived from the Sanskrit root arv-, pajara (Of golden red hue as of ame) and Tiva-

mati (Flaming bright), suggest a fusing of the two

deities.[73] Agni is said to be a bull,[74] and Lord Shiva
possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of
Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are
mentioned.[75][76] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and
the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have aming hair
as a special feature.[77]

POSITION WITHIN HINDUISM

the worship of Shiva, with references to Shaiva ascetics

in Patanjali's Mahabhasya and in the Mahabharata.[53][92]
Early historical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, depict Shiva dancing, Shivas trident, and his mount
Nandi but no other Vedic gods.[93][94]

2.5 Puranic literature

2.3.3

Indra

The Shiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the

Linga Purana, discuss the various forms of Shiva and the
According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a con- cosmology associated with him.[95]
tinuation of the Vedic Indra.[78] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, erceness, fearlessness, war- 2.6 Tantric literature
fare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound,
the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term iva is used to The Tantras, composed between the 8th and 11th cenrefer to Indra. (2.20.3,[79] 6.45.17,[80][81] and 8.93.3.[82] ) turies, regard themselves as Sruti. Among these the
Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[83][84] In the Rig Shaiva Agamas, are said to have been revealed by
Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Sidassociated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[85]
dhanta.[96]
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical
era were closely related to the hypothesised ProtoIndo-European religion,[86][87] and the Indo-Iranian
religion.[88] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River
(present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[89] It
was a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new
Indo-European elements,[89] which borrowed distinctive religious beliefs and practices[88] from the Bactria
Margiana Culture.[88] At least 383 non-Indo-European
words were borrowed from this culture, including the god
Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[90] According to Anthony,
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god
of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became
the central deity of the developing Old Indic
culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns,
a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a
stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra)
probably borrowed from the BMAC religion.
His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of
the Old Indic speakers.[91]

2.4

Later Vedic literature

Rudras transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the Shvetashvatara
Upanishad (400-200 BC), which founded the tradition of
Rudra-Shiva worship. Here they are identied as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birthrebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also
marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on

3 Position within Hinduism

The Annamalaiyar Temple, Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu is

dedicated to Shiva

3.1 Shaivism
Main articles: Shaivism and History of Shaivism
Shaivism (Sanskrit: , aiva patha) (Kannada:
) (Tamil: ) is the oldest of the four
major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism,
Shaktism and Smartism. Followers of Shaivism, called
Shaivas, and also Saivas or Saivites, revere Shiva
as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All
and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and
concealer of all that is. The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas, Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta. The Shiva MahaPurana is one of the puras,

4.1

Attributes

a genre of Hindu religious texts, dedicated to Shiva.

Shaivism is widespread throughout India, Nepal, and Sri
Lanka, mostly. Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism
include parts of Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia.
Indologist Axel Michaels suggests that Shaivism, like
Vaishnavism, implies a unity which cannot be clearly
found either in religious practice or in philosophical and
esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine
must be kept separate.[97]

3.2

Panchayatana puja

Main article: Panchayatana puja

Panchayatana puja is the system of worship ('puja') in the
Smarta sampradaya of Hinduism. It is said to have been
introduced by Adi Shankara, the 8th century AD Hindu
philosopher. It consists of the worship of ve deities:
Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya and Ganesha. Depending on
the tradition followed by Smarta households, one of these
deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it.
Worship is oered to all the deities. The ve are represented by small murtis, or by ve kinds of stones, or by
ve marks drawn on the oor.[98]

3.3

Trimurti

Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges

owing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents
and a skull garland, and covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger
skin.

Main article: Trimurti

The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the
cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personied by the forms of Brahm
the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and
hiva the destroyer or transformer.[99][100] These three
deities have been called the Hindu triad[101] or the
Great Trinity",[102] often addressed as Brahma-VishnuMaheshwara.

Iconography and properties

4.1

Attributes

Shivas form: Shiva has a trident in the right lower

arm, and a crescent moon on his head. He is said
to be fair like camphor or like an ice clad mountain.
He wears ve serpents and a garland of skulls as ornaments. Shiva is usually depicted facing the south.
His trident, like almost all other forms in Hinduism,
can be understood as the symbolism of the unity of
three worlds that a human faces - his inside world,
his immediate world, and the broader overall world.
At the base of the trident, all three forks unite. It is
often not shown but Shiva has 6 heads, of which only

ve (Isana, Tatpurusha, Vamadeva, Aghora, Sadyojata) are visible while the 6th (Adhomukh) can only
be seen by the enlightened.
Third eye: (Trilochana) Shiva is often depicted
with a third eye, with which he burned Desire
(Kma) to ashes,[103] called Tryambakam (Sanskrit:
), which occurs in many scriptural
sources.[104] In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka
denotes an eye, and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is
depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes
translated as having three eyes.[105] However, in
Vedic Sanskrit, the word amb or ambik means
mother, and this early meaning of the word is
the basis for the translation three mothers.[106][107]
These three mother-goddesses who are collectively
called the Ambiks.[108] Other related translations
have been based on the idea that the name actually
refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess
Ambik.[109] It has been mentioned that when Shiva
loses his temper, his third eye opens which can reduce most things to ashes.
Crescent
moon:
(The
epithets
Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli)- Shiva bears

