Vishishtadvaita

TatvamBrahman, as qualied by the sentient and insentient modes (or attributes), is the only reality.

1 Philosophers
The Vishishtadvaitic thought is considered to have existed for a long time, and it is surmised that the earliest
works are no longer available.[1] The names of the earliest
of these philosophers is only known through Ramanuja's
Veda artha Sangraha. In the line of the philosophers considered to have expounded the VisishtAdvaitic system,
the prominent ones are Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka,
Guhadeva, Kapardi and Bharuci. Besides these philosophers, Ramanujas teacher Yamunacharya is credited
with laying the foundation for what culminates as the Sri
Bhasya.
Bodhayana is considered to have written an extensive
vritti (commentary) on the Purva and Uttara Mimamsas.
Tanka is attributed with having written commentaries on
Chandogya Upanishad and Brahma Sutras. Nathamuni
of the ninth century AD, the foremost Acharya of the
Vaishnavas, collected the Tamil prabandhas, classied
them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music and
spread them everywhere. He is said to have received the
divine hymns straight from Nammalvar, the foremost of
the twelve Alvars, by yogic insight in the temple at Alwar
Thirunagari, which is located near Tirunelveli in South
India. Yamunacharya renounced kingship and spent his
last days in the service of the Lord at Srirangam and in
laying the fundamentals of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy by writing four basic works on the subject.

Sri Ramanujacharya, pioneer of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and

the foremost Jeeyar of Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya.

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (IAST Viidvaita Vednta;

Sanskrit: ), the philosophy of the Sri Sampradaya , is a sub-school of the Vedanta (literally, end or
the goal of knowledge, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy, the other major sub-schools of Vednta being Advaita, Dvaita, "Dvaitadvaita" and Achintya-BhedaAbheda. VishishtAdvaita (literally Advaita with uniqueness; qualications) is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta
philosophy. It is non-dualism of the qualied whole, in
which Brahman alone exists, but is characterized by multiplicity. It can be described as qualied monism or
qualied non-dualism or attributive monism.

Ramanuja is the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy. The philosophy itself is considered to have existed long before Ramanujas time.[2] Ramanuja continues along the line of thought of his predecessors while
expounding the knowledge expressed in the Upanishads,
Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita. Vedanta Desika and
Pillai Lokacharya, disciples in the tradition of Ramanuja,
had minor disagreements not on the philosophy, but on
some aspects of the theology, giving rise to the Vadakalai
and Thenkalai schools of thought, as explained below.

It is a school of Vedanta philosophy which believes in all

diversity subsuming to an underlying unity. Ramanuja,
the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy contends that the Prasthana Traya (The three courses),
namely the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the
Brahma Sutras are to be interpreted in a way that shows
this unity in diversity, for any other way would violate
their consistency.

Swaminarayan, the founder of Swaminarayan Hinduism, also propagated this philosophy and based the
Swaminarayan Sampraday (original name is Uddhava
Sampraday) on these ideals.[3]

Vedanta Desika denes Vishishtadvaita using the state- Sri Dharma Pravartaka Acharya (1963-), founder of the
ment: Asesha Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva International Sanatana Dharma Society, is also a follower
1

4 METAPHYSICS

of Visishtadvaita philosophy.[4][5]

3.1.1 Rules of Epistemology

There are three rules of hierarchy when there is apparent

conict between the three modes of acquiring knowledge:

Key Principles of Vishishtadvaita

There are three key principles of Vishishtadvaita:

Tattva: The knowledge of the 3 real entities namely,
jiva (living souls; the sentient); ajiva (the insentient)
and Ishvara (Vishnu-Narayana or Parahbrahman,
creator and controller of the world).
Hita: The means of realization, as through Bhakti
(devotion) and Prapatti (self-surrender).
Purushartha: The goal to be attained, as moksha
or liberation from bondage.

Shabda or Shruti, Pramana occupies the highest position in matters which cannot be settled or resolved
by pratyaksa (perception) or by anumana (inference).
Anumana occupies the next position. When an issue
cannot be settled through sensory perception alone,
it is settled based on inference, that is, whichever is
the more logical argument .
When pratyaksa yields a denitive position on a particular issue, such a perception cannot be ignored by
interpreting Shabda in a way which violates that perception.

