6.

1 Flow measurement structures

209

We will first neglect the velocity head of the approach flow in other words,
we will assume that E0 h0. With this assumption, Cv 1.0 from Equation 6.14,
and by using Equation 6.17
kd 0:358 0:038

0:20
0:368
0:75

Then, from Equation 6.16, kw (0.368)(1.0) 0.368. Substituting this into

Equation 6.15,
p
p
3=2
0:146 m3 =s
Q kw 2gLw h3=2
0 0:368 29:811:00:20
We will now refine the solution by taking the approach velocity head into account
based on the calculated discharge. The total depth at the approach section is
0.30 0.20 0.50 m, thus, V0 0.146/[(0.50)(1.0)] 0.292 m/s. The corresponding velocity head becomes V02 /(2g) (0.292) 2 /[2(9.81)] 0.004 m. Thus,
E 0 0.20 0.004 0.204 m. We can now recalculate C v and k d , using
Equations 6.14 and 6.17, respectively, as
Cv

 3=2 

E0
0:204 3=2

1:03
0:20
h0

and
kd 0:358 0:038

E0
0:204
0:368
0:358 0:038
0:75
Lb

Then, by using Equation 6.16, kw (0.368)(1.03) 0.379. Substituting this into

Equation 6.15, we obtain Q 0.15 m3/s. We can now update the velocity head
again using this discharge, and repeat the calculations. The next set of
calculations results in Q 0.15 m3/s. This is the same as the result of the
previous iteration, and is accepted as the final result.

6.1.3

FLUMES

Flumes are open-channel flow segments built with contracted sidewalls and/or
raised bottoms. Among the various types of flumes available as flow measuring
devices summarized by US Bureau of Reclamation (2001), the Parshall flume is
employed most widely. A schematic of a Parshall flume is shown in Figure 6.8,
with the dimensions given in Table 6.1 for various sizes. Flumes with throat
widths of less than 8 ft have a rounded entrance with a 25% floor slope.
The flow passes through the critical depth at the throat section when the
downstream depth is shallow. This condition is known as free flow. A unique
water surface profile develops within the flume for each discharge under the free
flow conditions, and it is adequate to take one depth measurement, h0, to
determine the discharge. However, high downstream depths cause submerged

210

6 Hydraulic structures
C
Q

WC

WT

WD

2C/3

h0
Q

hT

FIGURE 6.8 Parshall

Flume (after
Kilpatrick and
Schneider, 1983)

TABLE 6.1

N
LC

b
LT

LD

Standard Parshall Flume Dimensions (After Kilpatrick and Schneider 1983)

Widths

Axial lengths

Vertical dimensions

Gage points

Free flow capacity

WT (ft) WC (ft) WD (ft) LC (ft) LT (ft) LD (ft) D (ft)

N (ft)

K (ft) C (ft) L (ft) a (ft) b (ft) Min. (cfs) Max. (cfs)

1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
40.0
50.0

0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.12
1.12
1.50
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.25

0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

2.77
3.36
3.96
5.16
6.35
7.55
8.75
9.95
11.15
15.60
18.40
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.40
50.80
60.80

2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
12.00
14.67
18.33
24.00
29.33
34.67
45.33
56.67

4.41
4.66
4.91
5.40
5.88
6.38
6.86
7.35
7.84
14.00
16.0
25.00
25.00
25.00
26.00
27.00
27.00

2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0

3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
16.0
20.0

3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0

4.50
4.75
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
9.00
10.00
11.50
14.00
16.50
19.00
24.00
29.00

3.00
3.17
3.33
3.67
4.00
4.33
4.67
5.00
5.33
6.00
6.67
7.67
9.33
11.00
12.67
16.00
19.33

0.167
0.167
0.167
0.167
0.167
0.167
0.167
0.167
0.167

0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25

0.11
0.15
0.42
0.61
1.30
1.60
2.60
3.00
3.50
6.0
8.0
8.0
10.0
15.0
15.0
20.0
25.0

16.1
24.6
33.1
50.4
67.9
85.6
103.5
121.4
139.5
300.0
520.0
900.0
1340.0
1660.0
1990.0
2640.0
3280.0

flow conditions. In such a case a second depth measurement, hT, is needed to

determine the discharge. The percentage of submergence for Parshall flumes
is defined as 100(hT/h0). For flumes having a throat width of 18 ft, the
submergence should exceed 70% to affect the discharge measurement in the
flume. For flumes with larger throat widths, the threshold submergence is 80%
(Kilpatrick and Schneider, 1983).