4 ICONOGRAPHY AND PROPERTIES

on his head the crescent moon.[110] The epithet
Candraekhara (Sanskrit: Having the
moon as his crest - candra = moon"; ekhara =
crest, crown)[111][112][113] refers to this feature.
The placement of the moon on his head as a
standard iconographic feature dates to the period
when Rudra rose to prominence and became the
major deity Rudra-Shiva.[114] The origin of this
linkage may be due to the identication of the
moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig
Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored,
and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be
identied with one another, as were Soma and the
moon.[115] The crescent moon is shown on the side
of the Lords head as an ornament. The waxing and
waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the
time cycle through which creation evolves from the
beginning to the end.
Ashes: (The epithet Bhasmaanga Raaga) Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). The
ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence.[116] Some forms of Shiva, such as
Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold Shiva bearing the descent of the Ganges River as Parvati
of brahmanic orthodoxy.[117] These practices asso- and Bhagiratha and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi
ciated with cremation grounds are also mentioned manuscript by the Narayan, circa 1740
in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.[118]
One epithet for Shiva is inhabitant of the cremated hair of Shiva.[128][129] The Gag (Ganges), one
tion ground (Sanskrit: manavsin, also spelled
of the major rivers of the country, is said to have
Shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.[119]
made her abode in Shivas hair.[130] The ow of the
Ganges also represents the nectar of immortality.
Matted hair:
(The epithet Jataajoota
Dhari/Kapardina) - Shivas distinctive hair
Tiger skin: (The epithet Krittivasana) He is ofstyle is noted in the epithets Jain, the one with
ten shown seated upon a tiger skin,[116] an honour re[120]
matted hair,
and Kapardin, endowed with
served for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics,
matted hair[121] or wearing his hair wound in
the Brahmarishis.[131]
[122]
a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion.
A
kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in
Serpents: (The epithet Nagendra Haara or 'Vathe form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that
suki). Shiva is often shown garlanded with a
is shaggy or curly.[123] His hair is said to be like
snake.[132]
molten gold in color or being yellowish-white.
Blue throat: The epithet Nlakatha (Sanskrit ; nla = blue, katha = throat).[124][125]
Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up
from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop
it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all
over the universe, supposed to be in Shivas stomach.
However the poison was so potent that it changed the
color of his neck to blue.[126][127] (See Maha Shivaratri.)
Sacred Ganges: (The epithet Gangadhara)
Bearer of Ganga. Ganges river ows from the mat-

Deer: His holding deer on one hand indicates that

He has removed the Chanchalata of the mind (i.e.,
attained maturity and rmness in thought process).
A deer jumps from one place to another swiftly, similar to the mind moving from one thought to another.
Trident: (Trishula): Shivas particular weapon is
the trident.[116] His Trisul that is held in His right
hand represents the three Gunas Sattva, Rajas and
Tamas. That is the emblem of sovereignty. He rules
the world through these three Gunas. The Damaru
in His left hand represents the Sabda Brahman. It
represents OM from which all languages are formed.
It is He who formed the Sanskrit language out of the
Damaru sound.

4.2

Lingam

Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is

known as a damaru (amaru).[133][134] This is one
of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing
representation[135] known as Nataraja. A specic
hand gesture (mudra) called amaru-hasta (Sanskrit
for "amaru-hand) is used to hold the drum.[136]
This drum is particularly used as an emblem by
members of the Kplika sect.[137]
Axe: (Parashu):The parashu is the weapon of Lord
Shiva who gave it to Parashurama, sixth Avatar of
Vishnu, whose name means Rama with the axe
and also taught him its mastery.
Nand: (The epithet Nandi Vaahana) Nand, also
known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves
as Shivas mount (Sanskrit: vhana).[138][139] Shivas
association with cattle is reected in his name Paupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: ), translated by
Sharma as lord of cattle[140] and by Kramrisch as
lord of animals, who notes that it is particularly
used as an epithet of Rudra.[141] Rishabha or the
bull represents Dharma Devata. Lord Siva rides on
the bull. Bull is his vehicle. This denotes that Lord
Siva is the protector of Dharma, is an embodiment Lingam at Jambukesvara temple in Thiruvanaikaval, Tamil
Nadu
of Dharma or righteousness.
Gaa: The Gaas (Devanagari: ) are attendants
of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred
to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account
of their nature. Generally benign, except when their
lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked
to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee.
Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence
Ganesha's title gaa-a or gaa-pati, lord of the
gaas.[142]