Epistemology

3.1

Pramanas

4 Metaphysics

Prama, in Sanskrit, refers to the correct knowledge, ar- 4.1 Ontology

rived at by thorough reasoning, of any object. Pramana
(sources of knowledge, Sanskrit) forms one part of a The ontology in Vishishtadvaita consists of explaining the
relationship between Ishvara (Parabrahman), the sentient
triputi, (trio), namely,
beings (chit-brahman) and the insentient Universe (achitbrahman). In the broadest sense, Ishvara is the Universal
1. Pramatir, the subject; the knower of the knowledge
Soul of the pan-organistic body consisting of the Universe
2. Pramana, the cause or the means of the knowledge and sentient beings. The three ontological entities are described below:
3. Prameya, the object of knowledge
In Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, the following three pramanas
are only accepted as valid means of knowledge:
Pratyaksa the knowledge gained by means of perception
Anumana the knowledge gained by means of inference
Shabda the knowledge gained by means of shruti
Perception refers to knowledge obtained by cognition of
external objects based on sensory perception. In modern
day usage this will also include knowledge obtained by
means of observation through scientic instruments since
they are an extension of perception.
Inference refers to knowledge obtained by deductive reasoning and analysis.

4.1.1 Ishvara
Ishvara (denoted by Vishnu-Narayana) is the Supreme
Cosmic Spirit who maintains complete control over the
Universe and all the sentient beings, which together also
form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. The triad of Ishvara along with the universe and the sentient beings is
Brahman, which signies the completeness of existence.
Ishvara is Parabrahman endowed with innumerable auspicious qualities (Kalyana Gunas). Ishvara is perfect, omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, the creator of the universe, its active ruler and also its eventual
destroyer.[6] He is causeless, eternal and unchangeable
and is yet the material and the ecient cause of the
universe and sentient beings. He is both immanent (like
whiteness in milk) and transcendent (like a watch-maker
independent of a watch). He is the subject of worship.
He is the basis of morality and giver of the fruits of ones
Karma. He rules the world with His Maya His divine
power.

Shruti refers to knowledge gained from scriptures - primarily the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bha- Ishvara is considered to have a 2-fold characteristic: he is
the indweller of all beings and all beings dwell in Ishvara.
gavad Gita.

4.1

Ontology

Antarvyapi When Ishvara is thought of as the in- jivas and jagat are its modes (also secondary attributes),
dweller of all beings, he is referred to as the Paramatman, and kalyanagunas (auspicious attributes) are the primary
or the innermost self of all beings.
attributes. The secondary attributes become manifested
He who inhabits water, yet is within water, whom water in the eect state when the world is dierentiated by
does not know, whose body water is and who controls wa- name and form. The kalyanagunas are eternally manifest.
ter from within He is your Self, the Inner Controller, Brahman is the description of Ishvara when comprethe Immortal.
hended in fullness i.e., a simultaneous vision of Ishvara
He who inhabits the sun, yet is within the sun, whom the with all his modes and attributes.
sun does not know, whose body the sun is and who controls The relationship between Brahman and Jivas, Jagat is exthe sun from within He is your Self, the Inner Controller, pressed by Rmnuj in numerous ways. He calls this
the Immortal - Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.4-14
relationship as one of:
Bahuvyapi When Ishvara is thought of as the all encomposing and the residence of all beings that is, all beings reside in Ishvara, he is referred to as the paramapurusha. The sentient beings and the insentient universe
which form part of the pan-organistic body of Ishvara are
encapsulated by Ishvara.

sharIra/sharIrI (/ ) (body/indweller);
prakAra/prakArI (attribute or mode/substance);
shesha/sheshi (Owned/owner);
amsha/amshI (part/whole);

Sarvam khalvidam Brahma Chandogya Upanishad

AdhAradeya/sambandha (supporter/supported);

Isavasyam idam sarvam Isha Upanishad

niyamya/niyanta (controlled/controller);