6.1 Flow measurement structures

211

The headdischarge relationship under the free flow conditions can be

approximately expressed as (Davis, 1963):
Y0

Q20
2Y02 1 0:4X0 2

1:351Q0:645
0

6:18

where
h0
WT
L
X0
WT
Qf
Q0 5=2
WT g1=2
Y0

6:19
6:20
6:21

and Qf free flow discharge. The solution of this equation requires a trial-anderror method. For flumes with throat widths not exceeding 6 ft, we can replace
Equation 6.18 with a simpler expression (Dodge, 1963):
Q0

Y01:5504
1:3096X00:0766

6:22

For submerged conditions, the discharge is calculated by using

Qs Qf  ks Qc

6:23

where Qs submerged flow discharge, ks discharge correction factor, and

Qc discharge correction unadjusted to flume size (Kilpatrick and Schneider,
1983). Figures 6.9 and 6.10 can be used to determine ks and Qc, depending on
the throat size. In these figures, the percentage of submergence is 100 hT/h0.

EXAMPLE 6.4

A standard Parshall flume has a throat width of WT 4.0 ft.

Determine the free flow discharge corresponding to h0 2.4 ft.

For WT 4.0 ft, from Table 6.1 we obtain L 4.0 ft. Then, by using Equations
6.19, 6.20, and 6.22,
Y0

h0
2:4
0:6

WT 4:0

X0

L
4:0
1:0

WT 4:0

Q0

Y01:5504
0:61:5504

0:3459
1:3096X00:0766 1:30961:00:0766

Finally, by rearranging Equation 6.21 and evaluating Qf,

Qf Q0 WT5=2 g1=2 0:34594:05=2 32:21=2 62:8 cfs

212

6 Hydraulic structures

2.5
2.0

ce

en

erg

1.5

m
ub

h0 (ft)

96

92

88

84

76

72

rce

Pe

1.0

80

fs

eo

g
nta

Size of flume
(feet)

0.8

1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
6.0
8.0

0.6

0.3
0.06

0.14

0.2

94

90

86

82

78

74

70

0.5
0.4

0.3

0.4

Correction
factor, ks

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.4

2.0

1.0
1.4
1.8
2.4
3.1
4.3
5.4
4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

Qc (cfs)

FIGURE 6.9

Submerged discharge correction for throat lengths of 18 ft (after Kilpatrick and Schneider, 1983)

EXAMPLE 6.5

Suppose the downstream depth is hT 1.82 ft in the Parshall

flume considered in Example 6.4. Determine the discharge.
The percentage of submergence is 100(1.82/2.4) 76%. From Figure 6.9, with
h0 2.4 ft and WT 4.0 ft, we obtain Qc 1.15 cfs and ks 3.1. Then, by using
Equation 6.23,
Qs Qf  ks Qc 62:8  3:11:15 59:2 cfs:

6.2 CULVERTS
Culverts are short drainage conduits that convey stormwater through highway
and railway embankments. They are also used as outlet structures for detention
basins. Most culverts are circular, rectangular (box), or elliptical in cross-section.
Other commonly used shapes include arch and pipe-arch culverts. Most culverts
are made of concrete, corrugated aluminum, and corrugated steel. Concrete
culverts may be reinforced. Some are lined with another material, such as
asphalt, to prevent corrosion and reduce flow resistance.
The inlet configuration plays an important role in the hydraulic performance of
culverts. A variety of prefabricated and constructed-in-place inlet installations
are commonly used. These include projecting culvert barrels, concrete headwalls,
end sections, and culvert ends mitered to conform to the fill slope. Figure 6.11
depicts various standard inlet types.
A variety of flow types can occur in a culvert, depending on the upstream and
downstream conditions, the inlet geometry, and the conduit characteristics.
A culvert may flow full, partially full (in subcritical or supercritical flow