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam, or linga, is
also important.[145][146][147] These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. Shiva means auspiciousness, and
linga means a sign or a symbol. Hence, the Shivalinga is regarded as a symbol of the great God of
the universe who is all-auspiciousness.[148] Shiva also
means one in whom the whole creation sleeps after
dissolution.[148] Linga also means the same thinga
5 heads: Shiva is known as panchavactra means 5 place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created universe. Since, according
heads which indicates 5 elements.
to Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains
and withdraws the universe, the Shivalinga represents
Arms: Shiva has 4 arms which resembles 4 vedas
symbolically God Himself.[148] Some scholars, such as
Monier Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger, also view
Mount Kailsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas
linga as a phallic symbol,[149][150] although this interpreis his traditional abode.[116] In Hindu mythology,
tation is disputed by others, including Christopher IsherMount Kailsa is conceived as resembling a Linga,
wood,[151] Vivekananda,[152] Swami Sivananda,[153] and
representing the center of the universe.[143]
S.N. Balagangadhara.[154]
Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be
the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the 4.2.1 Jyotirlinga
holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred
to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[144]
Main article: Jyotirlinga

4.2

Lingam

Main article: Lingam

The worship of the Shiva-Linga originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhit sung in praise
of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacricial post. In that hymn,
a description is found of the beginningless and end-

4 ICONOGRAPHY AND PROPERTIES

Lingodbhava murti

less Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said

Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as
the Yajna (sacricial) re, its smoke, ashes, and ames,
the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back
the wood for the Vedic sacrice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shivas body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the
Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the ShivaLinga.[155][156] In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn
is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the
glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva Kali and Bhairava (the terrible form of Shiva) in Union, 18th
century, Nepal
as Mahadeva.[156]
The sacred of all Shiva linga is worshipped as Jyotir linga.
Jyoti means Radiance, apart from relating Shiva linga as a
phallus symbol, there are also arguments that Shiva linga
means 'mark' or a 'sign'. Jyotirlinga means The Radiant
sign of The Almighty. The Jyotirlingas are mentioned
in Shiva Purana.[157]

4.3

Shakti

Main article: Shakti

Shiva forms a Tantric couple with Shakti, the embodiment of energy, dynamism, and the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe.
Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect, providing the
divine ground of all being. Shakti manifests in several
female deities. Sati and Parvati are the main consorts of
Shiva. She is also referred to as Uma, Durga (Parvata),
Kali[158] and Chandika.[159] Kali is the manifestation of
Shakti in her dreadful aspect. The name Kali comes
from kla, which means black, time, death, lord of death,
Shiva. Since Shiva is called Kla, the eternal time, Kl,
his consort, also means Time or Death (as in time
has come). Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well
as Shkta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate re-

ality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatrini (literally redeemer of the universe). Kl is represented
as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often
seen standing or dancing. Shiva is the masculine force,
the power of peace, while Shakti translates to power, and
is considered as the feminine force. In the Vaishnava tradition, these realities are portrayed as Vishnu and Laxmi,
or Radha and Krishna. These are dierences in formulation rather than a fundamental dierence in the principles. Both Shiva and Shakti have various forms. Shiva
has forms like Yogi Raj (the common image of Himself
meditating in the Himalayas), Rudra (a wrathful form)
and Natarajar (Shivas dance are the Lasya - the gentle
form of dance, associated with the creation of the world,
and the Tandava - the violent and dangerous dance, associated with the destruction of weary worldviews weary
perspectives and lifestyles).

4.4 The ve mantras

Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[160] One of his most
important mantras has ve syllables (nama ivya).[161]
Shivas body is said to consist of ve mantras, called the
pacabrahmans.[162] As forms of God, each of these have

5.2

Ascetic and Householder

their own names and distinct iconography:[163]

Sadyojta
Vmadeva
Aghora
Tatpuruha
sna
These are represented as the ve faces of Shiva and are
associated in various texts with the ve elements, the ve
senses, the ve organs of perception, and the ve organs
of action.[164][165] Doctrinal dierences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some dierences between texts in details of how these ve forms are linked
with various attributes.[166] The overall meaning of these
associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories,
iva, the ultimate reality, becomes the ecient
and material cause of all that exists.[167]
According to the Pacabrahma Upanishad:
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a vefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of iva is of the character of the vefold Brahman. (Pacabrahma
Upanishad 31)[168]

Uma and Maheswar

means to cry, howl.[172] Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, of rudra nature, and translates the name Rudra as the wild one or the erce
god.[173] R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as terrible.[174] Hara (Sanskrit:
) is an important name that occurs three times
in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in dierent ways each time
it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three
as one who captivates, one who consolidates, and
one who destroys.[175] Kramrisch translates it as the
ravisher.[127] Another of Shivas fearsome forms is as
Kla (Sanskrit: ), time, and as Mahkla (Sanskrit: ), great time, which ultimately destroys
all things.[176][177][178] Bhairava (Sanskrit: ), terrible or frightful,[179] is a erce form associated with
annihilation.[180]