4.1.2

Chit

Chit is the world of sentient beings, or of entities possessing consciousness. It is similar to the Purusha of
Samkhya system. The sentient beings are called Jvs
and they are possessors of individual consciousness as denoted by I. The scope of Chit refers to all beings with
an I consciousness, or more specically self-awareness.
Therefore all entities which are aware of their own individual existence are denoted as chit. This is called
Dharmi-jnana or substantive consciousness. The sentient beings also possess varying levels of Dharma-bhutajnana or attributive consciousness

rashksya/rakshaka (redeemed/redeemer);
These relationships can be experienced holding Brahman
as the father, son, mother, sister, wife, husband, friend,
lover and lord. Hence, Brahman is a personal being.
What does Nirguna Brahman mean?
Ramanuja argues vehemently against understanding
Brahman as one without attributes. Brahman is Nirguna
in the sense that impure qualities do not touch it. He provides three valid reasons for staking such a claim:

Shruti/ Shabda Pramana: All shrutis and shabdas denoting Brahman always list either attributes inherent to Brahman or not inherent to Brahman. The shrutis only seek
Nityas, or the eternally free Jivas who were never in to deny Brahman from possessing impure and defective
qualities which aect the world of beings. There is eviSamsara
dence in the shrutis to this regard. The shrutis proclaim
Muktas, or the Jivas that were once in Samsara but Brahman to be beyond the tri-gunas which are observed.
are free
However, Brahman possesses an innite number of transcendental attributes, the evidence of which is given in
Baddhas, or the Jivas which are still in Samsara
vakhyas like satyam jnanam anantam Brahma (Taittiriya Upanishad).
4.1.3 Achit
Pratyaksha Pramana: Ramanuja states that a contentless
The jivas possess three dierent types of existence:

cognition is impossible. And all cognition must necesAchit is the world of insentient entities as denoted by mat- sarily involve knowing Brahman through the attributes of
ter or more specically the non-conscious Universe. It is Brahman.
similar to the Prakriti of Samkhya system.
Anumana Pramana: Ramanuja states that Nirgunatva
itself becomes an attribute of Brahman on account of
the uniqueness of no other entity being Nirguna. Ra4.1.4 Brahman
manuja had simplied relationship between bramha and
There is a subtle dierence between Ishvara and Brah- soul.According to him though soul is integral part of
man. Ishvara is the substantive part of Brahman, while bramha it has independent existence.[7]

6 INTERPRETATION OF MAHVKYAS

4.2

Theory of Existence

The cause and eect only refer to the pan-organistic body

transformation. Brahman as the Universal Self is unThe three ontological entities i.e. Ishvara, Chit and changing and eternal.
Achit are fundamentally real. It upholds the doctrine of
Brahman having the subtle (skshma) chit and achit
Satkaryavada as against Asatkaryavada.
entities as his Saareeram/Prakaaram(body/mode)
Briey,
before manifestation is the same Brahman having
the expanded (stla) chit and achit entities as Saa Satkaryavada is pre-existence of the eect in the reeram/Prakaaram(body/mode) after manifestation.
cause. It maintains that karya (eect) is sat or real. The essential feature is that the underlying entity is the
It is present in the karana (cause) in a potential form, same, the changes are in the description of that entity.
even before its manifestation.
For e.g. Jack was a baby. Jack was a small kid. Jack was
a middle-aged person. Jack was an old man. Jack is dead
Asatkaryavada is non-existence of the eect in the
cause. It maintains that karya (eect) is asat or un- The body of a single personality named Jack is described
real until it comes into being. Every eect, then, is as continuously changing. Jack does not become James
because of the change.
a new beginning and is not born out of cause.
More specically, the eect is a modication of what exists in the cause and does not involve new entities coming
into existence. This is called as parinamavada or evolution of eect from the cause. This doctrine is common to the Samkhya system and Vishishtadvaita system.
The Samkhya system adheres to Prakriti-Parinama vada
whereas Vishishtadvaita is a modied form of BrahmaParinama vada.