In contrast, the name akara (Sanskrit:

),
benecent[64] or conferring happiness[181] reects his
5 Forms and roles
benign form. This name was adopted by the great
Vedanta philosopher akara (c. 788 - 820 AD), who
According to Gavin Flood, Shiva is a god of ambi- is also known as Shankaracharya.[182][183] The name
guity and paradox, whose attributes include opposing ambhu (Sanskrit: ), causing happiness, also rethemes.[169] The ambivalent nature of this deity is appar- ects this benign aspect.[184][185]
ent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

5.1

Destroyer and Benefactor

5.2 Ascetic and Householder

He is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[186] When depicted as a yogi,
he may be shown sitting and meditating.[187] His epithet Mahyogi (the great Yogi: Mah = great, Yogi =
one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with
yoga.[188] While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in
terms of sacrice, it was during the Epic period that the
concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in
philosophical isolation reects these later concepts.[189]
The name Rudra (Sanskrit:
) reects his fearsome Shiva is also depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali,
aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the San- it represents that Shiva is a corpse without Shakti. He
skrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which remains inert. While Shiva is the static form, Mahakali
In the Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both
malignant or terric (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or
auspicious (Sanskrit: iva) forms can be found, leading
Chakravarti to conclude that all the basic elements which
created the complex Rudra-iva sect of later ages are to
be found here.[170] In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted
as the standard of invincibility, might, and terror, as
well as a gure of honor, delight, and brilliance.[171] The
duality of Shivas fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.

10

FORMS AND ROLES

of Shiva.

5.3 Nataraaja

An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva,

Parvati, Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya)

or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is

powerless.
As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati
and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet
Umpati (The husband of Um") refers to this idea,
and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name
that mean the same thing, Umknta and Umdhava,
also appear in the sahasranama.[190] Um in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign
Prvat.[191][192] She is identied with Devi, the Divine
Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like
Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kamakshi and Meenakshi. The
consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy.
They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this
universe.[193] His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout
India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of
Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan,
and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or
Karttikeya.[194]
Some regional deities are also identied as Shivas children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty
and charm of Mohini, Vishnus female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta identied with regional deities Ayyappa and Ayyanar is born.[195][196][197][198] Shiva is also mentioned in some
scriptures to have had daughters like the serpent-goddess
Manasa and Ashokasundari. The demons Andhaka and
Jalandhara and the god Mangala are considered children

Chola dynasty statue depicting Shiva dancing as Nataraja (Los

Angeles County Museum of Art)

Main article: Nataraja

The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naarja,
Lord of Dance) is popular.[199][200] The names Nartaka (dancer) and Nityanarta (eternal dancer) appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[201] His association with
dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic
period.[202] In addition to the specic iconographic form
known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms
(Sanskrit: ntyamrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-dened varieties in Tamil Nadu in
particular.[203] The two most common forms of the dance
are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated
with the destruction of the world. When it requires the
world or universe to be destroyed, Lord iva does it by
the tavantya.[204][205] and Lasya, which is graceful
and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level
and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the
goddess Parvati.[206][207] Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[207] The Tandava-Lasya
dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the
world.[208][209][210]

11

5.4

Dakshinamurthy

Main article: Dakshinamurthy

Dakshinamurthy,
or
Dakimrti
(Tamil:, Telugu:
, Sanskrit: ),[211] literally describes a form (mrti)
of Shiva facing south (dakia). This form represents
Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and
wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[212] This
iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is
mostly from Tamil Nadu.[213] Elements of this motif can
include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded
by sages who are receiving his instruction.[214]

5.5

Ardhanarishvara

Main article: Ardhanarishvara

An iconographic representation of Shiva called (Ardhanrvara) shows him with one half of the body as male
and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form (Ardhanrvara) is best translated as the lord who is half
woman, not as half-man, half-woman.[215] According
to legend, Lord Shiva is pleased by the dicult austerites
performed by the goddess Parvati, grants her the left half
of his body. This form of Shiva is quite similar to the YinYang philosophy of Eastern Asia, though Ardhanrvara
appears to be more ancient.

5.6

Tripurantaka

Main article: Tripurantaka

See also: Tripura (mythology)
Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act
of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the
Asuras.[216] Shivas name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: , Tripurntaka), ender of Tripura, refers to this
important story.[217] In this aspect, Shiva is depicted with
four arms wielding a bow and arrow, but dierent from
the Pinakapani murti. He holds an axe and a deer on the
upper pair of his arms. In the lower pair of the arms, he
holds a bow and an arrow respectively. After destroying
Tripura, Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with
three strokes of Ashes. This has become a prominent
symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites.

Chola bronze from the 11th century. Shiva in the form of

Ardhanarisvara.

According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad, he has four

avatars.[220]

In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identied as the

eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal.
Hanuman is popularly known as Rudraavtaar Rudra
5.7 Other forms, avatars, identications
being a name of Shiva.[221] Rama the Vishnu avatar
by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra
Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have sev- is considered
[222][223]
(Shiva).
eral incarnations, known as Avatars. Although Puranic
scriptures contain occasional references to ansh avatars Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa,[224][225][226][227]
of Shiva, the idea is not universally accepted in the sage Agastya, the philosopher Adi Shankara and
Saivism.[218] The Linga Purana speaks of twenty-eight Ashwatthama as avatars of Shiva. Other forms of Shiva
forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars.[219] include Virabhadra and Sharabha.

12

BEYOND HINDUISM

Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the

13th night or the 14th day of the new moon in the Shukla
Paksha of the month of Maagha or Phalguna in the Hindu
calendar. This festival is of utmost importance to the
devotees of Lord Shiva. Mahashivaratri marks the night
when Lord Shiva performed the 'Tandava' and it is the
day that Lord Shiva was married to Parvati.[228] The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals
oered up to Shiva, notably the Abhishek. This ritual,
practiced throughout the night, is often performed every three hours with water, milk, yogurt, and honey. Bel
(aegle marmelos) leaves are often oered up to the Hindu
god, as it is considered necessary for a successful life. The
oering of the leaves are considered so important that it
is believed that someone who oers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly.[229]

7 Beyond Hinduism
The ve-headed Tripurantaka is seen pointing an arrow towards
the Tripura (rightmost top corner) with the bow made of mount
Meru, the serpent Vasuki is seen as its string.

7.1 Buddhism
Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna.[230] In cosmologies of Buddhist
tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his
active counterpart.[231]

7.2 Sikhism
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, The
Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru
is Paarvati and Lakhshmi.[232] In the same chapter, it
also says, Shiva speaks, the Siddhas speak.
In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh have mentioned
two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath
Avtar.[233]

7.3 Others

Kalyanasundara: Celestial Marriage of Shiva and Parvati in

presence of all depicted at Elephanta Caves

Festivals

Main article: Maha Shivaratri

The worship of Lord Shiva became popular in Central

Asia through the Hephthalite (White Hun) Dynasty,[234]
and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdiana and Eastern Turkestan as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.[235] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread (Yajnopavita).[235] He is clad in tiger skin
while his attendants are wearing Sodgian dress.[235] In
Eastern Turkestan in the Taklamakan Desert.[235] There
is a depiction of his four-legged seated cross-legged n a
cushioned seat supported by two bulls.[235] Another panel
form Dandan-Uilip shows Shiva in His Trimurti form
with His Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.[235][236] It is
also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on
the iconographic appearance of Shiva.[236]

13

[3] Tattwananda, p. 45.

[4] Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
[5] See Parmeshwaranand, Volume 3.
[6] See Kramrisch, The presence of Siva, page 186.
[7] See Abhayananda, page 95.
[8] See Davis, pp 113-114.
[9] Chatterji, Kashmir Shaivism.
[10] Sharma, Iconography of Sadasiva
[11] See Shiva Samhita, e.g. translation by Mallinson.
[12] See Varenne, page 82.
[13] See Marchand for Jnana Yoga.
[14] Davis writes on page 122: The Saiva worshipper does not
worship the object itself as Siva or as representing Siva;
he directs his worship toward it as the physical support for
Sivas special presence.

Daikoku, God of Wealth

[15] Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, by Jeanne Fowler, pgs.

4243, In traditional Indian society, the linga is rather
seen as a symbol of the energy and potentiality of the god.
[16] See Fuller, The Camphor Flame, pp 58.

Kirant people, a Mongol tribe from Nepal, worship a [17] Sanskrit Dictionary. sanskritdictionary.com.
form of Shiva as one of their major deity, identifying him
[18] For use of the term iva as an epithet for other Vedic
as the lord of animals. It is also said that the physical
deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.
form of Shiva as a yogi is derived from Kirants as it is
mentioned in Mundhum that Shiva took human form as [19] See translation by Manmatha Nath Dutt, Chapter 17 of
Volume 13.
a child of Kirant. He is also said to give Kirants visions
in form of a male deer.
In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru.
In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top
of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang
Manikmaya. He is rst of the children who hatched from
the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na
Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shivas
other form in Indonesian Hinduism is Maharaja Dewa
(Mahadeva).[237]

[20] See translation by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Chapter 17 of

Volume 13.
[21] See Chidbhavananda, Siva Sahasranama Stotram.
[22] Apte, p. 927

[23] For the denition "aivism refers to the traditions which

follow the teachings of iva (ivana) and which focus on
the deity iva... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.
[24] van Lysebeth, Andre (2002). Tantra: Cult of the Feminine. Weiser Books. p. 213. ISBN 9780877288459.