5 Ethics

Souls and Matter are only the body of God. Creation is a

real act of God. It is the expansion of intelligence. Matter is fundamentally real and undergoes real revelation.
The Soul is a higher mode than Matter, because it is conscious. It is also eternally real and eternally distinct. Final
release, that comes, by the Lords Grace, after the death
of the body is a Communion with God. This philoso4.2.1 Krya and krana
phy believes in liberation through ones Karmas (actions)
The krana (cause) and krya (eect) in Vishishtadvaita in accordance with the Vedas, the Varna (caste or class)
is dierent from other systems of Indian Philosophy. system and the four Ashramas (stages of life), along with
Brahman is both the krana(cause) and the krya(eect). intense devotion to Vishnu. Individual Souls retain their
Brahman as the cause does not become the Universe as separate identities even after moksha. They live in Fellowship with God either serving Him or meditating on
the eect.
Him. The philosophy of this school is SriVaishnavism, a
Brahman is assigned two kranatvas (ways of being the
branch of Vaishnavism.
cause):
1. Nimitta kranatva Being the Ecient/ Instrumental cause. For example, a goldsmith is assigned 6 Interpretation of Mahvkyas
Nimitta kranatva as he acts as the maker of jewellery and thus becomes the jewellerys Instrumental 1. sarvam khalv idam brahma from Chandogya Upancause.
ishad 3.14.1
2. Updna kranatva Being the material cause. For
example, the gold is assigned Updna kranatva as
it acts as the material of the jewellery and thus becomes the jewellerys material cause.
According to Vishishtadvaita, the Universe and Sentients
always exist. However, they begin from a subtle state and
undergo transformation. The subtle state is called a causal
state, while the transformed state is called the eect state.
The causal state is when Brahman is internally not distinguishable by name and form.

Translated literally, this means All this is Brahman. The

ontology of Vishishtadvaita system consists of:
a. Ishvara is Para-brahman with innite superlative qualities, whose substantive nature imparts the existence to
the modes
b. Jivas are chit-brahman or sentient beings (which possess consciousness). They are the modes of Brahman
which show consciousness.

c. Jagat is achit-brahman or matter/Universe (which are

non-conscious). They are the mode of Brahman which
It can be said that Vishishtadvaita follows Brahma- are not conscious.
Prakara-Parinama Vada. That is to say, it is the modes Brahman is the composite whole of the triad consisting
(Jivas and Jagath) of Brahman which is under evolution. of Ishvara along with his modes i.e. Jivas and Jagat.

5
2. ayam tm brahma from Mandukya Upanishad 1.2

ram yasya atma sariram is also interpreted to show that

Translated literally, this means the Self is Brahman. From Brahman is not a zero point - nirvisesha chinmatra (an
the earlier statement, it follows that on account of every- entity which has nothing except existence)
thing being Brahman, the self is not dierent from Brah- The typical interpretation of Neti-Neti is not this, not this
man.
or neither this, nor that. It is a phrase meant to convey
the inexpressibility of Brahman in words and the futility
3. Tat tvam asi from Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7
of trying to approximate Brahman with conceptual modTranslated literally, it means Thou art that
els.In VisishtAdvaita, the phrase is taken in the sense of
not just this, not just this or not just this, not just that. This
that here refers to Brahman and thou refers to jiva
means that Brahman cannot be restricted to one specic
Rmnuj chooses to take the position of universal iden- or a few specic descriptions. Consequently, Brahman is
tity. He interprets this passage to mean the subsistence of understood to possess innite qualities and each of these
all attributes in a common underlying substratum. This is qualities are innite in extent.
referred to as samndhikaranya. Thus Rmnuj says
the purport of the passage is to show the unity of all beings in a common base. Ishvara (Parabrahman) who is
7 Purpose of human existence
the Cosmic Spirit for the pan-organistic body consisting
of the Universe and sentient beings, is also simultaneously
the innermost self (Atmn) for each individual sentient The purpose or goal of human existence is called
being (Jv). All the bodies, the Cosmic and the individ- purushartha. According to the Vedas, there are four goals
ual, are held in an adjectival relationship (aprthak-siddhi) namely artha (wealth), kama (pleasure), dharma (righteousness) and moksha (permanent freedom from worldly
in the one Isvara.
bondage). According to this philosophy, the rst three
Tat Tvam Asi declares that oneness of Isvara.
goals are not an end by themselves but need to be purWhen multiple entities point to a single object, the re- sued with the ideal of attaining moksha.
lationship is established as one of substance and its attributes.
For e.g. in a statement:
Jack is a tall and intelligent boy
The descriptors tall-ness,intelligence and boy-ness all refer
to a common underlying Jack

7.1 Moksha

Moksha means liberation or release from samsara, the cycle of rebirth.