Daikoku-ten(
), one of the Japanese Seven lucky gods
is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an [25] Tyagi, Ishvar Chandra (1982). Shaivism in Ancient Inexalted position as a household deity in Japan and is wordia: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300. Meenakshi
shipped as the god of wealth and fortune.[238] The name is
Prakashan. p. 81.
the Japanese equivalent of Mahkla, the Buddhist name
[26] Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition,
for Shiva.[239]
pg.47 and pg. 122.

References

[1] For the name Kailsagirivs (Sanskrit ),

With his abode on Mount Kailsa, as a name appearing
in the Shiva Sahasranama, see: Sharma 1996, p. 281.
[2] Flood (1996), p. 17.

[27] Swami Chinmayanandas translation of Vishnu sahasranama, pg. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.
[28] Kramrisch, p. 476.
[29] For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see: Sharma 1996, p. 297
[30] Kramrisch, p. 477.

14
[31] For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see:Sharma 1996, p. 299
[32] For Paramehvara as Supreme Lord see: Kramrisch, p.
479.
[33] Sharma 1996, p. viii-ix
[34] This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but
does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata
versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.
[35] For an overview of the atarudriya see: Kramrisch, pp.
71-74.
[36] For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary
see: Sivaramamurti (1976).
[37] Flood 1996, p. 17.
[38] Keay, p.xxvii.
[39] For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well
documented, see: Keay, p. 147.

REFERENCES

[55] Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms and

Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian
Art. Brill. ISBN 978-9004107588.
[56] Mahadevan, Iravatham (2006). A Note on the Muruku Sign
of the Indus Script in light of the Mayiladuthurai Stone Axe
Discovery. harappa.com.
[57] Possehl, Gregory L. (11 November 2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira.
pp. 140144. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9.
[58] For Shiva being identied with Agni, Indra, Prajpati,
Vyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.
[59] Michaels, p. 316.
[60] For dating based on cumulative evidence see: Oberlies,
p. 158.
[61] Doniger, pp. 221-223.
[62] For arva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.

[40] Nath 2001, p. 31.

[63] For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter

2, and for the arrow as an essential attribute see: Kramrisch, p. 32.

[41] Courtright, p. 205.

[64] Sharma 1996, p. 306

[42] For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p.

162.

[65] For root arv- see: Apte, p. 910.

[43] 'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, Khandoba is a
local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva.
[44] For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identication with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p.
176.
[45] For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya
in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40.
[46] For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996),
p. 29.
[47] Singh, S.P., Rgvedic Base of the Pasupati Seal of MohenjoDaro(Approx 2500-3000 BC), Puratattva 19: 19-26.
1989
[48] Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998.
[49] Ranbir Vohra (2000). The Making of India: A Historical
Survey. M.E. Sharpe. p. 15.
[50] Grigori Maksimovich Bongard-Levin (1985). Ancient Indian Civilization. Arnold-Heinemann. p. 45.

[66] Chidbhavananda, p. 33.

[67] For translation of Bahasta as Armed with arrows in his
hands, see: Sharma 1996, p. 294.
[68] For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.
[69] For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see:
Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.
[70] For quotation An important factor in the process of
Rudras growth is his identication with Agni in the
Vedic literature and this identication contributed much
to the transformation of his character as Rudra-iva. see:
Chakravarti, p. 17.
[71] For translation from Nirukta 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p.
155.
[72] Kramrisch, p. 18.
[73] For Note Agni-Rudra concept fused in epithets Sasipajara and Tivamati see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.
[74] Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and
Others. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
[75] For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and
Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.

[51] Steven Rosen, Graham M. Schweig (2006). Essential Hinduism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 45.

[76] RV 8.49; 10.155.

[52] Flood 1996, pp. 28-29.

[77] For aming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.

[53] Flood 2003, pp. 204-205.

[54] John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press. p. 14.

[78] Doniger, Wendy (1973). The Vedic Antecedents. iva,

the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US. pp. 849.

15
[79] For text of RV 2.20.3a as [101] For denition of trimurti as the unied form of Brahm,
and translation as May that young adorable
Viu and iva and use of the phrase the Hindu triad see:
Indra, ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector
Apte, p. 485.
of us, his worshipper see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48,
[102] For the term Great Trinity in relation to the Trimurti
volume 2.
see: Jansen, p. 83.
[80] For text of RV 6.45.17 as
and translation as "Indra, [103] For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of
the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood
who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and
(1996), p. 151.
the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us
felicity see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.