Similarly, when the upanishads declare Brahman is the 7.2 Bhakti as the means of attaining moksha
Universe, Purusha, Self, Prana, Vayu, and so on, the entities are attributes or modes of Brahman.
Bhakti Yoga is not the sole means of liberation in VishishIf the statement tat tvam asi is taken to mean as only the
tadvaita. Through Bhakti (devotion), a Jiva ascends to the
self is brahman, then sarvam khalv idam brahma will
realm of the Lord, where it continues to delight in His
not make sense.
service. Karma Yoga and Jnana Yoga are natural outcomes of Bhakti, total surrender, as the devotee acquires
the knowledge that the Lord is the inner self. A devo6.1 Understanding Neti-Neti
tee realizes his own state as dependent on, and supported
by, and being led by the Lord, who is the Master. One
This is an upanishadic concept which is employed while is to lead a life as an instrument of the Lord, oering all
attempting to know Brahman. The purport of this exer- his thought, word, and deed to the feet of the Lord. One
cise is understood in many dierent ways and also inu- is to see the Lord in everything and everything in Him.
ences the understanding of Brahman. In the overall sense, This is the unity in diversity achieved through devotion.[8]
this phrase is accepted to refer to the indescribable nature However Sri Ramanuja and the Vishishtadvata tradition
of Brahman who is beyond all rationalisations.
accept Saranagati, total surrender at the Lords lotus feet
Taittiriya Upanishad 2-9-1 passage yato vacho nivartan- alone as the sole means to moksha, liberation from samthe.. (words recoil, mind can not grasp...) etc., state sara and going to Vaikuntha. This is a distinguishing feathe same concept regarding Brahman . The visishtad- ture of this school of philosophy, as both Adi shankaras
vaita interpretation is that these passages do not indicate advaita and ananda tirthas dvaita accept bhakthi for moka black hole, but the incompleteness of any statement sha. Swami Ramanuja has supported this opinion with
or thought or concept concerning Brahman. Brahman various citations directly from the vedas, and various inis these and more. This interpretation is consistent with cidents highlighting sharangathi as means to moksha,over
sarvam kalvidam brahma. Antaryami Brahmanam of bhakthi. Observing total surrender at the lords feet guarBrihadaranyaka Upanishad passage yasya prithvi sari- antees moksha at the end of this birth, and in the time be-

10

tween sharanagathi and death, the surrendered soul may

spend his time piously by involving in devotion. So bhakthi is not a moksha sadhana, but just for anubhava in the
Vishishtadvaita Sampradaya

Thenkalai and Vadakalai schools

of thought

CONCLUSION

in the year 1205 CE.[9] He is said to have lived for

106 years, during which time, he also helped to safeguard the idol of Ranganatha at Srirangam from Muslim
invaders.[9] Pillai Lokacharya conrmed the basics of
the Sri Vaishnava system in his 18 monumental works
popularly known as Ashtadasa Rahasyangal (the eighteen secrets) also called the Rahasya granthas (doctrines that explain the inner meanings) out of which Sri
Vachana Bhushanam and Mumukshuppadi are the most
famous. Manavala Mamuni expanded on and popularized
Lokacharyas teachings arguments in Tamil.

9 Traditions following Vishshtadvaita

Sri Sampradaya of south India.
Sri Ramanandi Sect of Northern India, it has the
largest monastic order in whole India.
Sri Swaminarayan Sampraday of Gujarat.