[104] For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of tryambaka, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-39.
[81] For translation of RV 6.45.17 as Thou who hast been
the singers Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As
[105] For usage of the word ambaka in classical Sanskrit
such, O Indra, favour us see: Grith 1973, p. 310.
and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see:
Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.
[82] For text of RV 8.93.3 as and translation as May Indra,
[106] For translation of Tryambakam as having three mother
our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming
eyes and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.
(cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley see: Arya &
Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.
[107] For vedic Sanskrit meaning Lord has three mother eyes
which symbolize eyes are the Sun, Moon and Fire.
[83] For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see:
Chakravarti, p. 89.
[108] For discussion of the problems in translation of this name,
and the hypothesis regarding the Ambiks see: Hopkins
[84] RV 7.19.
(1968), p. 220.
[85] For the lack of warlike connections and dierence be[109]
tween Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.
[110]
[86] B. S. Ahloowalia (2009). Invasion of the Genes Genetic
Heritage of India. Strategic Book Publishing. ISBN 978- [111]
1-60860-691-7.
[112]
[87] Roger D. Woodard (18 August 2006). Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult. University of Illinois
[113]
Press. pp. 242. ISBN 978-0-252-09295-4.
[88] Beckwith & 2009 32.
[89] Anthony 2007, p. 462.
[90] Anthony 2007, p. 454-455.
[91] Anthony 2007, p. 454.

For the Ambik variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.

For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.
For ekhara as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.
For Candraekhara as an iconographic form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 56.
For translation Having the moon as his crest see: Kramrisch, p. 472.

[114] For the moon iconography as marking the rise of RudraShiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.
[115] For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and
Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 5758.

[92] Flood 1996, p. 86.

[116] Flood (1996), p. 151.

[93] Javid, Ali (January 2008). World Heritage Monuments
[117] Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
and Related Edices in India. Algora Publishing. pp. 20
21. ISBN 978-0-87586-484-6.
[118] Flood (1996), p. 161.
[94] Mathpal, Yashodhar (1 January 1984). Prehistoric Rock [119] Chidbhavananda, p. 23.
Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India. Abhinav Publica[120] Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
tions. p. 220. ISBN 978-81-7017-193-5.
[95] Flood 2003, pp. 205-206.
[96] Flood 2003, pp. 208-212.
[97] Michaels, p. 215.
[98] Himalaya Academy, Panchayatana puja

[121] For translation of Kapardin as Endowed with matted

hair see: Sharma 1996, p. 279.
[122] Kramrisch, p. 475.
[123] For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the
kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.

[99] For quotation dening the trimurti see Matchett, Freda. [124]
The Puras, in: Flood (2003), p. 139.
[125]
[100] For the Trimurti system having Brahma as the creator,
Vishnu as the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva as the [126]
transformer or destroyer see: Zimmer (1972) p. 124.

Sharma 1996, p. 290

See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world
ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.

16

REFERENCES

[127] Kramrisch, p. 473.

[154] Balagangadhara, S.N.; Sarah Claerhout (Spring 2008).

Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Ex[128] For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the
amples From Hinduism Studies (PDF). Journal for the
name Gagdhara see: Chakravarti, pp. 59 and 109.
Study of Religions and Ideologies 7 (19): 118143.
[129] For description of the Gagdhara form, see: Sivarama- [155] Harding, Elizabeth U. (1998). God, the Father. Kali:
murti (1976), p. 8.
The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 156157. ISBN 978-81-208-1450-9.
[130] For Shiva supporting Gag upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.
[156] Vivekananda, Swami. The Paris congress of the history
of religions. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda
[131] Mythology ~ The birth of Brahmarishis. Retrieved
4.
2008-05-07.
[157] Chaturvedi, B. K. (2006), Shiv Purana (First ed.), New
[132] Flood (1996), p. 151
Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd, ISBN 81-7182721-7
[133] Michaels, p. 218.
[158] Why is Kali dancing on Lord Shiva?". The Chakra.
[134] For denition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
[159] Bhattacharji 1998, p. 26.
[135] Jansen, p. 44.
[160] For ve as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
[136] Jansen, p. 25.
[161] It is rst encountered in an almost identical form in the
[137] For use by Kplikas, see: Apte, p. 461.
Rudram. For the ve syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p.
182.
[138] For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull
(Nandin) as Shivas mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105. [162] For discussion of these ve forms and a table summarizing
the associations of these ve mantras see: Kramrisch, pp.
[139] For spelling of alternate proper names Nand and Nandin
182-189.
see: Stutley, p. 98.
[163] For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
[140] Sharma 1996, p. 291
[164] For association with the ve faces and other groups of ve,
[141] Kramrisch, p. 479.
see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
[142] Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500- [165] For the epithets pacamukha and pacavaktra, both of
51088-1) by Anna L. Dallapiccola
which mean ve faces, as epithets of iva, see: Apte, p.
578, middle column.
[143] For identication of Mount Kailsa as the central linga,
see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.
[166] For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch,
p. 187.
[144] Keay, p. 33.
[167] Kramrisch, p. 184.
[145] Michaels, p. 216.
[168] Quotation from Pacabrahma Upanishad 31 is from:
[146] Flood (1996), p. 29.
Kramrisch, p. 182.
[147] Tattwanandaz, pp. 49-52.

[169] For quotation Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox

and overview of conicting attributes see: Flood (1996),
[148] Harshananda, Swami. Sivalinga. Principal Symbols of
p. 150.
World Religions. Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore. pp.
68.
[170] For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary
sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all
[149] See Monier Williams Sanskrit to english Dictionary
basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
[150] O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1981). iva, the erotic as- [171] For summary of Shivas contrasting depictions in the Macetic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19habharata, see: Sharma 1988, pp. 2021.
520250-3.
[172] For rud- meaning cry, howl as a traditional etymology
[151] Isherwood, Christopher. Early days at Dakshineswar.
see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
Ramakrishna and his disciples. p. 48.
[173] Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit
[152] Sen, Amiya P. (2006). Editors Introduction. The InDictionary, s.v. rudra, is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
dispensable Vivekananda. Orient Blackswan. pp. 2526.
[174] Sharma 1996, p. 301.
[153] Sivananda, Swami (1996). Worship of Siva Linga. Lord
Siva and His Worship. The Divine Life Trust Society.
[175] Sharma 1996, p. 314.

17

[176] For translation of Mahkla as time beyond time see: [199] For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110Kramrisch, p. 476.
111.
[177] For the name Kla translated as time; death, see: Kram- [200] For interpretation of the naarja form see: Zimmer, pp.
151-157.
risch, p. 474.
[178] The name Kla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, where [201] For names Nartaka (Sanskrit ) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit ) as names of Shiva, see: Sharma 1996, p.
it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme
289.
Lord of) Time. See: Sharma 1996, p. 280.
[179] For as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and transla- [202] For prominence of these associations in puranic times,
see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
tion of the adjectival form as terrible or frightful, see:
Apte, p. 727, left column.
[203] For popularity of the ntyamrti and prevalence in South
India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
[180] For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.
[204] Kramrisch, Stella (1994). Sivas Dance. The Presence
of Siva. Princeton University Press. p. 439.
[181] Kramrisch, p. 481.
[182] For adoption of the name akara by Shankaracarya see: [205] Klostermaier, Klaus K.. Shiva the Dancer. Mythologies
and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of
Kramrisch, p. 481.
India. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 151.
[183] For dating Shankaracharya as 788-820 AD see: Flood
[206] Massey, Reginald. Indias Kathak Dance. Indias
(1996), p. 92.
Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future. Abhinav Publica[184] For translation of ambhu as causing happiness see:
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Kramrisch, p. 481.
[207] Moorthy, Vijaya (2001). Romance of the Raga. Abhinav
[185] For speculation on the possible etymology of this name,
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see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.
[208] Leeming, David Adams (2001). A Dictionary of Asian
[186] For the contrast between ascetic and householder depicMythology. Oxford University Press. p. 45.
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[209] Radha, Sivananda (1992).
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[187] For Shivas representation as a yogi, see: Chakravarti, p.
32.
[210] when it requires to be destroyed, Lord iva does it by the
tavantya
[188] For name Mahyogi and associations with yoga, see,
Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.
[211] For iconographic description of the Dakimrti form,
see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.
[189] For the ascetic yogin form as reecting Epic period inuences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
[212] For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.
[190] For Umpati, Umknta and Umdhava as names in the
Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: Sharma 1996, p. 278.
[213] For characterization of Dakimrti as a mostly south
Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
[191] For Um as the oldest name, and variants including Prvat, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.
[214] For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as
Dakimrti, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.
[192] For Prvat identied as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch,
p. 479.
[215] Goldberg specically rejects the translation by Frederique
Marglin (1989) as half-man, half-woman, and instead
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[194] For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, Prefwoman as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
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10

External links

Lectures on Saiva (Oxford Center for Hindu Studies)

Shiva Legends in Sacred Tradition of Indian
Tribes by Kailash Kr. Mishra (Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts)

EXTERNAL LINKS

21

11
11.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Shiva Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva?oldid=666121503 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler,

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11.2

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File:6_iva_and_Prvat_seated_on_a_terrace._1800_(circa)_BM.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/

a7/6_%C5%9Aiva_and_P%C4%81rvat%C4%AB_seated_on_a_terrace._1800_%28circa%29_BM.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Museum Original artist: anonimus
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Rosemania

11.3

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23

File:Kali_and_Bhairava_in_Union.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Kali_and_Bhairava_in_Union.

jpg License: Public domain Contributors: LACMA[1] Original artist: Unknown
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https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/
self-made, photographed at Museum fr Asiatische

File:Uma_maheswar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Uma_maheswar.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Balaji
File:View_over_Arunchaleshvara_Temple_from_the_Red_Mountain_-_Tiruvannamalai_-_India_02.JPG
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11.3

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