9.1 Visishtadvaita and Sri Vaishnavism

The Absolute Supreme Reality referred to as Brahman, is
a Transcendent Personality. He is Narayana, also known
as Lord Vishnu.
A man who has discrimination for his charioteer and holds
the reins of the mind rmly, reaches the end of the road;
and that is the supreme position of Vishnu. - 1.3.9 Katha
Upanishad
Beyond the senses are the objects; beyond the objects is the
mind; beyond the mind, the intellect; beyond the intellect,
the Great Atman; beyond the Great Atman, the UnmaniVedanta Desikan, one of the foremost learned scholars fest; beyond the Unmanifest, the Purusha. Beyond the Puand philosophers of medieval India, wrote more than a rusha there is nothing: this is the end, the Supreme Goal.hundred works in Sanskrit and Tamil. All are charac- 1.3.10,11 Katha Upanishad
terised by their versatility, deep spiritual insight, ethical
fervour and excellent expressions of devotional emotion In terms of theology, Ramanujacharya puts forth the view
in delightful style. His Paduka-sahasram is a classic ex- that both the Supreme Goddess Lakshmi and Supreme
ample. He was a great teacher, expositor, debater, poet, God Narayana together constitute Brahman - the Abphilosopher, thinker and defender of the faith of Vaish- solute. Sri Lakshmi is the female personication of
navism. The Vadakalai sect of Sri Vaishnavism associate Brahman and Narayana is the male personication of
Brahman, but they are both inseparable, co-eternal, cothemselves with Vedanta Desikan.
absolute and are always substantially one. Thus, in refPillai Lokacharya literally meaning Teacher for the erence to these dual aspects of Brahman, the Supreme is
whole world is one of the leading lights on the Sri Vaish- referred to in the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya as Sriman
nava Vedanta philosophy. His work Sri Vachana Bhu- Narayana.
sanam is a classic and provides the essence of Upanishads. The Tenkalai sect of Sri Vaishnavism looks up
to him apart from Swami Ramanuja and Swami Manavala Mamuni. He was a senior contemporary of Vedanta 10 Conclusion
Desika. He is said to have been born as an amsa
(essence) of Kanchi Devaraja (Varadaraja) Perumal to Narayana is the Absolute God. The Soul and the Universe
document and immortalize Ramanujas message in the are only parts of this Absolute and hence, Vishishtadvaita
month of Aippaci under the star Thiruvonam (Sravana), is panentheistic. The relationship of God to the Soul and
Swamy Sri Vedanta Desikan as in Kanchipuram

7
the Universe is like the relationship of the Soul of Man
to the body of Man. Individual souls are only parts of
Brahman. God, Soul and Universe together form an inseparable unity which is one and has no second. This is
the non-duality part. Matter and Souls inhere in that Ultimate Reality as attributes to a substance. This is the
qualication part of the non-duality.

11

See also

Turiya

12

References

[1] Chandrankunnel, Matthew (2008). Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics. New Delhi: Global Vision Publishing
House. p. 945.
[2] Jones, Constance (2007). Encyclopedia of Hinduism.
New York: Infobase Publishing. p. 490. ISBN
0816073368.
[3] Williams, Raymond (2001). Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge: University of Cambridge
Press. p. 35. ISBN 0 521 65279 0.
[4] Sri Dharma Pravartaka Acharya (2013). Sanatana
Dharma: The Eternal Natural Way. Dharma Sun Media.
Retrieved 7 September 2014.
[5] Sri Dharma Pravartaka Acharya (2010). The Vedic Way
of Knowing God. Dharma Sun Media. Retrieved 7
September 2014.
[6] White Yajurveda 32.3
[7] J.L.Mehta VOl3
[8] http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=
$-$9014610686337442954
[9] Chandrankunnel, Matthew (2008). Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics. New Delhi: Global Vision Publishing
House. p. 946.

13

External links

Biographies of Ramanuja and Vedanta Desika

Ramanuja and VisishtAdvaita
more information
Advaita and VisishtAdvaita
more information
http://www.vaishnava.com/shrivaishnavaintro.htm
http://www.hinduweb.org/home/dharma_and_
philosophy/vvh/vvh.htm

http://www.hinduweb.org/home/dharma_and_
philosophy/vvh/raghavan.html

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Kkm010, Anir1uph, Sanskritist, Nagarjuna198, Titodutta, Hz.tiang, Anastomoses, AdventurousSquirrel, Leinadelad, Joshua Jonathan,
Cranialjay, Steve M Kane, Amitrochates, HistoryOfHinduism, ChrisGualtieri, Aronstandley, Mogism, Epicgenius, Iztwoz, Samakrish46,
Delhp, GinAndChronically, Vishal.sakore123, Debanjon, DharmaUser and Anonymous: 71

14.2

Images

File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Om.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8e/Om.svg License: PD Contributors:
svg created by Rugby471 from a public domain symbol
Original artist:
Rugby471
File:Ramanujacharya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Ramanujacharya.jpg License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Debanjon
File:Swamy_Desikan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Swamy_Desikan.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Neilsuds

14.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0